Category: Forensic science

Forensic science defines numerous scientific methods employed across different fields of investigation where cases of crimes are established. It applies multiple classes or categories of experimental techniques such as DNA extractions for analysis purposes, physical matching, blood spatter analysis, and chemical analysis, among other areas of interest. An applicable scientific technique is, however, dependable on the type of branch of forensic science. Forensic science has been divided into different classes of branches, each one of them providing essential needed services of interest in investigation practices. Some of the main branches include forensic biology, forensic chemistry, anthropology, dentistry, and forensic behavioral sciences. Forensic biology applies across different classes of biological techniques that enable experts to develop and obtain essential investigative reports in crime scenes. It uses biological techniques where DNA analysis as a method of interest is made viable. Additionally, forensic biology applies other scientific techniques and methods such as blood spatter, where bloodstain is investigated for interpretation purposes (Georgiou et al., 2020). Blood spatter provides investigators with essential investigative information that collectively tries to manage and provide evidence about numerous incidents. The historical backgrounds of each branch shared are dated back in the early years. The essay broadly analyses one branch of forensic science, which is forensic biology, by explaining the concept of the branch and historical development of the same branch.

Forensic biology covers the branch of interest selected in this assignment. It involves the application of biological techniques to associate individuals’ identifications as connected to different investigative purposes. The history of such a specified branch and other branches started in the early years right from 1248. It was the first written account of the technique connected to medicine and entomology used in the identification of crime issues and to solve criminal cases. It was first written in China and translated to other numerous languages to support investigative and criminological practices that needed a point of equality.

In the 1800s, another author over the same popularized scientific techniques and methods in crime detections through an entire idea of a fictional character (Georgiou et al., 2020). The different technologies used in the investigative approaches follow different approaches numerous scientists developed to identify or provide evidence that aids in the court decisions regarding various classes of crimes. Forensic biology may include a medical examiner, specialist, which comprises of entomologists or psychologists who are in the frontline of managing individuals based on psychological grounds to provide evidence about crimes.

Forensic biology since then has covered classy categories of investigative practices such as homicide, sexual assault, child moles, assault or battery, burglary, death investigations, controlled substances, and criminal fraternity, among other areas of interest. Each of the mentioned parts actively involves forensic biology as one of the methods of forensic science identified or selected. Each unit employs a varying technique that helps in an entire process of investigative reports.

Forensic biology history has involved or used numerous biological evidence such as semen, blood samples, saliva, hair, tissue, and epithelial skin cells where each sample collectively helps in management or investigative practices. Blood historical has been used in the extraction purposes of the DNA analysis as connected to crime and evidence practices. The historical backgrounds of forensic biology have covered various classes of investigative methods that have gone further to other areas such as fingerprinting and uhlenhuth tests essential in determining and associated body antigens species to manage and provide evidence. History of the same has been developed exponentially since previous decades that has marked several improvements in the field of forensic investigations. The historical development in the forensic biological has been reportedly increasing with each decade introducing a new approach that is market historically.

In the context of development, forensic biology over the decades has been developed significantly. Over this section, the assignment covers essential areas or parts of the forensic biology; the suggests or shows a developmental pattern of this method of interest, which is forensic biology. Some of the areas of biological techniques of interest include DNA, uhlenhuth test, and fingerprinting. DNA covers one of the methods of forensic biology that identifies shreds of evidence around criminological practices. The was first introduced in 1984 (but started in 1869), where DNA analysis has been made viable in the context of investigative practices the provide the necessary evidence (Georgiou et al., 2020). The method was developed in those early days by one of the scientists called Jerry was made an entire approach or process useful.

The specified or mentioned branch of forensic biology has been developed following scenarios where the first person who established was in a position to distinguish patterns in the genetic arrangement of genes in the region that made the investigative of the identification process viable. It employed an entire idea of the genetic code that has been increasingly used across different medical fields in the majority of cases that needed identification or evidence. DNA as a technique of the forensic biology developed further to DNA as the basis of the heredity where the same idea of identification has evolved efficiently since then and made an entire concept of the identification viable.

In the 1920s, a series of experiments was established with advances in the DNA method accounts for or explains the historical development of forensic biology (Georgiou et al., 2020). Again, several transforming principles, such as the nucleic acid was determined with Oswald Avery, where he attempted or tried to destroy various components of the cell. Each advancement made in the contest of the DNA marked an essential historical and developmental pattern of forensic biology. The whole approach was competed or established by Jerry, where he confirmed various profiles of the DNA in the context of identification purposes. It explains the development approach of the forensic biology where DNA analysis is one of the methods.

