Category: Forensic science

Although forensic science has a long history, it became a widely respected and highly specialized field of science in the 20th century. The use of forensic science in criminal investigations has developed over the years and played an important role in helping investigators figure out what happened at the scene of a crime.

When it comes to studying a case of crime, no matter the level of severity, nothing is more important to a criminal investigator than the use and implementation of forensic science. The results of such forensic examinations can be the difference between acquittal and conviction in a court of law. The single best aid that forensic investigators use is DNA, which has proven to be a great tool in the fight against crime. DNA evidence can identify suspects, convict the guilty, and acquit the innocent.

In Criminalistics (2007), Richard Saferstein discusses the role of physical evidence in the investigation of a crime which, he says, includes all objects that provide help in establishing that a crime has been committed. According to Saferstein, physical evidence provides a link between the crime and the criminal.

As the inexorable technology of our time evolves; it often makes you think that it could make our lives better or easier somehow. And to finally come to an understanding; what did not get accomplished before, still did not get done after technology. You still do not have sufficient time in the day to spend with your kids and get everything done. The investigation agencies that are enforcing laws, live this dream every day, not enough manpower or sometimes financial resources, not to mention having a heavy burden to prove when dealing with criminals who break the law.

What’s unquestionable to understand is that the criminals today are more knowledgeable and believe it or not more educated than they were twenty years ago, or even ten years ago. Along with new technology comes a price, quicker service at the banks, faster lines at the grocery store, and the never-ending co-dependency that people have for the home computer. A criminal person that has knowledge of a banking system and can utilize a face of a machine to rob people of their hard-earned money. By taking the device and placing it over a real machine and then later stealing people’s money. Now that’s creative; imagine a criminal coming up with that idea 20 years ago, would not happen. Because of new technology identity theft is on the rise, and people are needing to protect themselves in another form, cyber-form.

Forensic science is used in every part of the criminal investigation, from crime scene investigation to prove the guilt of the perpetrator. The forensic procedure begins at the crime scene. The crime scene investigation should be done in a vigilant and methodical manner. The crime scene is composed of any place in which the perpetrator or the victim was present. If there are drag marks, tire tracks, shoe prints, etc., these things must be an element of the crime scene, as would be anywhere in which the perpetrator moved the body, such as from a home to a river or wooded area. The examination begins at the outermost part of the crime scene working inward towards the body in an extremely careful manner in order not to disturb crucial evidence. The floor or ground around the body, and if inside, even the sealing must be observed carefully for items of evidence or evidential value. A method often used by crime scene investigators is to shine a flashlight at an angle towards the ground in order to help reveal draw evidence such as footprints, fingerprints, stains, drag marks, glass shards, and anything else substantial to the search. Another method made popular by television is the use of luminol. Luminol is a compound used to spot bloodstains at a crime scene. It can ascertain any amount of blood by reacting with the blood’s iron, even if the area has been wiped clean, and glows in the dark due to its fluorescent nature. All of the proof or potential evidence is then noted, bagged, and preserved for use later on. (Grimming 2007)

When investigators reach the body they pay close attention to wounds on extremities that could show proof of a struggle, as well as looking under the fingernails for any visible skin or blood. If a weapon or any hurtful object is found near the body or anywhere at the scene it is preserved for later use as well. Generally, an investigator tries to find out the cause of death only by a visual examination of the body. Even after one investigator has completed his/her hunt the crime scene remains blocked off for further investigation, if necessary. (Saferstein 2007)

The initial position of the body is noted, and then the body is very carefully transported to a coroner or medical examiner. The medical examiner is important in the success or failure of a forensic investigation. It is the medical examiner, a physician specializing in forensic pathology, who performs the autopsy on the corpse in the event that the victim has died in order to find out whether the death was natural, a suicide, or a homicide. An autopsy is done to inspect the internal organs of a dead body.

The body is first tagged and photographed, then x-rayed, weighed, and measured. Coroners always pay close attention to external wounds and injuries. It is very crucial that all trace evidence is collected off of the body before it is cleaned, such as hair, fibers, and any substances found underneath the fingernails (before the nails are clipped), which could be incriminating. Everything found on the surface of the body along with the cloth in which the body was wrapped in is sent off for further study. Fingerprints are taken off of the body if possible and in some instances, a rape kit is used to examine for seminal fluids or traces of latex. All of this must be done prior to the cleaning of the body. (Grimming 2007)

To investigate the inside of the body the coroner makes a Y incision, a cut from shoulder to shoulder meeting at the chest and down the abdomen into the pelvis. The collarbone and rib cage are cut open and lifted away from the organs, and using an x-ray to guide away from bullet trajectories, etc., the coroner removes and opens organs and intestines to inspect their contents. Finally, the head is cut open, the skin peeled away from the bone, and the bone is chiseled open so that the brain can be removed and weighed. All of the internal organs and fluid samples are sent off for further examination.

Testing of internal organs and intestines and their contents could potentially put a case over the edge. When used in the correct proportion, almost any natural substance can become a poison, many of which act like common diseases causing an examiner to think that death was accidental. The branch of forensic sciences that studies poisons and foreign substances are called toxicology. Common poisons used in homicide or suicide are arsenic, carbon monoxide from car engines, and cyanide, all of which can be traced. For many centuries poisoning has been used in murder, arsenic being the all-time leader. In the early 1800’s scientist, M. Orfila found that arsenic spread throughout all organs of the body, and thus when the organs were removed the poison could be found easily. A relatively simple test used on substances found in the organs to determine the presence of poisons such as arsenic is the Marsh test in which material is treated with sulfuric acid and zinc.

The use of forensic science is most common in the testing and analysis of evidence collected at the crime scene, along with the organs and intestinal contents of the victim. Blood found at a crime scene can be very rich in information. It can find out a vast amount of things about its owner. By testing a very small sample of blood one can find out if the originator has a disease such as sickle cell anemia, blood type can be determined, and by examining bacteria in blood one can even find out a series of events in a crime. However, before the age, sex, and blood type of the originator can be determined, it must first be confirmed that the stain is in fact blood. In order to reach this substantiation, modern forensic investigators use the Kastle-Meyer test, in which a small sample is extracted from the stain and mixed with a solution of phenolphthalein and potassium hydroxide. If the solution shows no color change, the stain is not blood, however, if the solution turns pink (showing the presence of enzyme peroxides), the stain is most definitely blood. Once it has been determined that a substance is blood, species, sex, age, and blood type of the proprietor can also be exposed. Blood tests are a relatively simple way to narrow down a list of suspects. For instance, if the blood sample taken from the crime scene has blood type A and the prime suspect has blood type 0, the suspect cannot be the perpetrator. On the other hand, if the suspect has type A blood as well, he cannot be eliminated.

When rape is thought to have occurred in a crime a rape kit (as mentioned previously) is used on the victim (dead or alive). Vaginal, oral, and/or anal swabs are obtained from the victim as soon as possible because bodily fluid evidence degrades somewhat quickly. Smear slides must then be prepared from these swabs and viewed under a microscope in order to identify the presence of motile sperm, indicating recent sexual activity, thus, proving in most cases that rape did in fact occur. If no sperm is evident the fluid swab can also be tested for traces of latex indicating that the perpetrator used a condom, thus, the condom can be traced back to its user. If a sperm sample is found it can be used for later DNA testing to compare to samples from suspects.

DNA profiling is a contrivance used for the comparison of DNA samples. All bodily fluids, tissues, hair roots, and bones contain DNA, thus, samples collected from the crime scene can be used for analysis and comparison. Recently it has been discovered that DNA can be obtained from objects touched by the skin, providing a powerful new tool for investigation. DNA profiling is still in the developmental stages and can be used only when there is a sample from a suspect for comparison.

