The researchers base their conclusion on three well-designed case studies touching on various software applications. The case studies include evaluating bone fractures following traffic accidents, bone injuries caused by a spade, and gunshot wounds on the head, which offer valuable data on enhancing contemporary forensic investigations (Buck et al., 2008). The modeling software and haptic device used for the study boast high precision, low friction, superior fidelity, and output capacity of six degrees of freedom. In the present world, these are top-notch specifications for such discourses. However, replicating the study to verify the findings may prove a challenge due to the high cost of assembling all the specimens and equipment utilized therein (Pinzon et al., 2016).
The researchers do well to draw their interpretations and conclusions from the gathered data involving the three separate case studies cited above. The results of the studies indicate that haptic devices can prove very valuable in post-mortem and forensic investigations. In forensic science, the research can be instrumental in enabling investigators to recreate a crime scene (such as gun-holding position) and identify the object used in the crime with enhanced precision and speed. Hagmann et al. (2021) thus note that the use of haptics in forensic science can hasten the criminal justice process and make investigations more reliable.
The research is highly innovative as it facilitates the use of technology to recreate crime scenes and enables the user to get the sense of touch often lost during such virtual excursions. Thus, the user can handle and feel 3D digital information, which is significant innovation and improves current technologies. According to Joukal et al. (2015), there may arise controversies surrounding the use of haptics due to fears of corrupting operating systems and online hacking to manipulate investigation findings. Such possibilities may impact the reliability of such devices in criminal justice proceedings. In terms of ethics, the machines make investigations much more expensive to conduct due to costly equipment and training for personnel involved (Fahrni et al., 2019). The costs may hinder the quest for justice in some cases, primarily in low-income areas. Nevertheless, the innovation is evident, and the researchers do well to draw solid conclusions based on their three well-designed case studies.
References
Buck, U., Naether, S., Braun, M., & Thali, M. J. (2008). Haptics in forensics: the possibilities and advantages in using the haptic device for reconstruction approaches in forensic science. Forensic Science International, 180(2–3), 86.
The death investigation allows law enforcement workers to find answers to many of the questions posed by the crime that has taken place. However, examining the victim’s body alone does not provide all the necessary evidence. Fortunately, criminologists have developed many other techniques and procedures besides death investigations to improve investigative results to make them more precise. This paper will review and discuss three types of criminal investigations that can complement forensic findings.
Crime Scene Investigation
The history of criminology shows that sometimes death investigations provide few answers but many conjectures. In my opinion, law enforcement officers should resort to investigating the crime scene in such cases. Experts note that it is the process by which investigators examine single or multiple areas of wrongdoing to find trace materials, impression evidence, illicit drug traces, and signs of attempts to conceal the crime (Tilstone et al., 2019). Combined with the results of forensic evaluations, they provide experts with sufficient evidence to identify the culprit accurately.
Neighborhood Investigation
A neighborhood investigation is another procedure that can provide evidence and new facts about a case. From my perspective, it is an extended version of the crime scene investigation. According to professionals, it is a criminological technique that “…involves interviewing and searching the properties, including vehicles, of all persons in the targeted area, and identifying any persons…” who may potentially be part of a crime (Neighborhood investigation form instructions, n.d., para. 1). Often people living around are well aware of the local social connections, and their opinions can lead to the evidence needed.
Digital Footprint Investigation
The more digital technologies develop and become more complex, the deeper they are integrated into personal lives. Digital and online data have become an important source of criminological data that law enforcement workers should consider when conducting investigations. Digital footprints sometimes provide more objective evidence than traditional investigative procedures, as each event is recorded and saved, including exact date and location (Digital footprints and forensic investigations, n.d.). I believe the digital footprint investigator may become a separate forensic specialty in the future.
Forensic science is a discipline in science and law. It involves scientific studies to provide a solution to crime and civil cases (Blackburn 1). Forensic science cuts across all disciplines to include forensic engineering, forensic psychology, pathology and forensic biology.Forensic biology involves living organisms’ studies in criminal cases. The world of justice has been shaped by forensic science taking crime investigations to another level and signifying the progress of modern technology and today the today it covers modern computing, clay fascial reconstruction, autopsy techniques, forensic anthropology, DNA fingerprinting, toxicology and much more (Blackburn 1).
This science also depends upon other physical techniques of identification such as analysis of finger prints (finger print developing, identification and finger print comparison) tool mark and firearm identification. In case a forensic investigation has involved shoot outs then the investigation involves ballistic type of investigation. This is the study of the flight pathway of a bullet or the projectile of a bullet, this is called ballistics. This study is mostly applied in crimes. It involves the analysis of the weapons especially those that have been used in firearms. It involves the analysis of bullets and bullet impacts in the crime in question (Craft 20-23). The bullet trajectory includes the progress of the bullet through the barrel of the gun following discharge or detonation and its pathway both through the air and the aim. Tracing the bullet path reveals from what direction the bullet could have been fired, it is an important stage in forensic science investigation (Craft 27). This can be important in investigating route of actions in the crime or catastrophe.
History of on Ballistics in Forensic Science
The science of firearms and tool mark has evolved over the past 165 years. One of the first references made concerning firearms dates back to 1493 and 1508 where Harold Peterson discusses firearms rifling by Maximillan of Germany. Although here some firearms were riffled –what were of more value in identifying a projectile which had been fired were the helical grooves that were inside the bore which did not occur until the late 19th century.
Between 1835 and 1899 events occurred that were ultimately associated with firearms and tool mark identification. The processes included physical typing, simple observation and determination of sizes and shapes of a projectile (Herrick 55). There were also slots for carrying out experiments. During the period between 1930 and1970, forensic ballistic identification continued to evolve. In USA the scientific crime Detection Laboratory (SCDL) had its operation beginning in Northwest University in the late 1929 till 1930 followed by FBI in 1932. Many other countries also recognized the need to integrate this into their system. This was to be implemented in the existing laboratories or as novel laboratories, hence over the following few years many such laboratories were established and began operation in major cities like Canada, UK, USA and Europe.
In the last part of the century (1970-1999) forensic ballistic has continued to evolve with many forensic firearms experts employed, many of these examiners have continued to conduct research and experiments into the various aspects in this ground and have publicized their results in various leading forensic publications (Herrick 55).