Fingerprints cover another biological technique of forensic biology that explains the historical development of the branch of interest. It was one advocated by William, where he suggested an approach that involved identifications of criminal shreds of evidence using fingerprinting methods. It happened in the early years of the 1800s that thumbs were made the basis of the patterns of identifications. Since then, the approach which substantially contributes to forensic biology has grown (Georgiou et al., 2020). Several individuals, such as Juna, actively contribute to the development of the biological technique that has enabled an entire approach of forensic biology to improve. Every single method or technique within a whole idea of forensic biology accounts for the development of the branch of interest, which is forensic biology.

To sum up, forensic biology is one of the branches of forensic science that has been selected over in this assignment. It involves several numbers of approaches such as DNA analysis and fingerprinting, among other techniques where the development in each method explains the development of the branch of forensic science selected.

Discovery and development of forensic genetics took a long time and required a lot of field practice. After the discovery of the ABO blood types, scientists start to use blood groups in identification for forensic genetics. In 1910, the French criminologist Edmond Locard proposed the Locard’s exchange principle and stated that “every contact leaves a trace,” which laid the foundation for modern forensic science (1). In 1953, the discovery of the double-helical structure of DNA enabled the start of forensic genetics research at the molecular level (1). Deoxyribonucleic acid is the basic and fundamental element in almost all life forms. In 1984, Sir Alec Jeffreys, a British geneticist studying inherited diseases, discovered DNA’s ability to individualize humans (2). The use of DNA in forensic sciences relies on the fact that every person has its own unique DNA, except for monozygotic twins. Testing techniques are mostly built on parts of DNA that can make differences among different individuals. The locations that make differences among individuals are called polymorphisms and referred as markers in forensic genetics. Forensic genetics uses genetic markers for identification. The development of genetic markers has gone through four major stages characterized by the use of morphological markers, cytological markers, biochemical markers and molecular markers (1).

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)

Testing techniques were developed over the years with new findings in the area of forensic genetics. One of the first techniques used for identification was Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP). Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) is a difference in homologous DNA sequences that can be detected by the presence of fragments of different lengths after digestion of the DNA samples in question with specific restriction endonucleases (3). Technique involves digestion of the DNA sample with restriction endonuclease enzymes. After the digestion, fragments are separated according to their sizes using gel electrophoresis. After gel electrophoresis, denaturation of the DNA takes place. Southern Blotting process can be used after denaturation as explained in Figure 1.

The number of repeats affect the length of the resulting DNA. Scientists use this technique by comparing the lengths of the strands for identification. This technique was replaced with new ones because the process was extremely time consuming.

Variable Number Tandem Repeat (VNTR) Analysis

The other technique used for identification is Variable Number Tandem Repeat (VNTR) analysis method. A variable number tandem repeat (or VNTR) is a location where a short nucleotide sequence is organized as a tandem repeat and is called a minisatellite. This tandem repeats mostly show difference in length among people. Basic explanation of this technique is to amplify the DNA with Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), digest it with restriction enzymes that cut around repeated parts of DNA. After the digestion process, gel electrophoresis technique is used to see the bands from all of the DNA. Southern Blotting method is used for the selection of the bands that represent the variable number tandem repeat alleles. Since this number of repeats in each person is different, it can be used for identification. Figure 2 represents an example of Southern Blot DNA fingerprint. In Figure 2, Locus A is a tandem repeat of the motif GC and the four alleles with two (A2), three (A3), four (A4), five (A5) repeats are shown (5). Locus B is a tandem repeat of the motif AGCT and the two alleles with two (B2) and three (B3) repeats are shown (5). Individual #1 is heterozygous at Locus A (A2 / A5) and homozygous at Locus 2 (B2 / B2: note that this genotype gives a single-banded phenotype in the fingerprint) (5). Individual #2 is heterozygous at both loci: (A4 / A3 and B3 / B2) respectively). The two individuals are distinguishable at either locus (5).

Short Tandem Repeat (STR) Analysis

Nowadays, most frequently used and worldwide technique for identification in forensics rely on short tandem repeats (STRs). A Short tandem repeat is called a microsatellite which has 2 – 7 base pair length repeats. Short tandem repeat numbers are also varying between each individual making this technique useful for identification. The difference between the Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) and Short Tandem Repeat (STRs) is that the restriction enzymes are used in RFLP. PCR is used in STR. Variability of STR regions allows making a discrimination between one DNA profile and another. In STR analysis, sequence specific primers are targeting STR loci and amplification is done by PCR. For separation and detection of DNA fragments, gel electrophoresis or capillary electrophoresis (CE) can be used. Y-STRs are short tandem repeats that are found on the Y chromosome. Y-STRs are used for sex identification in crime scenes which have mixed male-female samples, paternal identification and family searches.