The first step in creating a genetic outline or a DNA “fingerprint” is to extract and purify the nuclear DNA from cells. To recover the DNA a sample may be boiled with a detergent that breaks down proteins but not DNA, and then the proteins can be separated from the DNA. Restriction enzymes can be used to cut DNA into fragments at specific places, which differ from individual to individual, however, this process involves a very large quantity of DNA. The more modern approach is to use PCR or Polymerase Chain Reaction. In PCR, certain sequences called tandem repeats are rapidly multiplied and tagged with a fluorescent material. The PCR method only calls for small amounts of DNA such as that from the root of a single hair or even a fingerprint from the inside of a glove. The new DNA fragments are then placed into wells in a gelatin-like substance for separation by electrophoresis in which a current is run through the gel causing the fragments to move through the gel at different speeds depending upon their size, smaller pieces moving faster and thus further, larger pieces moving slower and staying closer to the well. Using the restriction enzyme technique the actual DNA print is formed when x-ray film is placed over the bands, which have been transferred to a membrane, thus duplicating the pattern like carbon paper. In the PCR method, a laser, causing them to glow and make a picture of the bands, excites the fluorescent tags. When the prints are compared to samples taken from suspects and an investigator finds a match, that suspect is most likely the perpetrator. (Saferstein 2007)

Even though DNA is a new, very steadfast technique for pinning suspects, there are other older methods that are also reliable. Fingerprinting, although only widely accepted as a mode of evidence for about 70 years, has been being used in the criminal investigation since around the 19th century. The underside of hands and feet are covered with minutiae, a unique connection of papillary lines and ridges. Unlike DNA, each and every individual, including identical twins, have a unique minutia. Each ridge of the outer skin is anchored to the inner skin by a double row of pegs like protuberances, or papillae. When a person touches any surface the fingers and even toes leave readable impressions due to the mixture of sweat and amino acids from the body that dots the papillae. Touching any surface transfers the perspiration present on the minutiae, leaving an impression of the details. Even the smallest amount of a print can be sufficient enough to provide a lead. Fingerprints fall into three categories; visible prints, three-dimensional prints, and latent or hidden prints. Latent prints can be made visible quite simply by dusting. Prints are dusted with a fine aluminum powder which makes them noticeable and can then be photographed and compared via a computer system for identification. Fingerprints provide a 100 percent positive identification and remain the most reliable method of pinning a suspect.

References

Grimming, R. & Goodman, D. (2007). Criminal justice – A collection of true crime stories. New Jersey: Pearson Education

Saferstein, R. (2007). Criminalistics (9th Ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.

Forensic science is a branch of science that deals with classification, detection, verification and analyzing of material in trying to unravel the mysteries that often surround investigative cases. Police have, through time and experience gained insights into solving their cases more quickly, efficiently and accurately. Forensic science has helped unravel a myriad of cases while reducing the backlog of the same in investigative departments. This has also assisted the judicial department in providing evidence on key cases in which justice could have otherwise been averted. Another thing is that, wrong people were often being put behind bars in cases they every so often had nothing to do with. In some circumstances they even never knew about the cases. Therefore this paper will show how forensic investigative techniques are used in the prosecution of criminal cases and then explain how forensic science is better than traditional methods.

Prosecutors and defense attorneys have in many instances drawn serious arguments using the evidence handed in by the investigative police; these materials mostly provide the blue print for these cases. The reason for this is because they give both parties (prosecutors and defense attorneys) a pivot-point with which to base their facts in the case. Forensic science has helped defense attorneys acquit innocent victims in delicate cases. These are cases in which the absence of forensic evidence, would have led to their being imprisoned or sometimes even hanged (Huck, 2003).

The evolution of forensic science has been there since time immemorial, but through history there has not been a method used that is as good as Forensic D.N.A analysis. This process explores the distinctiveness of an individual’s DNA to answer forensic questions. At times, testing either paternity or maternity has placed suspects at their respective crime scenes.

D.N.A testing has assisted prosecutors bring to book major criminals, murderous, and even smart thieves. Some of these lawbreakers hire the best defense lawyers so that their chances of being brought to book become very slim. Nevertheless, these attorneys, however smart cannot argue and win over cases in which all the forensic evidence point to their clients. This is especially in cases where the D.N.A evidence provided shows the link and sometimes the connection between the crime and the law breakers. In this case, forensics refers to the appliance of a broad spectrum of schools of thought to answer questions of significance to a legal structure.

Forensic science is different and better than traditional methods because, traditional methods were mainly based on hearsay. This is in the sense that, the two aggrieved parties would be brought together side by side to explain their side of the incident. Any one of them with a logical explanation for or against the accusation leveled against him/her would be absolved of the charge. The result was that sometimes the accused ended up being the accuser, and the plaintiff the law breaker. Another aspect is that, it wholly depended on how efficient one defends him or herself. The listening jury was also prone to the whims of mercy by the accused, this would affect the outcome of sentencing since the punishment meted out to the guilty party may be abridged.

Since the cases lacked material evidence, or anything for that matter that could directly link the accused to the case, they usually lacked credence. The development of cellular genetic tools and their relevance to the study and exploration of the human D.N.A has impacted greatly in relation to greater accuracy of investigated results and thus increased the use of organic materials.

In the many instances in which forensic science has been employed to solve a case, whether criminal or civil, there has been very little protest over the results or findings of the research. More often than not, D.N.A has provided links between many cases and crimes in which the perpetrators are not known. In these situations the perpetrators have had their results and sample details filled (Kiely, 2000). These people are often apprehended long after they have committed these atrocities, and the field documented results of their D.N.A samples are the ones that would be used to bring them to book.

Traditionally, forensics relied mainly on finger prints that were mainly obtained from the crime scenes. These were from time to time disputed effectively in courts by the very criminals. There were also errors resulting from mismatches, like in the Madrid train bombing in which a lawyer was put behind bars as the first suspect for several days because the finger prints left by the criminals matched his own. This was according to an initial investigation. Upon a keener investigation and a deeper enquiry, it was found that his finger print was the closest mismatch, meaning the authorities had him convicted for a crime he did not commit.

The accuracy of the fingerprint has been put to test many times and the proponents urge that the method should be phased out once the D.N.A testing is fully operational and legalized (Turvey 2005). They also urge that the wrong people may be apprehended if there fingers happened to be at the crime scene despite them being there earlier. Their borne of contention also lies in the fact that it is prone to be washed away by factors such as time and environmental conditions. These conditions are like rain water and windy weather which causes dust to blow over the prints washing them away. There is also the possibility of criminals deliberately concealing their prints by covering their hands using gloves and any other material that may conceal these prints. This would make it harder for the investigators to trace the criminals in the event delaying the much needed justice to the victims.

Courts and juries place more trust in forensic science than the older forms of doing investigations. This is because while using the older investigative techniques, the court and jury had to make the legal assumption. One of this is that just because your fingerprints identify matches with the one at the crime scene, you were bound to be a suspect even without them having to identify what role you were or were not playing in the crime. Whether one took part in the crime was not established because a suspect could have left his print somewhere around the crime scene earlier before the crime was committed.

A sentence carries more weight and sometimes sounds more meaningful when there is a direct connection between the accused and the case. In DNA sampling, the uniqueness of every DNA spells out the fact that no other human being shares the same DNA information with another one. The probability is highly reduced and the chance, if any, is almost one in a billion. For this reason, the judicial systems of almost all countries trust forensic science due to its ability to link guilty criminals and acquit innocent suspects (Barnet, 2009). Therefore as shown in this paper forensic science is the way to go if at all there is need for credibility in acquitting criminals and other wrong doers.

References

Barnett, D. (2009). Ethics in forensic science: Professional standards. London: Longman Publishers.

Huck, M. (2003). Fundamentals of forensic science. Sydney: Newman publishers.

Kiely, F. (2006). Forensic Evidence: Science and the Criminal Law. Nairobi: CRC Press.

Turvey, E. (2005). Criminal profiling. New York, NY: Oxford university press.

Overview

This paper gives information about forensic information and evidence. Having presented a case scenario, this paper gives some of the major forensic evidence which can be adopted in ensuring that the culprit has been hunted down. Basically, as per the presented scenario, the paper identifies forensic evidence that might be available in the case. The paper also explains the significance of each type of evidence that has been listed, and how it can be adapted for forensic purposes.