The science has benefitted immensely from the various technological advances that have occurred in the last century, which include innovation the firearm tool mark examiner- the binocular comparison microscopes which have been equipped with digital cameras and closed circuit televisions. This allows the direct viewing on an instant documentation using digital photomicrography (Hatcher 67). Side by side viewing of images on the monitor is also very helpful for use instructional work while digital photographs are used in inclusion in the cases filed.
This period has also seen the invention of computers which are inexpensive which has allowed forensic science take full advantage in the development of very significant weapons especially guns in laboratories (Craig 1). In the US Integrated Ballistic Identification System (IBIS) units in the forensic laboratories are linked to a national system to form the National Integrated Ballistics Identification Network (NIBIN).
Due modernity and advancement in computer technology, IBIS systems has allowed the capturing of images that are digital in nature of fired up bullets and cartridges casings. These are then analyzed to give available information to the examiner. The information is formed of hits that can be forwarded for examination. This gives the examiner evidence related to a particular fired bullet in the lab throughout the NIBIN system. In 1998 FBI established a scientific collection; the purpose was to develop a series of consensus guidelines. This was formed to grant validation of the testing method to be exploited during certification study process (Craig 1).
Ballistics in Forensic Science and Crime Investigation Systems
As already been described ballistics uses the flight path of a bullet to be able to investigate the details of a crime scene. Forensic scientists carry to investigations by collecting and carrying out analysis using physical evidence. They have specialized in areas such analysis of the DNA or firearm examination, performing tests on weapons or on substances such as glass, fiber, hair, tissue, and body fluids to determine their significance to the investigation. The collected samples must be kept properly and stored well to protect the evidence (Inbau 1). They consider the specific features of firearm that relate to the bullet fired up. Cartridges and cartridge cases are also examined for marks of breech, impressions of firing pin, extractor mark, the rifling pattern and ejector mark.
The distance from which a bullet was fired is considered and also the speed at which it was fired. The distance a bullet moves depends on its velocity, a higher velocity has much more impact on the bullet. The gravitational pull and the frictional resistance caused by the air provide slow resistance to the movement of the bullet hence reduced speed. It also able to detects whether a bullet has been fired from a riffle or a handgun, as the stronger fire chambers of a rifle can with stand the increased explosive power of large quantity of powder that is likely to rapture the gun’s barrel. In a rifle, powder ignition supplies the thrust to propel the bullet (Inbau 1).
Other principles in consideration in ballistics include the yaw, which causes a bullet to tumble while in motion. More damage is caused when a bullet tumbles compared to that which moves in a tight spiral. Bullet composition is also considered as one that contains copper as a jacket to the inner core while some bullets are do not have these jackets, but they have a tip made of lead or one that is hollow or blunt. Such bullets deform and break apart on impact and in that they produce more damage to the target compared to a single piece of metal (Saferstein 250-455).
Forensic and medical examiner are able to access the characteristic of the damage of a tissue in a victim and have a clue and an understanding of the nature of the kind of bullet used. Tissue damage by a bullet results into different forms of injury; a bullet can crush a tissue or bone, as seen in bullets that move at slow speed. Fragmented bones causes further damage as the bones shards to become missiles. Secondly bullets causes’ damage by citation.This is a damage caused when there is a forward tissue or air movement. This effect of tissue and air movement by the bullet results into a broadened wound. This produces further structural damage (Hatcher 50).
The air on the sides of a very fast moving bullet becomes compressed; this is due to several hundreds of atmospheric pressure that can generate a shock wave that causes extreme damages on the tissues of the body. This causes organs that are fluid filled like bladder, heart and bowel to burst due to this high pressure. One of the most crucial tools in forensic ballistics is the use of comparison microscope, here the marked tools are compared side by side and similar components are analyzed and afterwards eliminations are done (Hatcher 60).
Once the firearms have been recovered, they are surrendered to the fire arm Toolmarks Unit, a division of FBI laboratory that is devoted in identification of these gargets. They use gunfire which is a computerized, shot shell and bullet analysis and electronic firearm on a single computer platform. Success is achieved when a system user matches between a specimen added into the data base and a previously filed specimen.
Works Cited
Blackburn, Gregory. “Firearms Scandal”. AFTE Journal. 21.2. (1989). Print.
Craft, Benjamin. Ballistics and Firearms. Texas: John Wiley & Sons Publisher, 2003.
Craig, Arnold. “Technology for Criminal Justice”. National institute for Justice. Spec. Issue of Miterek Technical Journal (2002): 2-7. Print
Hatcher, George. Investigation of Firearms. California: Small Arms Technical Publishing Co., 1995.
Herrick, Evans. Firearms and Crime. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, 1997.
The most common cause of death in homicides is a gunshot wound. The caliber of a weapon and the distance from a gun to a victim determine the features of an injury caused by bullets, shell casing, or projectile. Therefore, forensic investigators should know the types of guns and, consequently, understand the nature of gunshot wounds.
The overall process of gun-making consists of several steps:
Forging
Casting
Machining
Stamping
Woodworking
Metal treatments
Assembly
Testing (Holloway, 2015).
Barrel making is a complex and difficult process. The first step in making the barrel is to cut the bar to a specific length. After that, a barrel maker places it in the drilling machine. To achieve a straight hole, the barrel steel must also be uniform in its consistency. At the tip of the drill there is a hole, out of which through the drill shank, oil is pumped. Then, the oil goes through the drilled hole in the barrel and, on its way, washes all the chips created by the drill. The barrel maker intentionally drills the hole diameter under the specific bore diameter for the particular caliber. Thus, caliber is the internal diameter of the barrel, or the diameter of the bullet it fires, which is usually represented in millimeters, or hundredths/thousandths of an inch (Holloway, 2015). After the drilling process, it might be brought up to the necessary size by reaming it. Like in the drilling process, the reamer is also flooded with oil. These are the first and main steps in barrel making. The next stages depend on the type of barrel – cut or buttoned ones. In the case with a buttoned barrel, the next step is rifling (Sandlin, 2015). Rifling is “a series of parallel spiral grooves cut the length of the bore of the barrel” (DiMaio & Dana, 2006, p. 121). Its purpose is to impart a spin to a bullet to make it more aerodynamically stable and, as a result, straighter on its way (Prahlow & Byard, 2013).