Main advantage of STR analysis is their high allele diversity. The most polymorphic STRs have a high discriminating power (probability that two randomly selected individuals have distinct genotypes) and low probability of match (probability that two randomly selected individuals have identical genotypes) (7).

The main disadvantage of this analysis is that STR analysis is comparable meaning that there has to be reference samples to compare. If there is not a reference sample to be compared, the other option is to search DNA databases of suspects. In Unites States national DNA database is called Combined DNA Index System (CODIS). CODIS has DNA profiles obtained from crime scene evidences.

Another disadvantage comes in such situations when evidences from crime scenes are very degraded and it is very difficult to obtain a reliable data for evaluation. In face of such difficulties using traditional STR markers protocols in some situations, various researches have allowed the use of genetic predictions of externally visible characteristics (EVCs) to be of assistance in police investigations, in both tracking suspects and identifying victims (7).

DNA Phenotyping

Certain variations and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in DNA can cause amino acid substitutions and these substitutions can alter the functional properties of proteins that are translated. Functionally altered proteins can consequently be expressed as distinct phenotypes that can make the visible characteristics of a person. A lot of studies have been conducted by scientists in order to obtain information about an individual’s physical features from DNA extracted from a blood drop or hair strands. In these studies, it is concluded that there are certain polymorphisms associated with skin, hair and eye color, facial forms, height, and baldness. Even though, in some cases these information may not be taken into account as definitive forensic evidence, they can be very leading for an investigation. Forensic DNA Phenotyping is mostly used for investigations which has no known suspects or in missing person cases.

Eye Color

Color difference between individuals has a pattern just like the pigmentation of hair or skin. The amount of melanin and number of melanosomes in the outer layer of iris define the color difference. One of the first phenotyping tools developed and validated was the Irisplex System8 consisting of six SNPs distributed among pigmentation genes (HERC2, OCA2, SLC24A4, SLC45A2, TYR, and IRF4) (7). According to the studies, these tool accomplished to distinguish between brown and blue eye colors with more than 90 percent accuracy. This tool did not show high accuracy in Asian populations. This information is suggesting that it is necessary to conduct more studies that should be focused on different populations. Another disadvantage on this topic is intermediate eye colors. Prediction accuracy of these eye colors are lower when compared to the blue and brown eye colors.

Hair Color

Two types of melanin are responsible from the difference of hair color in people: Eumelanin and pheomelanin. If the amount of eumelanin is high, color of the hair tends to be darker and if the amount of eumelanin is low hair tends to be lighter. For example, in the case of red hair pheomelanin amount is higher than eumelanin. First model based on 22 SNPs made for prediction has the 81%–93% accuracy for each hair color category (7). A new system made in 2013 (HIrisplex System) , encompasses markers from MC1R, HERC2, OCA2, SLC45A2, KITLG, EXOC2, TYR, SLC24A4, IRF4, ASIP, and TYRP1 genes and, even though it has fewer markers than the model previously created by Branicki et al, it can reach similar accuracy values (75%–92%) (7).

Skin Color

Skin pigmentation is a complex pigmentation type since skin colors are responses to to the intensity of ultraviolet radiation in different regions of earth. This complexity is making the mapping studies hard for scientists. One of the major problems with skin color phenotyping is that it is not applicable for different populations across the planet. A global prediction model was created taking into account three (light, dark, dark–black) or five (very pale, pale, intermediate, dark, dark–black) skin tones, obtaining prediction accuracies ranging from 83%–97% for the three-category scale to 72%–97% for the five-category scale (7).

Introduction

Toxicology is a field of science that helps people to understand the harmful effects of hazardous chemicals, substances, or other materials, can have on people, animals, and the environment. Toxicology is referred to as, “Science of Safety” because as a field it has evolved from a science focused on studying poisons and adverse effects of chemical exposures, to a science devoted to studying safety.

A number of crimes involve toxins entering the body, such as poisoning, driving under the influence, and using illegal drugs. Detectives and criminal investigators seek help from forensic toxicologists to get the answers they need when they suspect a chemical substance is related to a crime.

Toxicologists study the presence and effects of toxins on living creatures, unusually humans. They may work for environmental organizations, as well as government and law enforcement agencies.