Introduction

In the practice of law, there are very many things that are usually put into consideration to facilitate the provision of the right evidence in any incidence or scenario. In carrying out any jurisdiction, evidence is necessary during the forensic investigation; such evidence will be founded on the propositions and signs that appear to present the events in the scene. Once a certain sign has been identified, the forensic study will be necessary for revealing the major developments and elements that can be utilized in getting the culprits behind the crime. Proper investigation is needed in which all possible sources of evidence are scrutinized and organized to give an impression of what might have precisely taken place. Once this information and evidence have been obtained, it becomes possible for the criminal officers to make follow-ups and carry out investigative procedures to pin down the criminal and the culprits behind the happening.

Forensic Evidence

Evidence which can be used in understanding crime and robbery is important and worth studying. There tend to be several pieces of evidence that are admissible. This begins with materials, objects, environment, facts, documents, and testimonies. However, when an accident or a robbery has happened, it is usually believed that the robbers and criminals will leave some evidence that is important in a criminal investigation. Some materials and instruments used to execute any kind of crime will have to be traced as well to establish the procedure through which the crime might have taken place. This projection of evidence and assumption is necessary for understanding the nature of crime or robbery, and thereafter establishing the ways through which the crime might have taken occurred, and the people that may have been behind such criminal involvement.

Forensic evidence is obtained by having a selection of criminal materials and which can lead to the arrest of the culprits behind the crime. Forensic evidence means that some materials will be obtained from the crime scene, packed, then taken into the laboratory, and analyzed by forensic experts. In carrying out criminal investigations, any material that has been identified at the crime scene is necessary for the examination. Such materials will be analyzed and noted to identify some information that can be adopted to bring the criminals into the book and make to be accountable for their actions. The understanding of law requires that there should be enough information and understanding when it comes to forensic science. This makes it easy to execute any kind of law against the accused. The use of forensic evidence is necessary for several major reasons. One, it ensures that the criminal is wrapped up, and two, it ensures that innocent people have not been falsely accused, hence making this projection of law worthwhile. For instance, this case study gives an appropriate understanding of how evidence can be deduced from a criminal act.

Presentation of the Scenario

at 123 Aspen Street in Nutwood, there is a Beyond Petroleum Service Station, BP. The service station consists of a self-service shop which has an office behind it. On 1st April at 6.00 am, Rupert, who worked in the station, and his friend Barney, who had called in for a cup of coffee, was on the premises. Rupert went outside the building to clean up the area before the end of his shift. While doing this, he heard footsteps and turned and saw a man wearing a balaclava, rubber gloves, a dark motorcycle-style jacket, and overalls. This man was holding a revolver which he pointed at Rupert and ordered him back into the shop area. Inside the shop, the man ordered Rupert to go behind the counter where Barney was standing. Pointing the firearm at them, he demanded that they give him the money from the till. He further demanded the locking of the shop doors; Rupert operated a switch that facilitated this. A demand was also made that the lights be turned off; however, the man was informed that this was not possible. The intruder threw an orange garbage bag at Barney and ordered him to fill it with cigarettes. Barney was not yet persuaded that the incident was a serious one and refused. This annoyed the man who fired the gun and a bullet passed between Barney and Rupert and lodged in the wall behind them.

Rupert then handed over to the man 402.00 dollars, which was the entire cash in the till. Having given out the amount, Barney began to fill the bag with packets of cigarettes. The robber fired a second shot which struck a radio cassette in the office area, whereby Barney courageously tackled him. They fell to the floor and struggled for possession of the gun. Barney shouted to Rupert to make a call to the police which he did. During the struggle, Barney was literally on top of the robber who fired a bullet that passed through his left leg and lodged into his thigh. During the struggle Barney struck the robber several times around his head and eventually obtained the firearm and went into the office area, closing the door behind him. Because the other doors were locked, the robber was now trapped. He shouted, ‘They made me do it. Let me go, please let me go!’ The man then picked up a car battery, hurled it twice at the laminated plate glass doors, and made a hole sufficient to squeeze through.

While he was squeezing himself, he cut himself and some blood remained on the broken glass. Rupert on the other hand left through the back door. Together with the security guard, they drove off after the offender who had begun to run towards Chestnut Avenue. A figure was later seen in that street and a man was seen entering a blue Commodore motor car. He appeared to be staggering somewhat. Rupert and the security guard followed this car after it drove off for about one kilometer. During the run-off, the security guard noted that the registration of the Blue Commodore was CFJ 043. Barney who had been shot on the left leg was later taken to hospital where he underwent surgery to remove the bullet. He was unable to work for six weeks and had some lingering effects from the injury but no continued disability. During police inquiries concerning the robbery, it was discovered that a blue Commodore CFJ 342 was registered in the name of Charlie Dawkins’ father, and this car was recovered from 2 Almond Avenue Nutwood, the home address of Charlie’s girlfriend Nancy.

Forensic Evidence Available in this Case

From the nature of the above scenario, there are quite several pieces of evidence that can be adopted by the police in their investigation of the robbery. Such evidence can thus be adopted in ensuring that the best forensic studies have been done and with the relevant information obtained which will be necessary for pinning down the criminal that was suspected to have intruded the BP Service Station. Obtaining this information is necessary for progressing the understanding of the crime and in bringing the culprit into a book. The following are sources of evidence obtained from the scene.

Firearm Revolver: having entered the service shop, the robber had a revolver which he used to scare the people in the shop which made it possible for him to execute the robbery effectively. Having entered into the service station shop, the firearm must have contained some important information that would be adopted in search of the possible robber behind the crime. Having been enclosed in the shop, the gun became a major source of evidence that can be effectively used by the police in getting information about the criminal activity.

Blood: having obtained the car battery, the robber threw it into the laminated plate glass, making an opening where he spaced through. While trying to escape from the Service Station shop, the robber squeezed himself into this opening, and while doing so he injured himself and left blood on the glass. This blood can be used to get the DNA analysis of the criminal by analyzing it in the forensic laboratory. Blood and any other material from a human body can be adequately used in providing evidence against any given individual believed to have been engaged in criminal activity. Therefore, this is a major source of evidence that may be used in looking for the suspect who had committed the robbery.

Car Battery: while trying to escape from the building, the man held the car battery, and hence some possible traces of evidence can be obtained from this handling. This will need to be analyzed to find out whether any possible information can be obtained from it.

Rupert, Barney, and the Security Guard: With this kind of scenario as it has been presented, it would be necessary to note that Rupert, Barney, and the Security Guard are the three major individuals whose presence during the occurrence of this scenario can be necessary and an important source of evidence, altogether, it will ensure that appropriate forensic search has been done by the police. These three persons were the main witnesses to the crime and hence an important source of the police investigation. In that case, the three individuals will be adopted and be utilized by the police to provide first-hand information which would help in understanding the nature and occurrence of the crime. The fact that these three people were at the service station makes it good evidence for this kind of research in getting precise information about the robbery.

Despite the other people that the police will use in hunting the suspects to the robbery, the three witnesses will remain to be key evidence that will be utilized by the police. They have a clear picture of how the robbers looked and how they carried out the attack. With such basic information, they will be able to keenly follow through with the other pieces of evidence obtained from the scene and get a clearer direction. In such cases, it may not matter how long they take to identify the criminals. All that matters is that the correct information is obtained that will enhance the administration of justice.

Bullet: from the presentation of this scenario, it is seen that Barney was shot during the struggle with the robber who had come for robbery at the service station. Barney who has been shot on the left leg was later taken to hospital where he underwent surgery to remove the bullet. In this case, the bullet removed from Barney’s body can be used to give possible evidence of the kind of weapon used. The police will also be able to know the origin of the gun and bullets used by the robber by critically analyzing their make. This would be an important source of evidence that makes it possible to understand the robber and his intention. This would be a useful source of evidence that would be of great importance to the police in bringing the robber from undercover.