The basic parts of revolvers and semiautomatic pistols are to some extent similar, but there is a big difference. Revolvers contain a cylinder within which at once several bullets can be placed. After one bullet is fired from the revolver, to load it again the cylinder must be rotated in such a way that the next bullet should be in one line with the firing pin and the barrel (Prahlow & Byard, 2013). A semiautomatic handgun contains a magazine, which slides into the handgrip. To place a bullet into the chamber demands the slide mechanism, which is pulled back toward the handle. Inside the magazine, there is a spring, which moves bullets automatically into the firing chamber, and after that, the gun is ready to fire again.
It is necessary to understand the differences between bullets, shell casings, and projectiles. The bullet is a lead portion of the cartridge, and when the gun is fired, it leaves the end of the barrel. Shell casing is a spent portion made of a cartridge, which is discharged after the gun is fired. It remains in the revolver’s cylinder, or it can be ejected in the semiautomatic weapons. The projectile is a general term for everything that exits a weapon (Bucholtz, 2014). There are different classes of bullets, casings, and projectiles. For instance, classes of bullets can be identified by:
Shell casings differ from each other in size, shape, and materials. A shell casing can have different styles of heads, for instance:
Rimmed – denoted by the suffix R, and have a rim at the base, which is wider than the rest of the casing.
Semirimed – denoted by SR; the rim is wider than the casing body.
Rimless – have no suffix.
Rebated – denoted by RB, the rim is smaller than the casing body.
Belted – denoted by B; the metal belt (above the extraction groove) is almost the same diameter as the rim (Duguid, n.d.).
There are two main types of gunshot wounds: perforating and penetrating. The penetrating wound is when a “projectile has entered the body but not exited,” while the perforating wound means that a “projectile has passed completely through the body” (Prahlow & Byard, 2013, p. 487).
There are two more types of wounds: entrance and exit. Entrance wounds have a marginal abrasion. They are usually round or oval. An exit wound may be round, or “as a small or large laceration” (Bucholtz, 2014, p. 159). It should be noted that the size of the wound does not identify the entrance or the exit. The exit wound is characterized by the absence of a marginal abrasion.
Once the gun is fired, hot gases and burned and unburned gunpowder exit the muzzle. There are four ranges of muzzle-to-target distance:
Contact to near contact – the gun is firmly against the body, and on the body, the hot gases, among which is carbon monoxide, enter the tissue resulting in a bright-red muscle discoloration.
Close range – the distance from the muzzle and the body can be from “near contact to a couple of inches away” (Bucholtz, 2014, p. 162). Here, the gases can diffuse from the weapon muzzle, and there will be less tissue destruction. The marginal abrasion will be evident.
Medium range – usually extends from 12 inches to arm’s length from the muzzle. Since the distance is bigger than in the previous two cases, the gases and gunpowder can diffuse or burn. Still, some gunpowder can reach the skin and after burning leave powder tattooing. The closer the gun is to the skin, the brighter the tattooing.
Distant range – the end of the gun is far enough from the body so that neither the gases nor the gunpowder will reach the body, and it will only show the entrance wound with its marginal abrasion (Bucholtz, 2014, p. 164).
The typical kinds of evidence from a handgun that can be found at the crime scene are trace evidence (gunshot residue), and weapons and firearms evidence (guns, knives, cartridge shell casings, bullet holes, and wounds). Besides, the close photographic documentation of visible wounds is also very important.
To sum up, death rates from gunshot wounds considerably vary all over the world. Gunshot wound investigations demand close attention to the details and pieces of evidence. It also requires basic knowledge about the common types of guns and their parts. After collecting, the necessary information and evidence the manner of death might be determined.
References
Bucholtz, A. L. (2014). Death investigation: An introduction to forensic pathology for the nonscientist. Waltham, MA: Anderson Publishing.
DiMaio, V., & Dana, S. (2006). Handbook of forensic pathology (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Duguid, A. (n.d.). An introduction to collecting artillery shells and shell casings. Web.
Holloway, T. (2015). A guide to handgun cartridges: A reference for common calibers. Morrisville, NC: Lulu.com.
Prahlow, J. A., & Byard, R. W. (2013). Atlas of forensic pathology: For police, forensic scientists, attorneys, and death investigators. New York, NY: Springer Science & Business Media.
Footwear evidence as the name suggests, is the foot impressions that used in connecting the culprit to the act of crime. Properly collected and analyzed footwear evidence normally leads to the culprit (Domnauer, 2007).
If the shoe or foot impressions do not bear inimitable patterns or marks, they are null and void evidence. Additionally, if the evidence can link to the real culprit, they are admissible evidence in the court of law (Fisher, 2004). In order to capture footwear evidence, gelatin lifters and plastic casts are mainly used to produce both two and three-dimensional forms of the cast impression.
How to preserve evidence
Photographed evidence is only admissible in the court of law if the prosecutors can prove that they collected and properly documented them. Repeatedly, only the authorized staff are only restricted to the evidence. All rules governing the evidence preservation is essential for legal authorities and police.
For example, an investigator should document a transfer of evidence from the evidence section to a forensic laboratory for analyses. It is a general rule that when the custody of evidence changes, proper documentation is mandatory (Pepper, 2010). Once the evidence analyses are over, the laboratory staff must make sure they have the evidence and no one tampers with. Documentation process aims at reducing theft of evidence (Pepper, 2010). It is important that all evidence will be preserved and subject to scrutiny by the defense lawyers.
Photography of the footwear evidence
In collecting the footwear evidence, white and black films are usually used, but in the case of blood stains found on the impression, the detector can shine an indirect light onto the impression. Sequences of photographs with varying light positions provide enough photos to allow proper investigation.
Moreover, scaling and adjusting images improves the image for thorough analyses of the impression. Aerosol paints provide best impressions by highlighting the footprints when it is difficult to capture visible images at the crime scene. Photographing the footwear evidence requires a special camera to capture best qualities (Millen, 2008).
Casting the footwear evidence
Making the cast of the footwear impression at the crime scenes is a special activity which requires diligence and ability. Production of the impression will help the comparison between the shoe and the impression. A dental stone is generally used as a casting stone. Dental stone is available in the form of powder, which is then mixed with clean water.