The term forensics means ‘of or having to do with a question of law.’ Forensic toxicologists are simply toxicologists who utilize their knowledge within legal matters.

The ancient Greeks were perhaps the first society to advance what we now recognize as when they studied toxins. The Greeks developed an extensive knowledge of poisons, as well as their effects, their signs, and their symptoms. This new knowledge base led ancient investigators to recognize previously undetectable murders due to poisoning.

Great advances have been made in all scientific disciplines since ancient times, and the ability to detect toxins has evolved significantly. Today, forensic toxicologists play a crucial role in solving crimes and helping to determine the causes of death.

Job Description

Forensic toxicologists are responsible for investigating various substances to help solve crimes or detect unlawful contamination of the environment, food, or water supply. This includes:

Analyzing samples from bodily fluids and tissues to determine the presence or absence of harmful or hazardous chemicals

Gathering and examination specimens for dangerous or unhealthy contaminants in food or the environment

Providing expert testimony in the court of law

Working with medical examiners and coroners to help establish the role of substances related to the cause of death

In the law enforcement sphere, forensic toxicologists might work for criminal justice agencies, police departments, or government labs. They might look for poisons and toxins such as alcohol or drugs. Sometimes, the toxicologist’s conclusions are the primary determinant in deciding whether a crime was committed.

What They Do

Forensic toxicologists typically perform scientific tests on bodily fluids and tissue samples to identify any drugs or chemicals present in the body. Working in a lab, a forensic toxicologist performs tests on samples collected by forensic pathologists or by crime scene investigators during an examination.

Educational Requirements

Forensic toxicologists must complete, at the bare minimum, a bachelor’s degree in forensic science, toxicology, chemistry, clinical chemistry, or a related field. Although many forensic toxicologists seek graduate degrees in the field.

Experience Required

In addition to earning an academic degree, you usually need to complete additional training for certain forensic science careers that require specialized skills. For example, police officers undergo physical conditioning and learn about professional conduct and ethical standards at state-sanctioned academies. Federal law enforcement officers complete rigorous training through the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center or a military station.

Regardless of your career goals, you should incorporate apprenticeships and internships into your academic preparation. These hands-on experiences allow students to build skills and cultivate professional relationships. According to the National Association of Colleges and Employers, over 91% of employers prefer applicants with industry-specific work experience.

Licensure and Certification

Expert licensure and certification are general requirements for any forensic science careers, especially for advanced positions demanding a more technical skillset. Professionals usually pursue a master of forensic science programs to improve their career progression possibilities.

Required Skills

Patience, efficiency, and focus to gather results under pressure. Ability to follow procedures to achieve accurate, and reliable results. Superior written and verbal communication skills, as they may be called upon to provide courtroom testimony.

If you enjoy laboratory work and find analysis appealing, you might enjoy working as a forensic toxicologist. Although the work can be repetitive and redundant at times, it’s also interesting and extremely important.

Salary

The average salary for a forensic toxicologist is about $75,000 annually. But, that could vary depending on location, type of industry, the difficulty level of work projects, and experience in the field.

Salaries for forensic toxicologists can vary widely and depend on one’s work location and employer:

Median Annual Salary: $59,000 ($28.37/hour)

Top 10% Annual Salary: $94,000 ($45.19/hour)

Bottom 10% Annual Salary: $34,000 ($16.35/hour)

Job Duties & Type of Work

Toxicologists work in laboratories to perform tests on samples collected by crime scene investigators. Their jobs involve testing for the presence of illegal drugs, prescription drugs, poisons, alcohol, and other poisons when poisoning or drug overdoses are suspected.

Job Benefits & Job Drawbacks

Although a career in toxicology can be rewarding and pays reasonably well, there are some disadvantages to the job as well. Extended education, twenty-first-century toxicologists need one or more graduate degrees. Risks, working as a toxicologist entails some risk, long hours in a Lab and limited Possibilities for Advancement.

In addition, working out in the field visiting crime scenes may also require extended or unusual hours. Expect to work 40 to 60 hours a week, as you manage a heavy workload under harsh deadlines. Hours need to be flexible, as forensic toxicologists are expected to be on call to collect and analyze evidence.