The Blue Commodore, CFJ 043: As presented in this scenario, during police inquiries concerning the robbery, it was discovered that a blue Commodore CFJ 342 was registered in the name of Charlie Dawkins’ father this car was recovered from 2 Almond Avenue Nutwood, the home address of Charlie’s girlfriend, Nancy. Looking at this kind of information, there appear to be two contradicting number plates of the blue commodore, which one is CFJ 342 and CFJ 042. Here we have some food for thought, for instance, what should be noted is that the Guard might have misjudgment the number plate registration of the car in which the first digit 0 of the car must have appeared to him as 3.

In such a case, it would be necessary to note the possibility of this evidence being pure forensic. It can be adopted in trying to understand the moves behind the robbery and how it might have been carried out. It is well known that some robbers and criminals tend to change the number plates of their vehicles, and this might have been the same thing behind this kind of occurrence. While this is the case, it would be necessary to have Charlie Dawkins’ father, Charlie, and Nancy presents appropriate information which will help in making sure the relevant information has been outsourced in this occurrence. In that case, this would be necessary for making sure appropriate evidence collection has been done. They will then come up with approaches that shall make sure that the culprit has been brought into the book.

Conclusion

Through this kind of description, any possible source of evidence should be critically analyzed and studied to understand the developments behind any robbery and criminal activity. Forensic operations or information is a term that has been used over the years in dealing with any collection of evidence that can be used as a source of evidence against a given individual. Any form of information and evidence obtained is usually viewed for admissibility towards being used as evidence in court. Forensic evidence would be useful in this kind of case in making sure that the police and forensic experts come up with final information which can make it possible and easy to arrest the suspected person who may have engaged in the robbery.

Forensic Science

The injuries from blunt force trauma versus sharp force injuries have differences that help the investigator differentiate the type of the injury. Blunt force can create such injuries as abrasions, contusions, lacerations, and fractures of the skeletal system. Injuries from a blunt force trauma frequently have a bridging tissue, while sharp force injuries tend to lack it. Stab wounds are more common for sharp force injuries and should never be used as a synonym for laceration (DiMaio & Dana, 2006).

It should also be noted that sharp weapons produce a regular, linear wound, while blunt force traumas are often present in the form of abrasions; antemortem abrasions are reddish-brown, while post-mortem abrasions are yellow or translucent. There are different types of abrasion: scrape abrasions (on an epithelial layer or deep in the dermis), brush burn abrasions (scraping injury that covers a large body area), pressure abrasions (the skin is crushed), and patterned abrasion (a pattern of the object remains on the skin).

Contusions are also more common for blunt force traumas, although it does not mean that they are present only due to blunt force. Contusions might emerge during stab wounds as well; they are mostly produced by the guard of the knife if the stabbing was conducted with great force (DiMaio & Dana, 2006; Gad, Saber, Farrag, Shams, & Ellabban, 2012). Sharp force injuries include stab wounds, incised wounds, and chop wounds; such wounds often lack bridging tissue within the depth of the wound.

Chop wounds often lead to a groove or cut in the bone. It should also be noted that blunt force injuries might produce less severe damage to internal organs than penetrative wounds, although not always (Sharma, 2012). One should also remember that dull-edged chopping weapons can cause crushing of the tissue and result in a laceration.

Types of Injuries

Blunt force traumas are created by a blunt object that strikes the body or by an impact of a body against a blunt object/surface. While abrasions usually can heal without scarring and depend on various factors such as the medical state of the victim, the severity and location of the injury, contusions (bruises) may be present both on the skin and within internal organs. Deep contusions are not visible instantly and can appear hours after infliction (DiMaio & Dana, 2006).

Lacerations are caused by blunt force injuries, and the tissue might be stretched, crushed, sheared, or avulsed; they frequently occur over bony prominences. Long and thin objects produce linear lacerations, while flat objects cause Y-shaped lacerations. It is also possible to notice combination injuries that consist of abrasions, lacerations, and contusions. Blunt force can also cause skeletal injuries (e.g. chest injuries) and damage the internal organs that might not be indicated by any external injuries and damages; the lack of abrasions, contusions, lacerations, and fractures does not explicitly indicate that internal organs are intact.

Skeletal trauma analysis can also be complicated despite the extensive research and data on bone trauma (Passalacqua & Fenton, 2012). Chest injuries might result in rib fracture, cardiac injuries, aortic injuries, diaphragmic injuries, respiratory tract injuries, etc.

Blunt force can also lead to injuries to the abdomen, genitalia, extremity injuries, head, and neck injuries as well. Skeletal fractures can result in the focal, crush, penetrating, traction, angulation, rotational, vertical compression, vertebral column, pelvic fractures. Extremity injuries can be superficial (skin and subcutaneous tissue) or deep (reaching to muscles, bone, nerves, etc.). Upper extremity injuries can be of two types: defense (contusions and abrasions of forearms, upper arms, fingers/fingernail fractures) or offensive (abrasions, contusions of knuckles, metacarpal bones’ fractures) (DiMaio & Dana, 2006).

Sharp force injuries include stab wounds, incised wounds, and chopped wounds. Stab wounds do not have a bridging tissue and consist of a visible skin wound and an inner wound. Stab wounds are divided into three types: homicidal, suicidal, and accidental. Incised wounds are usually not fatal because the length of the wound on the outer level is greater than the depth of this wound. Such wounds also normally do not have bridging tissue. Chop wounds are caused by instruments with a sharp cutting edge, e.g. hatchets, axes, machetes, etc. A tangential chopping bow can cut away a disk-shaped portion of bone and/or skin (DiMaio & Dana, 2006). Soft tissue hemorrhage indicates that the wound occurred prior to the victim’s death.

Wounds Caused by Sharp Objects

Sharp weapons usually produce a regular, linear wound; a single-edged weapon can have a blunted margin and a V-shaped margin. Usually, single-edged weapons are used more often compared to double-edged ones (Savakar & Kannur, 2015). Scissors can produce linear or paired wounds, which depends on the way the stabs were made (with closed or open scissors). The margins of the external skin wound, if the injury is caused by a double-edged weapon, can be V-shaped.

A screwdriver can cause a circular wound, while a serrated knife can lead to a sawtooth cut on the skin of a victim. The level of penetration of the object into the body of the victim can also lead to different types of wounds. For example, superficial, mid-level, and deep penetration will have various forms of skin wounds with different margins (square or oval). Suicidal stab wounds usually differ from homicidal ones unless the victim was aiming to simulate homicide (Austin, Guddat, Tsokos, Gilbert, & Byard, 2013).

References

Austin, A. E., Guddat, S. S., Tsokos, M., Gilbert, J. D., & Byard, R. W. (2013). Multiple injuries in suicide simulating homicide: Report of three cases. Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine, 20(6), 601-604.

DiMaio, V. J., & Dana, S. E. (2006). Handbook of forensic pathology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Gad, M. A., Saber, A., Farrag, S., Shams, M. E., & Ellabban, G. M. (2012). Incidence, patterns, and factors predicting mortality of abdominal injuries in trauma patients. North American Journal of Medical Sciences, 4(3), 129-134.

Passalacqua, N. V., & Fenton, T. W. (2012). Developments in skeletal trauma: Blunt-force trauma. A Companion to Forensic Anthropology, 3(1), 400-411.

Savakar, D. G., & Kannur, A. (2015). A genetic algorithm and Bayesian approach for identification and classification of weapon based on the stab wound patterns caused by different sharp metal. Int. J. Comput. Eng. Appl, 9(1), 1-12.

Sharma, A. K. (2012). Management of pancreaticoduodenal injuries. Indian Journal of Surgery, 74(1), 35-39.

Abstract

Within the framework of this paper, the core concepts of computer crime prosecution are addressed. In the first part of the paper, the questions regarding the forensic investigation are answered in a comprehensive manner, and the case study is reviewed from both the forensic investigator’s and the librarian’s sides. The issues and complications that may transpire throughout the investigation process are also discussed in this section. The second part of the paper includes the discussion concerning the association between this particular criminal issue and the First and the Fourth Amendments. The current technologies are critically evaluated in terms of their alignment with forensic practices and their constitutionality.