The mixture is normally poured gently into the footwear impression created on the soil. It is then allowed to set up for at least thirty minutes after which it is possible to collect as the footwear evidence (Domnauer, 2007). The impression can now be used to trace the culprit and as evidence in the court of law by comparing both the footwear impression with the real shoe. Casting has been very fruitful in providing evidence used in the criminal court proceedings.
Procedures used in examining firearms evidence
Firearms offer crucial evidence related to criminal activities. Laws governing the arms stipulate that when the firearms found at the crime scenes, it is a procedure to unload and store them in a secured place.
If the person collecting is not conversant with the best way of unloading, he or she should seek help from an expert, usually the firearms instructor or an examiner. Careless and negligent unloading will make it difficult for DNA trace or any useful evidence present. It is a general rule that all unloaded firearms are only submitted to a laboratory.
After securing the firearm, law requires a follow-up of the agency protocols recommend identification of firearms by the crime detector. The agency protocols require that the collector should inscribe his or her initials using a diamond on the trigger guard. Firearms collected from water points should also follow special handling procedures so that no evidence is carelessly destroyed.
A closer check on the trigger can show the real finger prints of the culprit, but finger prints are invisible in case the culprit had used hand gloves (Domnauer, 2007). Evidence such as the fingerprints and DNA can only be traced if the firearm is in a safe custody or under proper control.
If there are blood stains, tissue and hair, it is a mandatory that they are closely examined by a qualified laboratory technician. The examiner must wear mask and hand gloves when collecting DNA found on the firearm. If there is more than one firearm, different gloves are strictly worn for each case.
To ensure a safe custody of the evidence and the firearms, the detectors should always wrap in a tamper proof paper and stored in a box that is only designed for firearms. Unloaded firearms are carefully marked, identified and packaged separately. Firearms examiner should always be aware of the state of packaging and storage before submitting to the laboratory for more examination. Dismantling and unloading of guns is not applicable to shotguns and rifles because they can tamper with the value of evidence (Fisher, 2004).
References
Domnauer, T. (2007). Crime scene investigation. Columbus, OH: School Specialty.
Fisher, B. A. J. (2004). Techniques of crime scene investigation. Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Millen, P. (2008). Crime scene investigator. London: Robinson.
Pepper, I. K. (2010). Crime scene investigation: Methods and procedures. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
As a forensic investigator for the prosecution team in the case of State vs. Sandusky, several things are to be collected, analyzed, and presented in court. The alleged molestations took place in1996-2009 and, there is no physical evidence from the case that can be linked to the molestations. As a forensic investigator in the case, most of the evidence collected will revolve around the statements made by the alleged victims, witnesses, defendant, University police report, and the child protection agency (indictment, 2011). The statements made by the alleged victims are important, as they are the foundation for the prosecution. The statements should be analyzed and verified that they do not contain any inconsistencies such as the alleged dates. Where possible the statements should capture important things such as the date, time and place where the alleged molestation took place. The witnesses’ statements should be analyzed just like the alleged victim’s statement to avoid having discrepancies in the statements. The University police report filed in 1998 should be obtained as evidence in the case (indictment, 2011). This is important because it will support the prosecution by showing that the victim reported the alleged molestation to the authority. It should be analyzed and verified by statements made by the alleged victim who reported the molestation claims. The statement made by Sandusky should be obtained and analyzed. This is important because it will give the prosecution a chance to get Sandusky’s side of the story and during cross-examination, they can verify if there are discrepancies such as Sandusky contradicting himself during the cross-examination. The next piece of evidence that is required or is important is showing that the alleged victims and Sandusky had a close relationship that Sandusky violated. This can be done by getting telephone records that show that they had regular communication during the time of the alleged molestations (Saferstein, 2010).
Forensic Investigator for the defense team
As a forensic investigator for the defense team, the goal will be to gather evidence, which can be used to prove that Sandusky is innocent. Some of the records needed include criminal history records of witnesses and the victims, education records, court records, witness statements, interviews, bad character evidence of the alleged victims, and key witnesses (Seelye, 2011). The goal of the defense team will be to prove that the evidence and witnesses presented are inadmissible on various grounds. This can be done by searching and analyzing the criminal records of the alleged victims and key witnesses (Saferstein, 2010). This is important because it can be used to prove that the witnesses and alleged victims are malicious and cannot be trusted. The education records of the victims should be obtained and analyzed to see if their performance during the period of molestation was consistent with those of molested persons. Another record that is important to search for is court records for the alleged victims and key witnesses (Saferstein, 2010). It is important to gather as much information about the court records of the witnesses and alleged victim that may be used in the case. It would be important to get evidence that proves that Sandusky has not been charged previously and does not have a criminal record. Getting bad character evidence for the alleged victims and key witnesses is important because the defense team can use this to show the court that the alleged victims and witnesses are malicious and have their evidence thrown out.
References
indictment. (2011). In Sandusky_Grand_Jury_Presentment. Web.
Saferstein, R. (2010). Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 10th Ed. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
Seelye. K. Q. (2011). Concerns Raised for Boys in Sandusky Case. The New York Times. Web.
Light has properties that make it a great asset in various technologies. An understanding of these properties is therefore beneficial in forensics and other professions. Among the various properties of light that make it useful in forensics is the fact that it can behave both as a particle and as a wave. Light sources that produce multiple wavelengths can be used in crime scenes to identify materials that glow when exposed to ultraviolet light. In addition to its use in the identification of crime scenes and collection of evidence samples, light can also be used in analyzing collected samples. This enables investigators to know the concentration of various components of samples like urine, blood and so forth. Light technologies can also be used to determine the identity of unidentified components of evidence samples.
Introduction
Light behaves like a wave in the way it travels. However, light also acts like a particle in the way it transfers energy to electrons. This property is referred to as the Dual-Theory of light. A good understanding of the properties of light, its characteristics as a form of energy, its applications in technology and its uses enables investigators to apply it in forensics. Light can be used to locate or collect evidence from a crime scene, it can be used to observe the evidence and it can be used to analyze evidence to establish various aspects of a certain crime. This paper is an in-depth analysis of applications of light in forensics.