References

1. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS). (n.d.). Retrieved January 20, 2020, from https://www.niehs.nih.gov/
2. Work. (n.d.). Retrieved January 20, 2020, from https://work.chron.com/
3. AGCAS & Graduate Prospects Ltd, Agcas, & AGCAS & Graduate Prospects Ltd. (n.d.). Toxicologist. Retrieved January 20, 2020, from https://www.prospects.ac.uk/job-profiles/toxicologist
4. Salary Comparison, Salary Survey, Search Wages. (n.d.). Retrieved January 20, 2020, from https://www.payscale.com/Salary Comparison, Salary Survey, Search Wages. (n.d.). Retrieved January 20, 2020, from https://www.payscale.com/
5. Wood, C. S., Weis, C. P., Caro, C. M., & Roe, A. (2016, September 16). A practice analysis of toxicology. Retrieved January 20, 2020, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273230016302653#fig1
6. Writers, S. (2019, August 8). Find the Best Online College or University for You!: BestColleges. Retrieved January 20, 2020, from https://www.bestcolleges.com/
7. Writers, S. (2018, October 18). 2018-2019 Bachelors in Forensic Science Programs Guide. Retrieved January 20, 2020, from https://www.bestcolleges.com/features/forensic-science-degree-programs/
8. Hexavalent Chromium Factsheet – National Institute of … (n.d.). Retrieved January 20, 2020, from https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/materials/hexavalent_chromium_508.pdf
9. Roufa, T. (2019, May 14). What Kind of Jobs Can You Get in Criminal Justice and Criminology? Retrieved January 20, 2020, from https://www.thebalancecareers.com/criminal-justice-and-criminology-careers-974797
10. Career Readiness Resources. (n.d.). Retrieved January 20, 2020, from https://www.naceweb.org/
11. Writers, S. (2019, April 23). The Best Online Masters in Forensic Science Programs of 2019. Retrieved January 20, 2020, from https://www.bestcolleges.com/features/top-online-masters-in-forensic-science-programs/
12. Career Readiness Resources. (n.d.). Retrieved January 20, 2020, from https://www.naceweb.org/

Introduction

Forensic Science is the study of civil and criminal law, which can be broken down into many categories. Forensic Odontology is specifically important because teeth are composed of enamel, one of the hardest biological substances in the human body, they are very well protected by soft tissues in the body, for example, the tongue (PMC 2018). Teeth can also survive immersion, decomposition and direct heat in excess of 1000 degrees Fahrenheit (PMC 2018). Forensic Odontology is used to solve many cases and help identify the victims of many crimes, including the “Charred Remains” case of arson.

On July 6, 1991, in Vancouver, British Columbia the body of 30-year-old Mary Lynn Breeden was discovered in a garbage bin, burning hours away from turning into ashes in a gasoline fire. She had been last seen at an after-hours night club, the night before being discovered (Dawn). Mary Lynn Breeden was found eventually, by a working janitor, as a small charred figure. Investigators had to get creative because most DNA that could have been useful in identification or linking the crime to a suspect was lost in the extreme heat of the fire. The case of Mary Lynn Breeden was the first-time tooth pulp had been used to convict a suspect. Along with Forensic Odontology, the Forensic Image Analyst team would assist in the conviction of 25-year-old suspect Chris Cruz (student and model) to the grizzly crime (“Charred Remains”).

Methods, Solutions and Scientific Concepts

Upon further investigation to determine the cause of death, evidence found included .22 caliber hollow point bullets in the brain that caused multiple fractures to the face and skull (“Charred Remains”). Pathologist Dr. Laurel Gray was able to determine that Mary Lynn Breeden had been shot in the head before death and therefore, died as a result of gunshot wounds (Still). Extensive amounts of blood were found when a close analysis was done indicating that Mary Lynn had been alive when shot due to quantities of blood located in the brain. Breeden’s body was identified by dental records. After close examination of the charred body, and its remaining teeth, dental records for Mary Lynn were compared to the sample. Both had a rare condition called Mesiodens, as discovered by Dr. Larry Cheevers who is a Forensic Odontologist working the case (“Charred Remains”). Mesiodens is a rare condition where an extra tooth exists in the gums, for Mary Lynn’s case it was the top two front teeth (“Charred Remains”). In Cruz’s car, bloodstains were discovered, but with limited DNA from Lynn Breeden’s body, Dr. David Sweet was keen on using the tooth pulp extracted from remaining teeth, as a reference sample to attempt to associate Chris Cruz to the murder (“Charred Remains”). Immediately after Lynn Breeden’s death, a woman identified later as Tonya Forrester attempted to clear out Mary Lynn Breeden’s bank account but was denied by the bank when asked for identification (Dawn). Upon closer investigation of the CCTV from the bank, the Forensic Image Analyst team noticed a glare in the window, a person, later identified to be Chris Cruz through the processing of the photo to remove glare (“Charred Remains”).