Computer Crime Prosecution

The concept regarding the Wire and Electronic Communications Interception and Interception of Oral Communications should be reviewed from both sides before making the final decision. If we address the issue of librarians going through the emails that were meant for the criminal, we should realize that the former had no intention to get exposed to certain sensitive information (Lloyd, 2017). The problem, though, consists in the fact that the librarian managed to report their findings to the law enforcement agency. This makes it rather difficult to understand whether the librarian’s actions were intentional or not. On the other hand, the issue lies in the fact that the law enforcement agency did not receive the court’s warrant regarding the interception of the sensitive data sent and received by the criminal (Stephenson & Gilbert, 2013). This makes the data implicitly obtained by the librarian turn into a series of virtually useless pieces of evidence that cannot be used in court due to its unlawful obtaining nature.

If we address the issue regarding the Pen Registers and Trap and Trace Devices, we will have to take into account the fact that even though the forensic investigator currently knows that the criminal is actually operating from the library, they cannot capture and sentence them because the former did not install any tracking software on the criminal’s computer. The latter remains under the protection of the law because installing registers and tracking devices is illegal under the existing circumstances (Conklin, White, Williams, Davis, & Cothren, 2016). There were no direct or twofold consents either. This limits the forensic investigator’s options to either fining or letting the librarian go or continuing to trace the criminal. Within the framework of the current case study, it seems to be reasonable to do both. There are several limitations that can be used to obtain the evidence, but its relevance and appropriateness will not be proven true in court.

The key factor that contributes to the complexity of this case study is the ethical problem that can be considered the cornerstone of this type of case. Even though the forensic investigator has the evidence that can be used to prosecute the criminal, they cannot use it because it (a) was obtained unintentionally (the librarian broke the law anyway) by the party that is not involved in the events and (b) the attempt to use this evidence in court will put both the investigator and the librarian at risk (Leman-Langlois, 2013). Therefore, the appropriateness of obtained evidence can be interpreted incorrectly within the framework of this case. Also, the investigator will have to take into account the civil rights of both the criminal and the librarian (Britz, 2013). To say the least, there is no correct answer that can be beneficial to all parties involved. Alternatively, the investigator will have the possibility to catch the criminal in the act throughout some other time. The type of case that is discussed throughout this paper is rather prevalent in the territory of the United States, but there is no unanimous decision that can mitigate the influence of limitations inherent in the statutes and ethical principles of the legislation.

Discussion

If we incorporate the First and the Fourth Amendments into this discussion, we will see that there is a necessity to review the case in the Supreme Court so that judges could evaluate the effectiveness of the Wiretap Act and the event of interception discussed above. The key idea is that the Fourth Amendment provides protection against unlawful tapping, but it works differently for various data sources and wave types. The First and the Fourth Amendments commonly protect the rights of the alleged victims but the case discussed within the framework of this paper brings a certain amount of ambiguity to the equation. The underlying concept here is the individual’s perception of privacy that is not contingent on any technological details (McMahon, 2014). Neither the First nor the Fourth Amendments were designed as an effective means of public protection and safety. Therefore, the current technologies may cause misinterpretation on the basis of governmental abuse of the evidence presented in the Amendments. The problem with the Amendments consists in the fact that they have to be constantly adjusted to the technological process, but there is no guarantee that it will positively impact the current state of affairs.

References

Britz, M. (2013). Computer forensics and cyber crime: An introduction. Boston, MA: Pearson.

Conklin, A., White, G. B., Williams, D., Davis, R., & Cothren, C. (2016). Principles of computer security. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

Leman-Langlois, S. (2013). Technocrime, policing, and surveillance. New York, NY: Routledge.

Lloyd, I. J. (2017). Information technology law. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

McMahon, R. J. (2014). Practical handbook for professional investigators. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.

Stephenson, P., & Gilbert, K. (2013). Investigating computer-related crime (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis.

Introduction

In the 20^th century, scientific progress widely promoted the development of the police. Discoveries in disciplines of biology, medicine, chemistry, and psychology united and formed in such a practice as forensic anthropology. According to Burns (2015), “forensic anthropology is best known as the discipline that applies the scientific knowledge of physical anthropology to the collection and analysis of legal evidence” (p. 1). An in-depth study will allow humanity not only to enhance the number of unsolved offenses but also minimize the number of crimes committed. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the basic concepts and methods of forensic science in the field of facial reconstruction.

Structural Features of the Head in the Context of Forensic Anthropology

Forensic anthropology is an ordered set of different scientific disciplines and practices. This branch of science is engaged not only in the research of the remains but also conducts the testing of living people if the specifics of the investigation require it. One of the most interesting of these branches can be considered odontology. According to Jeddy, Ravi, and Radhika (2017), “it has established as an indispensable science in medico-legal matters and in the identification of the dead person” (p. 115).

The primary specifics of odontology are recognition by human teeth, it still includes a set of techniques for analyzing by tongue, lips, and palate. It also consists of the compilation, updating, and preservation of individual statistics. Such statistics are usually a chronicle of visits to the dentist, various images of the lower half of the skull, and records of dentures and surgical operations. During the ontological process, experts use the most modern techniques and equipment.

In terms of the facial reconstruction process, odontology plays almost a key role. It is worth mentioning that face reconstruction mostly lies at the heart of forensic anthropology. This practice is necessary and used in the identification of the persons of the investigation. According to Taylor and Kieser (2016), it is impossible to recreate the face of the object of the investigation, but the main features can be reproduced. The processes of decomposition irreversibly affect the human body, but the teeth are the most enduring of its elements. Specialists identify the object of investigation by taking their imprints of the remaining teeth, which are unique to each human being. Further work with the data library allows experts to calculate the personality of the victim entirely.

The Basics of Bone Formation and Its Significance to Forensic Anthropology

Knowledge of the main components of the human bone and their analysis is essential for forensic science. The bone structure includes many elements, but only three of them are considered fundamental. Osteoblasts are the primary cells that create all the necessary compounds for bone synthesis. During this process, they age and gradually turn into osteocytes. According to Burr and Allen (2019), “today it is recognized that osteocytes coordinate the function of osteoblasts and osteoclasts in response to both mechanical and hormonal cues” (p. 49).

Osteoclasts are engaged in the consumption of excess bone material for further rearrangement. Not only is the composition of the bones essential but also their size. According to David and Lewis (2018), skeleton height can give a general idea of the age, ethnicity, and sex of the object of the investigation. It is this data during the anthropological process that the specialist is trying to get. Of much higher interest to specialists is always the human skull and its features.

The process of recognition by the human skull is a key and paramount task of any forensic anthropologist. The human head contains about thirty different symmetrical and asymmetrical bones. The structural features and the position of each of them relative to each other can tell a lot about the personality and circumstances of the death of the object of investigation. Also, this method allows the specialist to identify the victim or the offender much faster relative to other practices, which is a great psychological factor.

According to Burns (2015), “families of missing persons say that they experience a sense of relief when the bodies of loved ones are finally identified” (p. 2). Time is a crucial aspect in the investigation, and the competent ability to analyze the skull can speed up this process several times.

The Main Muscles of the Face and Their Meaning in Facial Reconstruction

The preserved muscle tissues are of particular value to a forensic anthropologist. In the facial segment of the human body, there are many muscles, and they are usually divided into two types. According to Westbrook and Varacallo (2019), “the facial muscles serve 2 major functions for the body: mastication and facial expression” (para. 3). One of the largest and most important of the muscles described above is occipitofrontalis and temporalis.

The first one is responsible for the eyebrows movement and joints with the neck muscles, and the second one is the main element of the chewing mechanism. Both of these types of tissues are a source of DNA samples. Further DNA analyses provide accurate information about the personality of the object of investigation. Also, the appearance and degree of conservation of the muscles can tell a lot about the deceased. By analyzing these properties, the expert can find out the approximate time of death, the external environment, whether the offender tried to get rid of the body or not. Such data is essential for investigation with others, along with information obtained from bones and teeth.