Forensic uses of light
Various substances have a property referred to as phosphorescence. Such substances are called phosphors and they glow if they are exposed to ultraviolet light. It is important at this point to note that human bodies as well as other forms of forensic evidence contain various types of phosphors (Texas Education Agency, 2011). Thus, ultraviolet light is an invaluable part of evidence collection in forensics. For instance, investigators use filters and special goggles to observe semen stains in rape cases because semen has a photoluminescence effect when exposed to ultraviolet light (Lee & Khoo, 2010). The picture below shows semen after it is exposed to ultraviolet light.
Picture 1: semen under ultraviolet light.
Light is the primary component of magnification technology. Such technology includes macro view, which is used to magnify objects and samples; micro view that is part of the compound microscope; chromaticity diagram; and microscopic refractive index. These magnification functions are important in forensics because they are used in analyzing samples from crime scenes. In addition to magnification, light is also used in spectroscopy, which is an essential part of forensics. Spectroscopy is used to split incoming wavelengths and thus it is helpful in the identification of unknown components of evidence samples (Texas Education Agency, 2011). A refractometer, an instrument used to compare the refractive indices of liquids and solids also uses light, and it is helpful in forensics. It can be used to check concentrations of evidence samples like drugs in blood, sugar in blood, as well as in determining the identity of unknown components of evidence samples.
Conclusion
From the discussion above, it is evident that light is an irreplaceable component of the technologies used in forensic science. During evidence collection, investigators use a light source that shines multiple-wavelength light on the crime scene in order to locate credible evidence. After the investigators have finished collecting the evidence, various light technologies are used in analyzing samples and identifying unknown components of the evidence samples. One of the frequently used properties is that of phosphorescence that enables illumination of the crime scene during evidence collection and illumination of components of collected samples during analysis of evidence.
Lee, W., & Khoo, B. (2010). Forensic Light Sources for Detection of Biological Evidences in Crime Scene Investigation: A Review. Malaysian Journal of Forensic Sciences. 1(1), 17-27. Web.
Texas Education Agency. (2011). Forensic Use of Light. Law, Public Safety, Corrections & Security.
The effects of implementing a quality management system on forensic evidence department employees in Abu Dhabi were analyzed with mixed methods by surveying 30 employees. It was found that the majority acknowledged the benefits of the system and claimed that it had positive effects on productiveness. However, the respondents mostly failed to recognize the effects on behaviors. Based on the study, improvement in the implementation process—in terms of training and tailoring a system to a department—were recommended.
Introduction
The implementation of quality management systems (QMSs) is based on the recognition that the outcomes of work can be significantly improved by modifying the working process in which staff members engage. In this context, the notion of quality refers to the compliance with targets’ expectations and with certain standards and strategic goals. However, to ensure that a QMS successfully achieves the objective of improving operation, it is necessary to analyze how it is applied to a specific workforce, how it improves performance, and how the staff members affected by it perceive it.
The presented study will explore Abu Dhabi’s forensic evidence department, in which a QMS is being implemented, with the purpose of identifying tangible and intangible effects of the implementation on employees’ behaviors and productivity. It is hypothesized that the addressed QMS makes employees more committed to their work and increases productivity. Based on the research purpose above, the first objective will be to identify appropriate measurement tools for testing the hypothesis. Second, it is planned to examine the relationship between quality procedures and business activities. Third, there is the objective to examine the relationship between quality requirements and the employees’ acceptance of change. Finally, it is needed to integrate the findings and draw conclusions from the established relationships to present recommendations.
Method
Research Design
The presented study will employ mixed—both qualitative and quantitative—research methods to identify the forensic evidence department employees’ perceptions of the implementation of a QMS. According to Piening, Baluch, and Ridder (2014), employee perceptions constitute an integral part of evaluating organizational change because they can help researchers gain insight into factors that facilitate the implementation of change, barriers to successful adoption, and mechanisms through which maximum possible benefits of change can be achieved.
The qualitative survey strategy will focus on asking the employees about the effects of the QMS implemented in their department on the quality of their work, and the quantitative strategy will focus on asking the employees to assess the study’s dependent variables based on predesigned scales (Gable & Wolf, 2012). The employees’ perceptions of the efforts invested in their work before and after (or during) the implementation will be taken into consideration, too.
Participants
The study’s participants are the employees of the forensic evidence department of Abu Dhabi Police. Two types of approvals need to be obtained: approval from the head of the department for the conduction of the research and informed consents from the participants (Myers, 2013) who received questionnaires upon being included in the sample. Out of all initially contacted employees, 30 individuals both agreed to participate and were found to comply with the inclusion criteria (being affected by the implementation of the QMS and holding a full-time position at the department). According to the requirements of research ethics, the participants were properly explained the purpose of the study and the contributions they were expected to make.
Techniques
The research technique adopted in the presented study is surveying. The participants will be provided with questionnaires in which they will be asked to assess their current satisfaction with the process of implementing the QMS and with the consequences of implementation. The questionnaire will incorporate a Likert-type scale, the effectiveness of which in the assessment of perceived performance outcomes has been confirmed in similar studies before (Benavides-Velasco, Quintana-García, & Marchante-Lara, 2014); this will constitute the quantitative element of the research design.
However, to comply with the qualitative design, the questionnaire will incorporate open-ended questions, too, in which the employees will be prompted to describe their perceptions of the effects on their own and their colleagues’ productivity and behaviors. The quantitative data will be analyzed using the Microsoft Excel software, which will allow composing a statistical report (Saldaña, 2015). The qualitative data will be analyzed based on common themes revealed in the employees’ responses.
Results
The results of surveying generally confirmed the initial hypothesis about the positive effects of the QMS on productivity and behaviors. The majority of participants assessed these effects on the quality of their own and their colleagues’ performance as good to excellent, and only 3 percent assessed their satisfaction with the implementation of the system as extremely poor (n = 1).
The quantitative data also revealed that a large group of 80 percent of the respondents (n = 24) acknowledged the positive effects on productivity, while only a minority comprised of 10 percent of the sample (n = 3) claimed to have observed positive effects on behaviors; most participants, according to the satisfaction scale assessment results, thought that the QMS did not significantly affect the employees’ organizational behaviors. Sixty percent of the participants (n = 18) disagreed that the new QMS improved their commitment to work and its outcomes in general and to newly adopted quality management processes in particular.