Evaluation of Methods

The case of Mary Lynn Breeden was incredibly accurate in the identification of DNA and connecting the suspect, Chris Cruz to the murder. Firstly, hair was not a viable source of DNA due to the temperature at which the body burned. Hair would have been very useful, because hair would have linked the remains to a victim along with her past use of cocaine, “hair is nourished by blood flowing through capillaries located close to the hair root. Drugs present in blood diffuse through the capillary walls into the base of the hair and become permanently entrapped in the hair’s hardening protein structure. As the hair continues to grow, the drug’s location on the hair becomes a historical marker for delineating drug intake” (Saferstein 2020). Furthermore, the skull being studied by pathologist Dr. Gray showed evidence of a .22 caliber weapon being used (Still). This generated an idea of the cause of death and a possible suspect. The skull could have also been useful for Forensic Anthropologists to study and determine the sex of the victim and descent. In this case, the skull would have been discovered to be of Caucasian descent after studying the eye orbits, frontal plate, and nasal cavity. Blood eventually became valuable not because it was found on the victim, but a potential suspect had the remaining piece of this forensic puzzle. Investigators became weary of Chris Cruz, and the blood discovered in and on his car, as they needed to find a way to associate him with the crime. Forensic Odontology was used, and tooth pulp was extracted as a sample along with the evidence of blood (jacket covered in blood with playboy bunny necklace in pocket) found in Cruz’s car (Ogilvie). Thin Layer Chromatography showed a clear result of the tooth pulp matching the DNA in the car. The Rf values had lined up with the tooth pulp extracted and a sample of blood found in the car, leading to a match being made. The main limitation in the “Charred Remains” case was the lack of DNA left behind, but investigators were able to work past this.

Societal Impacts and Legal Ramifications

The case of Mary Lynn Breeden is drug influenced as both her and Chris Cruz were heavily involved in the drug scene, specifically cocaine. Crown Counsel Richard Cairns explained that this was a murder for money (Ogilvie). Cruz’s goal was to clear Mary Lynn’s account of the $4,500 she had, making it a planned and deliberate crime, ‘“He was ready to kill Mary-Lynn Breeden when she fell into his grasp”’(Ogilvie). The use of cocaine is considered highly taboo and the gateway to not only other drugs but the possibility to commit a crime. Some long-term effects of cocaine use as described by Health Canada include erratic or violent behaviour, cocaine is considered a highly addictive and dangerous narcotic (Canada 2018). If cocaine had not been in the systems of both Mary Lynn Breeden and Chris Cruz, this crime would have been extremely unlikely to occur. In court, the jury recommended that Chris Cruz would serve 18 years before being eligible for parole. Crown Counsel Richard Cairns explained, ‘“In the car, he had all the instruments necessary … He had the tire iron, the .22 gun, the gasoline container and bolt cutters, and he knew the location of the dumpster . . . was that just a fluke?”’(Ogilvie). Finally, Chris Cruz was sentenced to life in prison with no eligibility for parole for 18 years, convicted on first- degree murder (Newswire).

Conclusion

After close analysis of the case regarding Mary Lynn Breeden, it can be determined that her murder was drug-fueled and could have been easily avoided. This case leaves a historical marker in Forensic Science as tooth pulp was extracted and used for the very first time. It is applaudable that with such little DNA and lack of storyline that the team involved, was able to come to a conclusion and serve Chris Cruz his sentence.

Bibliography

1. PMC, Europe. “Dental Color Measurement to Predict DNA Concentration in Incinerated Teeth for Human Identification.” Europe PMC, 25 Apr. 2018, europepmc.org/article/MED/29698524.
2. ‘Bank Photo of Woman Gives Police New Lead in Slaying of Pub Waitress: [4* Edition].’ The Vancouver Sun, Jul 16, 1991, pp. B10. ProQuest, http://ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/docview/243426661?accountid=15182.
3. Hanna, Dawn. ‘Woman Tried to Clear Out Account of Murder Victim; Woman Attempted to Clear Out Account of Dumpster Victim (5*): [4* Edition].’ The Vancouver Sun, Jul 15, 1991, pp. B1. ProQuest, http://ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/docview/243427868?accountid=15182.
4. Still, Larry. ‘Woman Died from Gunshot Wounds, Pathologist Says: [FINAL Edition].’The Vancouver Sun, Nov 08, 1993, pp. B2. ProQuest, http://ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/docview/243239454?accountid=15182.
5. Newswire. ‘Life in Prison for Vancouver Man Who Killed Woman, Burned Body -.’Times – Colonist, Nov 20, 1993, pp. 1. ProQuest, http://ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/docview/345494724?accountid=15182.
6. Ogilvie, Clare. ‘`Murder for Money’: [Final Edition].’ The Province, Nov 03, 1993, pp. A10. ProQuest, http://ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/docview/267489249?accountid=15182.
7. Ogilvie, Clare. ‘`Shark, Predator’ Convicted of Murder: [Final C Edition].’ The Province, Nov 12, 1993, pp. A12. ProQuest, http://ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/docview/267482591?accountid=15182.
8. “Charred Remains.” Medstar Television, 1997.
9. Saferstein, Richard. Criminalistics: an Introduction to Forensic Science. Pearson, 2020.
10. Canada, Health. “Government of Canada.” Canada.ca, Government of Canada, 30 Nov. 2018, www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/substance-use/controlled-illegal-drugs/cocaine-crack.html.