Modern forensic anthropology generally consists of many practices, of which the main ones are medicine, biology, and chemistry. Knowledge in the field of the structure of teeth, bones, and muscles allows specialists in some sense to return to the past and restore the picture of crime. A competent criminologist can fully solve the case using only the data obtained from the head of the object of the investigation. These techniques make it possible to accurately prove the guilt of the offender and punish him by law. Many current scientific discoveries will also find their application in forensic anthropology of the future and experts will even be able to prevent the commission of crimes.

The Effect of Informational Technologies on Legal Landscape in the US

Progress in information technologies and the impact of the creation of the Internet have dramatically affected the status of personal data at the social and state levels. This has contributed to the creation of mostly innovative legislative acts all over the world, including in North America. Some of them, such as Megan’s law, were accepted positively by society, others, like the USA PATRIOT Act, were recognized ambiguously and even negatively. According to Burns (2015), “This may be the Informational Age, but the world is still struggling with the practical and responsible use of information” (p. 2). The purpose of this paper is to discuss the impact of these two laws on our society and the legal landscape in the US.

The Duality of Megan’s Law

The so-called Megan’s law was established in the late 90s and expanded in the second half of the 2000s. According to Horowitz (2015), the main and explicit objective of this act was to obviate sex offenses against women and children. The essence of the law was that a constant data bank was compiled for the criminal, which was used to inform residents of adjacent houses. It was understood that such publicity and method of warning would reduce the incidence of sexual offenses. Studies conducted by many specialists show disappointing statistics on the practice and effectiveness of this law.

Despite the complex system of registration, constant supervision, and appearances, the number of cases of this type of crime has not decreased. Also, judging by the statistics, the number of sex offenders has increased. According to Horowitz (2015), there is a paradoxical situation where the amount of registrations is growing simultaneously with a drop in the quantity of child sexual abuse crimes. It is also worth noting that with the introduction of Megan’s law, authorities began to act more aggressively when it comes to this type of crime. Despite all its benefits in terms of information, this enactment was not able to fulfill its primary goal to reduce the number of sex crimes and criminals. Moreover, this law increased the pressure and the level of violence in the police camps.

The Inconsistency of the USA PATRIOT Act

This controversial law was introduced after the notorious events in North America in 2001. This act implied much greater powers for the police and internal intelligence. The original purpose of this law was to predict and prevent such catastrophes. This led to the fact that the government secretly and informally started to monitor each of its residents through means of communication directly. According to Greason (2017), methods prescribed in a hurry led to an invasion of personal life.

Frightened then, the American public decided to trust the highest ranks completely. After this, there were many scandals and high-profile leaks about the activities of the US government. This law forever changed the view of ordinary people on the state throughout the world.

The essence of the contradiction of the USA PATRIOT Act is that it conflicts with the 4^th Amendment. The law destroyed the border between the citizen and the state, establishing the absolute power of the second over the first. Many Americans have a distrust of modern technology and media giants, which is noticeable in connection with the advent of systems such as Tor. Later, amendments to the protection of personal information were added to this law.

According to Greason (2017), “the USA Patriot act amendments continue to beleaguer the struggle to balance the power of the intelligence gathering agencies with that of maintaining civil liberties” (p. 6). Nevertheless, due to the practice of this law, the government as a whole lost public confidence. With the increasing integration of social networks and gadgets, the tension between these two camps will only increase.

Conclusion

Entering the digital age, humankind was not afraid to use new technologies to improve our society. Digital innovations immediately went into the circulation of legislative practice. Nonetheless, these modern acts fulfill only their secondary functions, and some even violate the country’s Constitution. This specific inconsistency was demonstrated by the example of Megan’s law and the USA PATRIOT Act. They showed that the authorities and society have not yet fully realized the influence and importance of digital technologies in relation to lawmaking. Perhaps in the future, the public and the authorities will be able to come to a solution to these new complicated problems.

References

Greason, D. (2017). USA PATRIOT act’s impact on information gathering techniques regarding the intelligence community. Web.

Horowitz, E. (2015). Protecting our kids? How sex offenders laws are failing us. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.

Burns, K. R. (2015). Forensic anthropology training manual. New York, NY: Routledge.

Burr, D. B., & Allen, M. R. (2019). Basic and applied bone biology (2nd ed.). Indianapolis, IN: Academic Press.

David, T. J., & Lewis, J. (2018). Forensic odontology: Principles and practice. Decatur, GA: Academic Press.

Jeddy, N., Ravi, S., & Radhika, T. (2017). Current trends in forensic odontology. Journal of Forensic Dental Sciences, 9(3) 115-119.

Taylor, J., & Kieser, J. (2016). Forensic odontology: Principles and practice. Chichester, United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons.

Westbrook, K. E., & Varacallo, M. (2019). Anatomy, head and neck, facial muscles. Web.

Delivering of Evidence to the Lab for Testing

After the physical evidence comprising of broken glass, statins from carpet, furniture, and clothing, and drinking glasses, has been appropriately collected and packaged, it is then transported to the crime laboratory for analysis. Often, evidence obtained from a scene is presented to the investigator-on-case with the proper documentation and a brief explanation of how it was collected. The investigator-on-case then determines which evidence should require further lab examination (Washington State Patrol, 2015).

Several methods are used to deliver evidence; however, the method selected is dependent on the size and type of the item, the complexity, and the urgency of the case (Washington State Patrol, 2015). Regardless of the method employed, it is vital to ensure that evidence is not lost, damaged, or contaminated. Furthermore, the chain of custody should be kept as short as possible. Personal delivery is the most recommended method as it shortens the length of the chain of custody.

The other way is delivery by the use of a common carrier, for example, the U.S. Postal Service. When using carrier services, it is necessary to request a formal notification on delivery or sent by Registered Mail with a return receipt requested. Moreover, the investigator should begin by checking with the local and state crime laboratories to determine where evidence should be sent. This is because most laboratories analyze controlled substances; nevertheless, certain types of examinations involving glass and latent print analysis are performed at specific laboratories.

Forensic Examination of Collected Body Fluids

Blood

Blood comprises cells, proteins, enzymes, water, and inorganic substances. Three steps have to be followed by the forensic serologists when presented with stains from clothing, furniture, and carpet. First, the analyst performs a presumptive test to determine if the stain is blood. The principle of the presumptive test is based on hemoglobin’s ability to oxidize specific reagents, therefore, bringing about a color change (Gefrides & Welch, 2011).

The oxidizing agent is often hydrogen peroxide. In the case of invisible stains, the luminol test is conducted. It is often utilized in large areas, where blood is suspected but invisible. The bloodstain will glow in the presence of blood (Gefrides & Welch, 2011). Luminol is highly sensitive and lacks false positives. However, in instances where there are visible stains, the Kastle-Meyer (KM) and leukomalacia green (LMG) tests, are applied. The KM or phenolphthalein test is a popular presumptive catalytic method. A phenolphthalein indicator solution is applied to the suspected bloodstain, followed by hydrogen peroxide.

A bright pink color is indicative of blood (Gefrides & Welch, 2011). Nevertheless, it yields a false positive with other substances, such as chemical oxidants and fruit or vegetable peroxidases. It is also not as sensitive as the luminol test. On the other hand, the LMG test is performed in a manner similar to the KM test and results in blue-green color in the presence of blood (Gefrides & Welch, 2011).

Since some presumptive tests have false positives, and they are not species-specific, it is essential to determine whether or not it is human blood using a confirmatory test. An example of a popular confirmatory test is the precipitin test (Gefrides & Welch, 2011). In this test, an animal is injected with human blood, after which it forms antibodies in response to the antigens in human blood. The antibodies are then obtained from the animal’s blood serum, antiserum, and placed in a test tube. An extract from the bloodstain is then added to the serum – the formation of a precipitate at the boundary of the meeting point is indicative of human blood.

The last step is for the serologist to determine if the blood can be associated with an individual, for instance, by performing a blood typing or DNA test. On the surface of erythrocytes are proteins referred to as antigens, which are partially used to identify individuals. Human erythrocytes have several antigens; however, the Rhesus (Rh), A, B, and O are commonly used (Gefrides & Welch, 2011). Blood typing entails the determination of the antigens present in a blood sample.