Concerning the qualitative data collected in the presented study, it was revealed that all of the participants except for one referred to the improved efficiency of operation as a major effect of implementing the QMS. In compliance with the relevant academic literature (Chang & Gurbaxani, 2012), the respondents confirmed that there was a connection between efficiency and productivity, and the former increased the latter by optimizing processes and ensuring larger output with smaller input.
Further, the participants explained the results of the quantitative survey regarding behaviors; the majority stated that they saw no ways in which the QMS affected behaviors. It did affect the procedures and interactions, but more than two-thirds of the participating employees failed to acknowledge behavioral change as one of the goals of quality management in general and the QMS implemented in their department in particular.
Also, another major theme that emerged from the responses is the low level of the QMS’s compliance with the existing operation. Although acknowledging benefits, half of the participants thought that there could have been more benefits if the QMS had been initially tailored to their department more thoroughly and with a better understanding of what forensic evidence specialists do in their everyday work.
Discussion
A major aspect of the findings presented above is the employees’ lack of understanding of the concept of organizational behavior and its connection to work processes and procedures. Organizational behavior should be understood as the way in which people interact within groups; specifically, the concept refers to the interaction among colleagues who are members of the same organization, team, or department (Pinder, 2014; Wagner & Hollenbeck, 2014).
In contrast, the respondents seemed to put a different meaning in the notion and rather associate it with their individual characteristics and behavioral patterns based on personality types and personal differences. Berry, Carpenter, and Barratt (2012) argue that the perception of productivity and performance quality (both self-reported and other-reported) is linked to the understanding of the ways in which organizational behaviors shape interaction and cooperation among staff members. Therefore, it may be beneficial to include organizational behavior information in the training provided to employees as part of the implementation of QMSs.
It is also important that, despite generally approving of the new QMS (according to the quantitative results), most employees referred to the system’s poor compliance with the essence of their working processes. Zelnik, Maletič, Maletič, & Gomišček (2012) suggest that the lack of employee understanding and approval of implemented QMSs is a predictor of failure to achieve the maximum possible benefits of quality management. Therefore, it is important to ensure that the way in which a QMS will improve particular aspects of operation is properly and explicitly explained to the employees who will be affected by the system.
It can be concluded that the initial hypothesis was mainly confirmed. The implementation of a QMS improved the perceived productivity of the forensic evidence department employees. In fact, the second part of the hypothesis (that behaviors are improved, too) can be considered partially confirmed as well, as the level of successful cooperation increased, although the participants failed to attribute it to effect on organizational behaviors.
Improved commitment to work was not confirmed. Based on the results of the presented research, it can be recommended that the implementers of QMSs include additional information on organizational behavior in the training provided to employees. Also, it should be ensured that such systems are tailored to the needs of a given departments based on the profound understanding of working processes in it.
References
Benavides-Velasco, C. A., Quintana-García, C., & Marchante-Lara, M. (2014). Total quality management, corporate social responsibility and performance in the hotel industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 41(1), 77-87.
Berry, C. M., Carpenter, N. C., & Barratt, C. L. (2012). Do other-reports of counterproductive work behavior provide an incremental contribution over self-reports? A meta-analytic comparison. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97(3), 613-636.
Chang, Y. B., & Gurbaxani, V. (2012). An empirical analysis of technical efficiency: The role of IT intensity and competition. Information Systems Research, 24(3), 561-578.
Gable, R. K., & Wolf, M. B. (2012). Instrument development in the affective domain: Measuring attitudes and values in corporate and school settings. New York, NY: Springer Science + Business Media.
Myers, M. D. (2013). Qualitative research in business and management. London, England: Sage.
Piening, E. P., Baluch, A. M., & Ridder, H. G. (2014). Mind the intended-implemented gap: Understanding employees’ perceptions of HRM. Human Resource Management, 53(4), 545-567.
Pinder, C. C. (2014). Work motivation in organizational behavior (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Saldaña, J. (2015). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (3rd ed.). London, England: Sage.
Wagner, J. A., & Hollenbeck, J. R. (2014). Organizational behavior: Securing competitive advantage (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
Zelnik, M., Maletič, M., Maletič, D., & Gomišček, B. (2012). Quality management systems as a link between management and employees. Total Quality Management & Business Excellence, 23(1), 45-62.
While the process of identification of human remains incorporates many different factors, the face is regarded as a unique feature that can be used to rightfully identify a person. The face plays an important role in identification when DNA or fingerprints examinations cannot be used. Porter and Doran (2000) observes that while fingerprints are more reliable sources of identification, photographs of the face help the layperson to make identification by comparing the suspect in question with his/her photograph or sketch. The aim of forensic facial reconstruction is to use a skull to build a face that can be used to recognize the person to whom the skull belongs. A successful forensic facial reconstruction will result in a face that can be easily identified accurately as that of the person to whom the skull belongs. The significance of facial reconstruction techniques in forensic work have resulted in the development of a number of facial reconstruction methods. This paper will explain the basis of forensic facial reconstruction and critically assess its usefulness. A review of some of the most popular methods of facial reconstruction will be made and their inherent merits and demerits highlighted.
Basis of Forensic Facial Reconstruction
Facial reconstruction is the process of constructing faces (normally of unidentified persons) from skulls. This process is based on the hypothesis that “the anatomy of the skull is intimately associated with the surface anatomy of the face” (Oxenham, 2008, p.133). However, this relationship is not easily determined since the soft tissues of the body are not uniformly placed over bones. For this reason, the accuracy of facial reconstruction methods is controversial and some researchers express doubt in the ability of the methods to reproduce a face that can be easily recognized correctly as the target individual. In addition to this, the skull does not contain any individual characteristics such as birthmarks, moles, or scars which can be used to identify a person.
Clement and Murray (2005) acknowledge that the task of completely reconstructing a face from a bare skull is extraordinarily difficult since few specific relationships between hard and soft tissues are known. The relationship between the skull and the face is complicated by the presence of fat, muscle, and connective tissue. Stephan and Simpson (2008) reveal that discriminative information is not provided about any single anatomic component of the face while determining facial soft tissue depths. In addition to this, facial approximation techniques are not able to determine features such as face colors and textures from the skull. Therefore, it is still impossible to determine the skin depth with 100% accuracy from the bare skull even with the large quantity of data from a great cross section of the human population.