Forensic data recovery is the science and art of retrieving or getting back information from a mobile device, computer, and any other electronic media that was damaged, lost, deleted, or hidden (Casey, 2011). Forensic data recovery is different from other processes of data recovery in terms of the method used, but the results are the same. With forensic data recovery, objectives are laid out from the word go since it is not well examined and adequately dealt with claims can be compromised. Forensic data recovery is unique as it deals with legal matters and therefore needed in court. It is done by specialists who acquire, isolate, and report on electronic evidence and digital media (Breeuwsma et al., 2007).

One of the techniques utilized by forensic data recovery is file carving, which excerpts data from a storage device with no need for the file system that created the file initially. It recovers files and data in an unallocated space with no file information in data recovery (Richard, Roussev, & Marziale, 2007). Unallocated space is the area in the drive, then no longer has any file information. It is most useful when data or file is damaged or goes missing. Most file systems do not entirely remove data when it is deleted; instead, it removes the knowledge of where it is placed. This mechanism reconstructs files by scanning the raw disk bytes and brings them together (Povar & Bhadran, 2010). This involves only a few first and last bytes. Most legal cases that depend on this mechanism are child pornography, where experts recover more images from users’ hard disks.

File recovery is different from file carving. Operating systems currently in the market do not remove a deleted file without requesting confirmation by the user. Deleted files are recovered using forensic programs if the erased file space is not overwritten by another archive. Any file that is damaged is only recoverable if data is not corrupted more than a minimal degree (Cohen, 2007). File recovery and file restoration are different since a backup file stored in an encoded form is restored to its decoded form. File recovery mechanisms use file system information and using this information, many of the deleted or damaged files can be recovered. Whenever information is incorrect, then it cannot work.

File carvings can only work on raw data on the media, and it is not linked with the file system structure. File carving is not concerned with any file systems that are used for storing files. For example, the FAT file system is a file that is deleted then the file directory entry is moved to unallocated space (Povar & Bhadran, 2010). The filename’s first character is substituted with a marker, but the file data itself is left unmoved. The information is present until it is overwritten. All this recovery is possible since file system stores retrieve, and updates files. File carving however has two issues. One is that without a file system the original name of the file cannot be discovered and second when a file is stored in a contiguous chunk which is appropriate for large files this technique is not able to recover the complete file,

References

1. Breeuwsma, M., De Jongh, M., Klaver, C., Van Der Knijff, R., & Roeloffs, M. (2007). Forensic data recovery from flash memory. Small Scale Digital Device Forensics Journal, 1(1), 1-17.
2. Casey, E. (2011). Digital evidence and computer crime: Forensic science, computers, and the internet. Academic Press.
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Introduction

Forensics is a key role in the criminal justice system which is nationally recognised in Britain. It is used as scientific evidence in the court of law to support the prosecution or defence in a criminal case. (The Telegraph, 2018, Sandra H) Within the last 40 years forensic science has gloomed in the eye of the public and has even made fashionable television to people. Forensics is the scientific study of crime and without it, it becomes increasingly hard to solve a case. Within the last 10 years there has been an increase in forensic backlog in Britain. This also includes forensic DNA, which is used in the national DNA database which has also been having a major backlog in cases. (The Herald, 2016) The DNA helps an investigator, to help find or illuminate previous offenders. Hundreds of offences have gone unsolved for up to a decade due to the delay in loading profiles. Helen Wicker, the forensic analyst has stated in a recent report that almost 6,000 DNA profiles still haven’t been loaded to this day. (March 2018, London) David Davis, the shadow home secretary, states: ‘This latest shambles further undermines the integrity of the DNA database and reinforces our calls for a parliamentary debate about the system.’ (2017) showing a big scare for the nation and asking big questions as to why this topic has arose.