This is achieved by the use of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in which the agglutination of the suspected blood and a certain antiserum illustrates the presence of a particular blood type (Gefrides & Welch, 2011). A further DNA test can be conducted to determine if the blood belongs to a specific individual. This is usually done by generating the DNA profile of the suspected bloodstain and comparing it to that of the victim and suspect.

Semen

Seminal fluid is a mixture of spermatozoa, enzymes, water, and inorganic salts. The several presumptive tests that can be performed comprise using the ultra-violet (UV) light and the acid phosphatase test (Gefrides & Welch, 2011). In the first test, a source of UV light is illuminated over the stain, and a luminescence suggests the presence of blood. However, it yields false positives with other substances, such as ointments, creams, and blood. On the other hand, the principle of the acid phosphatase test relies on the ability of the enzyme, acid phosphatase, to catalyze the hydrolysis of Alpha-Naphthyl acid phosphate.

This will lead to the formation of a product that reacts with Brentamine Fast Blue to produce a purple color when semen is present. However, the rate of color change depends on the concentration of seminal fluid. Lastly, Lastly, Protein Specific Antigen (PSA) test entails the analysis of the PSA, which is a protein that is exclusively present in seminal fluid. Moreover, the test can apply to cases involving azoospermic or vasectomized individuals. The formulation of a purple color evidences a positive reaction.

The most reliable and popular confirmatory tests consist of the microscopic visualization of sperm and DNA analysis. In microscopic visualization, a Christmas tree stain has to be first applied to semen, then the sample viewed under a microscope. The Picroindigocarmine gives the neck and tail sections of the sperm a green and blue color, while Nuclear Fast Red stains the sperm’s head red with the tip of the head, the acrosomal cap, pink (Gefrides & Welch, 2011). On the other hand, DNA analysis involves Y-STR analysis in which uses the Y chromosome to determine the individual who is the source of the semen.

Saliva

Saliva contains buccal cells, water, mucin, and amylase. There are fewer presumptive tests for the identification of saliva; however, there are currently no confirmatory tests, which are specific to saliva (Gefrides & Welch, 2011). Saliva samples can be obtained from the drinking glasses. Similar to semen and blood, saliva can also be detected under ultra-violet light. Nevertheless, the most popular technique of presumptively testing for saliva is the starch-iodine test. The principle of this test is influenced by the ability of enzyme amylase to hydrolyze starch. Therefore, when starch, iodine, and a sample of the suspected saliva are mixed, amylase present in saliva hydrolyzes starch resulting in the deep blue-black color that was formed from the reaction of starch and iodine to fade.

Similarity and Difference between the Tests for the Three-Body Fluids

In both body fluids, presumptive tests are conducted. Moreover, when using alternate light sources, such as UV light, all fluids illuminate. However, since the tests are influenced by distinct components of the body fluids, the types of tests performed are different.

References

Gefrides, L., & Welch, K. (2011). Forensic biology: Serology and DNA. In A. Mozayani & C. Noziglia (Eds.), The forensic laboratory handbook: Procedures and practice (pp. 15-50). Totowa, NJ: Humana Press.

Washington State Patrol. (2015). Forensic services guide. Web.

The PCAST report identifies and discusses seven feature-comparison methods. The selected one for this discussion is that of bitemark analysis. This is outlined as a subjective method for studying marks left at the scene by a criminal (Executive Office of the President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, 2016). The procedure revolves around comparing such marks with the suspect’s dental impressions. The first step towards effective results is ensuring that the marks were a result of human-biting. This is followed by taking photographs or creating impressions (Burch, Durose, Walsh, & Tiry, 2016).

Unfortunately, there are gaps in standards concerning the issue of similarity. Recent studies support the use of three-dimension laser scanning to analyze marks. These questions should be answered when doing this kind of feature study:

• Is there sufficient evidence to support the presence of a human bite mark?
• Is the mark suggestive of a human bite mark?
• Are distinctive marks and arches identifiable?

The report concludes by explaining why this analysis fails to meet the threshold for scientific standards for reliable or foundational validity. The article, “Forensic Bitemark Identification: Weak Foundations, Exaggerated Claims” supports these findings by PCAST. Its authors acknowledge that bitemark analysis is still in its infancy (Saks et al., 2016). Additional initiatives are, therefore, needed to develop an evidence-based model for pursuing this feature-comparison method. Several actions are critical to this comparison method. Firstly, evaluations are needed to ensure that evidence-based standards are established to make bitemark analysis acceptable (Saks et al., 2016).

Secondly, stakeholders should develop preferable methods to reduce cognitive bias. Personally, I agree with these findings since they acknowledge that there are unique drawbacks in bitemark analysis. A superior framework will result in an advanced protocol and eventually advance the field of forensic science.

References

Burch, A. M., Durose, M. R., Walsh, K., & Tiry, E. (2016). Publicly funded forensic crime laboratories: Quality assurance practices, 2014. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Justice.

Executive Office of the President President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology. (2016). Report to the president: Forensic science in criminal courts: Ensuring scientific validity of feature-comparison methods. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

Saks, M. J., Albright, T., Bohan, T. L., Bierer, B. E., Bowers, C. M., Bush, M. A., … Zumwalt, R. E. (2016). Forensic bitemark identification: Weak foundations, exaggerated claims. Journal of Law and Biosciences, 3(3), 538-575. Web.

Forensic linguistics involves the application linguistic knowledge in legal settings. Legal settings within this context include police caution, legal statutes and jury proceedings. Forensic linguistic takes analyses of textual evidence such as text messages, phone calls, written documents, wills, and essays and decipher them within the accepted legal language. Furthermore, legal proceedings such as witness and detainee statements, police records, and police interview and court interactions are brought within the insights of the forensic context of law.

As an expert trained in the role of language within criminal justice system, forensic linguist takes up a number of jobs that enhance the achievement of justice. These include providing advice to the legal profession such as police, lawyers, and judiciary on the safety of evidence. These places a foreign linguist at the critical role in ensuring that justice for all parties is achieved within the realms of the law. In addition to the above, a foreign linguist act as expert witness in proceedings or court of the prosecution or defence and undertake or use research in to trends and patterns of behaviour that are influenced by linguistic and socio-linguistic factors.

The key themes that encompass the work of a forensic linguist are authenticity, truth, fairness and equality. The authorship of textual evidence and legal processes must demonstrate authenticity. The true author of the documents under examination must be ascertained with utmost accuracy. A forensic linguist must also discharge duties in fairness and equality by demonstrating high levels of linguistic competence, knowledge and practice. It is through these core competencies and key themes that enable forensic linguists to comprehend whether they understand and make themselves be understood by the court prosecutor and the defence during court proceedings.

The analyses of the manner in which forensic linguists approach their work reveal that they employ various techniques to ensure delivery of justice. These professionals collect data through observation, recordings and transcripts, speech or writing samples, and language testing and analyse the same data by examining linguistic features, discourse strategies, and socio-cultural aspects. Furthermore, forensic linguists work by examining links to other data such as language corpora and socio-cultural practices. Complex clause structures such as conditionals, elision, defining vs. non defining relative clauses and idiomatic phrases are examined by these professionals to ascertain the truth and authenticity of the legal materials. Lexical interpretation, phonological and socio-cultural issues are examined closely on the basis of the given evidence.

This career demands familiarity with legal processes and practice such as power relationships and agency. In addition to the above, it draws critical skills and knowledge that remain fundamental in discharging the duties. Forensic linguistic enhances an individual’s knowledge in techniques of plagiarism identification. The most common techniques of plagiarism detection are copy catch and turnitin. It also reinforces the capacity to raise personal awareness in linguistic and socio-linguistic issues, developing approaches for assessing and evaluating linguistic for socio-cultural awareness and competence and influences skills in undertaking analyses on changing perceptions and challenging assumptions.