In spite of the difficulty in achieving accurate anatomical construction of the face, forensic facial construction has been successful in generating leads or preliminary identifications in many forensic cases. Wilkinson (2004) reveals that police use forensic facial reconstruction when they do not have a suspect for identification. The face is considered the most potent part of the body to aid in such identification efforts. Oxenham (2008) declares that the face is the bodily feature with almost unique configurations and this gives the facial reconstruction methods a great identification value.
In addition to helping identify whom the skull belonged to, facial reconstruction is also an important tool in excluding suspected individuals (Damas, 2011). Forensic facial reconstruction is also used by Anthropologists to recreate the facial images of early man and hominids. Such an application helps anthropologists in their studies of the evolutionary changes between hominids and modern man. Technological advances over the last few decades have enabled anthropologies to employ a number of techniques that provided for more accurate identification.
Facial Reconstruction Techniques
The early attempts at facial reconstruction were aimed at matching skulls of famous people with their portraits and sculptures. The unidentified skulls were superimposed on the images of the suspected owner to see if they matched. However, the significance of facial reconstruction in recreating faces of unidentified individuals became greater and there was a move in research to come up with techniques to recreate the faces of unknown individuals from their skulls (Wilkinson, 2004). While facial forensic reconstruction primarily relies on the skull to come up with an approximation of the face, physical remains on the skeleton are useful in the process. Remains of soft tissue assist the practitioner to better approximate soft tissue thickness and this eliminates the errors that are unavoidable in the techniques employed to try to estimate the soft tissue thickness.
2D Reconstruction
An outline drawing of skulls in frontal and lateral views is produced by sticking tissue depth markers on the skull that is to be identified. Oxenham (2008) demonstrates that major sutures of the skulls (also known as anthropological landmarks) are focused on when sticking these depth markers. From the photographic prints obtained through this method, artists are able to produce 2-D facial reconstructions. Wilkinson (2004) reveals that using this method, police artists have been able to reconstruct the face of decomposed bodies and correctly identify the original owner of the skull.
The traditional 2-D facial reconstruction was done manually with drawings of the face produced on overlays superimposed onto images of the skull (Rosalie, 2008). In the manual approach, the practitioner might draw the facial musculature on the initial overlay or dray the finished face directly over the skull images. The 2D technique was improved by Caldwell who proposed the use of life-size frontal and lateral views of the skull and then adding tissue depth data to the same using Krogman’s guidelines.
The traditional 2-D reconstruction method has achieved significant advancements in recent decades due to the application of computer programs in the process. Computerized 2D facial reconstruction involves the use of computer software designed specifically for this purpose. The software program is used to create a facial composite from an image of the skull. Facial outlines and features are then added from a database maintained by the program. These facial features are dependent upon the skeletal structure and its origins.
The renowned Russian Anthropologist Mikhail Gerasimov suggested that major problems in accuracy could occur when the investigator fails to pay enough attention to muscle structure and the interdependence of the form of the face and the peculiarities of the skull (Wilkinson, 2004). As such, the accuracy level of 2D reconstruction depends on the experience of the practitioner. Ullrich and Stephan (2011) reveal that Gerasimov’s facial approximation technique, which considered muscle structure, achieved close to 100% accuracy.
Strengths
When computer software programs are used in the 2D reconstruction, the process is speeded up and an approximation can be produced in little time. Variations to the final image can also be implemented with relative ease using the editing features of the software. This method does not require the use of sophisticated machinery to come up with the facial approximation. It can therefore be used by laboratories that lack modern apparatus. This factor is of great importance since a lack of resources sometimes acts as a hindrance to forensic teams carrying out facial reconstruction.
Weaknesses
This facial reconstruction technique is also prone to the individual bias of the reconstructor. Wilkinson (2004) observes that the perceived subjectivity introduced by the reconstructor will greatly influence the outcome of the process. Accuracy levels in 2D reconstruction using the manual level are highly dependent on the abilities of the artist. The level of skill and knowledge of the individual reconstructor is the main determinant of the accuracy of the reconstruction. The reconstruction practitioner utilizing this method must be experienced enough and he/she must possess a thorough understanding of facial anatomy and physiology in order to come up with an accurate enough reconstruction of the face.
3D Sculpture
The 3-D method was developed by Gatliff Betty from the work of Krogman. Gatliff discovered the importance of facial asymmetry in her work reconstructing the face of a Native American man. Wilkinson (2004) documents that Gatliff reconstructed only half of the face in the case and created a full face by using mirror image photography. There are two 3-D facial reconstruction techniques; the American and the Russian methods. In the American method, the skull is mounted on a stand and an average tissue thickness data from a variety of tables relating to different ages, ethnic groups and sexes is used. The practitioner selects the most appropriate set of tissue thickness data and cylinders of vinyl eraser are cut to the appropriate thickness. These pieces are glued to the skull at the appropriate anatomical points and modeling clay is used to connect these markers by strips. By doing this, a rough contour map of the surface of the face is created and the remaining open faces are filled to create the semblance of a face. An artist is then used to sculpture the facial features such as the eyes, lips, nose, and ears. Wilkinson (2004) observes that the facial features are based on details obtained from the skull which might point to the origins of the skull.
Strengths
The availability of a 3D model of the face results in a more realistic outcome and this helps in the identification process. Stephan and Henneberg (2001) document that the ability of identification is significantly higher than chance when a 3D model is used. Accuracy levels can be significantly high especially if the Russian method which requires the construction of the facial muscles is used (Ullrich & Stephan, 2011). 3D sculptures allow the practitioner to feel the surface of the skull during analysis and this makes it possible for important skeletal details to be added during the facial reconstruction process. Appropriate Facial features are very useful in helping lay people make accurate identifications.
Weaknesses
Only a few dozen points with height information are used for reconstructions, the largest parts of the face are build upon interpolated information, and this decreases the inaccuracy of the reconstructed face. If the inaccuracy level is too high, it will be impossible to make a positive identification using the reconstructed face. Another problem with this technique is that it is time consuming and the practitioner requires deep anatomical and forensic knowledge in order to come up with an accurate reconstruction.