Ray Krone, Phoenix, AZ (1991)

Ray Krone was wrongfully convicted of kidnapping and murdering Kim Ancona in the CBS Lounge, where he was an occasional customer. As a result, he spent more than ten years incarcerated in Arizona prisons, including approximately three years on death row before a DNA analysis in 2002 cleared his name. In that period, he was subjected to two trials, in which the case against him on both occasions was entirely dependent on circumstantial evidence and the testimony of an “expert witness”. His wrongful conviction was attributed to several investigative errors, and the gravely misleading application of junk science that was overlooked (Cooley & Oberfield, 2007).

In the first trial, the prosecution emphasized two pieces of evidence: the bite marks left by the murderer on Ancona’s left breast and the other various scientific findings regarding the blood and hairs obtained from the victim’s body. Furthermore, since only presumptive tests were performed (blood type and hair analyses), the results obtained were not sufficient to be used to give a death sentence in a criminal court. This is because presumptive tests do not prove beyond unreasonable doubt (standard of proof in criminal court) that Krone committed the murder (Wodage, 2014).

On the one hand, the blood found on Ancona’s jeans and panties was a match to Krone’s blood type, a common blood type; hence, it could not sufficiently conclude that it was Krone’s. On the other hand, the seventeen single hairs collected from Ancona’s body were found to be consistent with both the victim’s and Krone’s head and pubic hair. However, Krone had supported this by stating that he had been once “in the company” of Ancona.

Moreover, what the court failed to know was that the hair analyst did not test all the 17 hair strands. Failing to analyze all the collected physical evidence is a serious matter, particularly when the court seeking to take a suspect’s life. Finally, with regards to the primary premise of the trial, the bite-mark on Ancona’s left breast, Dr. John – an expert witness-proclaimed that the bite-mark on the victim matched Krone’s dentition. Moreover, his findings were further supported by Dr. Raymond Rownson, a renowned forensic odontologist in the state of Nevada, who submitted a videotape. The findings of the two expert witnesses were later found to be flawed by the defense in the second trial. For instance, Dr. John by then had not been a certified forensic odontologist, and the videoed testimony was found to be edited with several parts deleted.

Joyce Gilchrist, Oklahoma City Crime Laboratory

Unethical and incompetent experts adversely impact the validity and reliability of forensic findings to aid convictions. A textbook example of such an instance in the case of Joyce Gilchrist. She served as a forensic analyst in the Oklahoma City Police Department crime laboratory (Giannelli, 2007). Gilchrist was a treasured prosecution expert witness because most of her testimonies led to convictions. However, what the court was unaware of is that she fabricated analytical results in numerous cases that she was presented with. In 2001, a review of Gilchrist’s job performance illustrated the presence of flawed case analysis and incompetent laboratory management (Giannelli, 2007).

The Curtis McCarty prosecution is a famous case in which Gilchrist portrayed incompetent laboratory management. Initially, the findings of a microscopic hair analysis she conducted excluded Curtis as the prime suspect in the rape murder investigation (Giannelli, 2007). However, later on, her conclusion changed – she determined a match – after another suspect pinpointed Curtis as the perpetrator. The variation in the findings was caused by the omission of vital information in the initial analysis. To defend her erroneous act, she testified that the defense’s forensic examiner could not have competently examined the hair slides within the limited time frame.

The second is the flawed casework analysis. In 1985, Gilchrist was presented with the Jeffrey Pierce prosecution – a case in which the victim had been raped in her home (Giannelli, 2007). Both the victim and two other witnesses had ascertained that Pierce was not the rapist; however, he was still arrested and convicted based on a microscopic hair comparison performed by Gilchrist. Gilchrist had testified that Pierce’s head and pubic hair exemplars matched to the hair strands collected at the scene.

Furthermore, Pierce was given a 65-year prison sentence, although Gilchrist had failed to submit the evidence to the defense, and she had also filed an incomplete report. A later investigation by the FBI revealed that none of the hairs obtained from that scene possessed microscopic properties that were similar to Pierce’s samples.

The third is the falsification of results. In 1992, in the Alfred Mitchell rape-murder case, Gilchrist testified that Alfred’s sperm was presented in the vaginal and anal swabs obtained from the victim (Giannelli, 2007). She made this testimony even though a pre-trial DNA analysis conducted by the FBI on her request ascertained the non-existence of sperms in the swabs. Moreover, the sperm on the victim’s clothing matched her boyfriend’s DNA.

These three before-mentioned cases are not the only ones where Gilchrist’s integrity and competency were questioned. Others include the Malcolm Rent Johnson Prosecution, the Fox v. State death penalty case, the Miller v. State rape case, and so on (Giannelli, 2007). Furthermore, other issues that led to her dismissal included the absence of peer review in numerous instances, and the lack of proficiency testing even though they had been paid for (Giannelli, 2007).

Detroit Police Department Crime Laboratory

Dating back to 1927, the Detroit Police Crime Laboratory was among the oldest city forensic laboratories in the U.S. (Michigan State Police, 2008). Until 2008, Detroit was supporting the crime lab separate from the state system, and this was primarily because of the nature of its caseloads and unique size. Over the years, the lab took approximately 200,000 cases per year in which it provided the following forensic services: toxicology and alcohol analysis, firearms investigations, serological, and latent print analysis (Michigan State Police, 2008).

In 2008, the State Police conducted a five-month audit in response to questions raised regarding evidence handling in one of the state’s most famous cold cases – the 2003 murder of an exotic dancer. By then, the laboratory staff was comprised of eight firearms experts, ten drug analysts, three latent prints analysts, thirty crime scene technicians, and two technicians in the Integrated Ballistics Identification System (IBIS).

However, the audit was mainly centered on the firearms department in the Detroit crime lab. In the 2003 murder, the lab had concluded that the 42 shell casings obtained from the crime scene were from a single firearm, but the State Police later negated this as it was established that the bullets came from at least two firearms (de Stuler, 2015).

The format of the audit was based on the accreditation criteria cataloged in the American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors/Laboratory Accreditation Board’s (ASCLD/LAB) legacy accreditation program. This constituted of a review of the Procedures and Training manuals, and Laboratory Quality manual for the firearms department. Furthermore, 30 sampled completed cases dating back to 2006 (each from the forensic ballistics experts), were selected for re-evaluation. According to the Michigan State Police (2008), the findings of the inspection showed that:

• The firearms lab was non-conformant in 66 of the 101 applicable criteria upon which the audit was conducted.
• The firearms unit complied with 29% of the desired criteria, 42% of the essential criteria, and 26% of the important criteria. To put this into perspective, accreditation requires 100% compliance.
• About 10% of the 250 ballistics cases that were re-analyzed had significant errors. Averagely, the lab attends to approximately 1,800 firearms cases annually, and if the 10% error holds, this suggests a possible significant adverse influence on the overall criminal justice system.
• The firearms examiners were found not to analyze every item in many cases that involved several items were involved, and instead, assumptions were made.

The guidelines of the ASCLD/LAB legacy program are used to measure the efficiency of a lab’s quality system. Therefore, if the quality system of a single forensic discipline fails, then there is a high probability that there is a systematic problem affecting other forensic disciplines in the lab as well (Bunkley, 2008). When applying this line of reasoning, it was recommendable to shut down the entire Detroit lab. Moreover, according to Baker (2009), some of the factors that might have contributed to the problems include the presence of insufficient funds to cater to the increasing cost of personnel, training, and technology.

References

de Stuler, A. (2015). The cold case of Tamara Greene. Web.

Baker, B. (2009). Detroit Police crime lab closure: Impact on State Police forensic science division backlog. Web.

Bunkley, N. (2008). Detroit Police lab is closed after audit finds serious errors in many cases. The New York Times. Web.

Cooley, C., & Oberfield, B. (2007). Increasing forensic evidence’s reliability and minimizing wrongful convictions: Applying Daubert isn’t the only problem. Tusla Law Review, 43(2), 285-380.

Giannelli, P. (2007). Wrongful convictions and forensic science: The need to regulate crime labs. North Carolina Law Review, 86(11), 164-235.

Michigan State Police. (2008). Audit of the Detroit Police Department: Forensic services laboratory firearms unit. Web.

Wodage, W. Y. (2014). Burdens of proof, presumptions and standards of proof in criminal cases. Mizan Law Review, 8(1), 252-270. Web.