3D CT scan
CT scans are very useful when it is impossible to use the original skull of the unknown person. A copy of the individual’s skull can be manufactured with precision using CT scans in a process known as stereolithography. The CT scan of the skull can be printed out with a 3D printer or it can be manipulated as a model in the computer. Manipulation of the model enables the process of tissue reconstruction to be completely computerized. The dowels which act as an orientation for the process of reconstruction are directly integrated into the CT image through software and this makes editing very easy.
Strengths
The 3D scan yielded by CT is free of any geometrical distortions. CT scans therefore serve as good starting points to computer aided craniofacial reconstruction. Choras (2011) affirms that the resulting scan is very accurate and from it, equipotential planes can be identified and triangulated. The CT scan results in distortion free 3D images of the skull since it is a non-invasive process. Choras (2011) documents that it serves as a point to start from where several ways of tissue reconstruction can be implemented.
The practitioner can manipulate the height of the dowels and therefore change the appearance of the face with ease. Clement and Murray (2005) state that this ease of manipulation makes the facial recreation process fast. CT scan images can be saved as data files which will be used later to identify the person even in the absence of the original skull. Such a consideration is very important in culture where human remains are destroyed through cremation.
Weaknesses
This method requires specialized equipment to produce the 3D scans. This equipment might not be available in all laboratories which makes this method inaccessible to some forensic practitioners. When reconstructing a face from the obtained scan, averaging methods are used to compute the tissue size. The heavy reliance upon averaging methods in this technique increases the rate of error in the final reconstruction.
Superimposition
Superimposition is a technique that involves layering the skull of the subject with the image of an individual suspected to be the owner of the skull. Ishii et al (2011) reveal that PC-assisted craniofacial superimposition is the most frequently used method. A photograph of the suspected skull owner is superimposed on an x-ray image of the skull to see if they match. For this method to be used, all residual soft tissue has to be removed from the skull. This will increase the accuracy of the superimposition technique. In instances where removing the soft tissue is not desirable, CT images can be used in superimposition since the CT scan image is almost completely consistent with real skulls.
Strengths
Superimposition is very effective in eliminating suspects since it can accurately determine that the skull does not belong to a particular person. The accuracy level of this method is very high especially if good quality photographs of the suspect are available. This method can assist in the identification of the remains of a person even after the physical skeleton has been disposed off. Ishii (2011) elaborate that by saving the skull images as digital data, superimposition can be applied to the facial images of suspected persons at later points in time.
Weaknesses
A major disadvantage of this method is that the forensic team must have a list of suspects to match against the skull. As such, some knowledge about the identity of the skull is required for this process to be used. Without such knowledge, it is impossible to use this method in facial reconstruction efforts.
Lack of good quality pictures impedes on the accuracy level of superimposition since clear images are desirable in the process. Aulsebrook et al. (1995) notes that most people smile when having their photos taken which makes it hard to superimpose the mouth. The lighting in most photographs is also not clear with some parts of the face obscured.
Conclusion
This paper set out to discuss forensic facial reconstruction and discuss some of the common methods used and their merits and demerits. It began by highlighting the importance of the face in identifying an individual. The major facial reconstruction techniques: 2D, 3D sculptures, 3D CT scan, and Superimposition have been reviewed. The paper has underscored how facial reconstruction software has been used to overcome some of the weaknesses of the manual methods. The paper began by noting that facial reconstructions are not identical to the picture image of the individual. All the forensic facial reconstruction methods techniques employed have some weaknesses and it is impossible to eliminate all the problems and come up with an exact representation of the subjects face. Even so, the techniques are able to produce a face that is sufficiently similar to help in the identification of the person by someone who knew the skull owner well.
References
Aulsebrook, W.A., Iscan, M.Y. Slabbert, J.H., & Becker, P. (1995). Superimposition and reconstruction in forensic facial identification: a survey. Forensic Science International, 75 (1), 101 – 120.
Damas, S., et al. (2011). Forensic identi¯cation by computer-aided craniofacial superimposition: a survey. ACM Computing Surveys, 43(4), 1-31.
Ishii, M. et al. (2011). Application of Superimposition-Based Personal Identification Using Skull Computed Tomography Images. J Forensic Sci, 56 (4), 960-966.
Oxenham, M. (2008). Forensic Approaches to Death, Disaster and Abuse. Sydney: Australian Academic Press.
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Rosalie, D. (2008). Egyptian Mummies and Modern Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Stephan, C.N., & Henneberg, M. (2001). Building faces from dry skulls: are they recognized above chance rates? J Forensic Sci, 46(3), 432–440.
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Determination of the material’s distinctive characteristics based on the analysis of its unique properties is a constant task of the forensic expert. Glass analysis in forensic science consists of comparing several fragments to establish their source. At the moment, only a comparison of the physical properties of glass makes it possible to conduct this procedure. After identifying the material as glass using microscopic examination, simple physical properties such as shape, color, thickness, and texture are described (Siegel and Mirakovits 441). There is a chance that these measurements would be enough to exclude the possibility of fragments originating from a specific source. Otherwise, it is necessary to conduct a more detailed analysis.
Density and refractive index are the most critical parameters. Density matters because it does not change depending on the size of the fragment. The floatation method is usually used to measure the property (Siegel and Mirakovits 446). The technique of such measurements consists of immersing the glass in a liquid of a specific density. The glass will be finally suspended in the same density liquid, and then the measurements can be recorded. For determining the refractive index, a microscope equipped with a hot stage is usually used. The glass is immersed in oil with a specific refractive index. The oil is then heated, which changes the index until the glass is no longer visible. With the help of such procedures, more accurate data on the physical properties is obtained.
The methods are used to fulfill their function, but the physical properties determination is not always sufficient to establish the belonging of the glass to a specific source. The same refractive index and density do not guarantee the identity of two two glass fragments, only the probability (Siegel and Mirakovits 450). This is because different types of glass can be common. In such cases, it is necessary to pay attention to additional signs of a specific glass fragment, such as glue, paint, cover among others. In more complicated situations, chemical analysis is used, but this rarely happens due to the process’s high cost and complexity. Most often, the first stage of describing the simple physical properties of glass is sufficient to determine the source.
Work Cited
Siegel, Jay A., and Kathy Mirakovits. Forensic Science: The Basics. 2nd ed, CRC Press, 2016.