This essay will cover the problems within the forensic backlog and the solutions which can be involved to help rectify these issues. Linking it heavily to the social harms that are also affected by this and the types of solutions I think that will help rectify these problems.

What is the importance of forensics within the Criminal Justice System?

Forensic science plays a vital role in the criminal justice system by providing scientifically based information through the analysis of physical evidence. (National Insti-tute of Justice, 2017 ) During an investigation, evidence is collected, analysed in a laboratory and then the results presented in court. Each crime scene is unique, and each case presents its own challenges. (J. Sara, April 26, 2018) Without the applica-tion of forensic science, criminals can never be convicted unless an eyewitness is present. While detectives and law enforcement agencies are involved in the collec-tion of evidence, be it physical or digital, it is forensic science that deals with the analysis of those evidence in order to establish facts admissible in the court of law. Thus in a world devoid of forensic science, murderers, thieves, drug traffickers and rapists would be roaming scot-free. (2017, Kate Huslet)

What are the problems that we are faced with?

Data shows from last year (2017) that police close a surprisingly 47% of cases because no suspect is identified. Even more surprisingly, 34% of this DNA has been found but just hasn’t been put through the DNA database, making it impossible to link suspects or illuminate suspects from a case. (Emma Wright, 9th Feb 2018) Forensic analysis alone can be very time-consuming. Evidence isn’t tested straight away for DNA to link a suspect to a crime. Evidence is firstly screened to determine whether any biological material is present and what type is it. Only then will DNA testing be undertaken in a case. Also, some samples can be tricky to analyse. Some samples can be degraded as fragmented or may contain DNA from multiple suspects. (Dan L. Burk , pp. 53-85, 1997) Naturally, the time taken for finding evidence against a suspect takes a long time. Even longer if there is a backlog of cases. However, the actual lab part of this crisis isn’t the main contributor to a long wait in forensic DNA. (Merton, 2017) It’s the starting of the process by the police. It’s been known in the UK that the chain of custody of evidence can sometimes be relaxed in the police force. Dr Gillian Tulley warns in her new report of 2018, that ‘if guidance is not followed as a matter of urgency, contamination could compromise evidence or mislead courts’. She also goes on to say, ‘police forces must not treat quality standards for forensic science as an optional extra and nor must others be delivering forensic science in the Criminal Justice System.’ The regulator found there is still a significant risk of DNA contamination in police custody. For example, an officer carrying evidence back to the forensic lab in his car stopping off to get some food, leaving the vehicle unattended. There is easy access for someone to tamper with the evidence or for it to be cross-contaminated if not bagged up properly. Situations like this are massively penalised in court and you will be heavily questioned about your actions. A lot of untested evidence is also stored and left in the law enforcement rooms. Most of the time lab technicians are unaware of evidence that needs to be tested as they haven’t been informed. Two-thirds of England’s crown court cases failed to go ahead on the day they were due to start. (The Telegraph, 2017) The national audit office (NAO) claims the criminal justice system was ‘not delivering value for money’ and explained how the total amount of this added up to £21 million which was spent by the crown prosecution service on cases which were never actually heard in court. The NAO also found a backlog of more than 51,00 cases that had built up in the crown courts. It is important to get the information from the laboratories as effectively and efficiently to the court room. Daubert in his book states ‘there are important differences between the quest for truth in the courtroom and the quest for truth in the laboratory (Backlog of Forensics and its Damming Effect, p. 2798, 2017). And that is something that is not being done quickly enough.

What is the solution?

Overseeing some of these issues that I have found in the forensic backlog, opens up my eye to the fact there isn’t a real structure put in place. A sense of organisation needs to be put in, so the operation of the forensics team can run smoothly. A theory linked to this is the ‘bakhtinian process’ which was discovered by Russian philosopher Mikhail (1937). This theory focuses on the strains generated by the existing norms. The change is introduced to stop these strains upon people of the reaction to those strains. (Werner and Baxter 1994) this reaction is always a positive one to ensure organisation and stability is put in place. I really feel the police and forensics workers should take a look into this theory to help them gather up new ideas and structure. They could think about a set of rules and guidelines to always follow in cases. Sourcing through the home offices new reports within the last 2 months I came across a more positive outlook on this criminal justice problem. In a report they stated ‘procedures have been strengthened to ensure that all forensic laboratories must submit weekly and monthly reports on DNA profiles that are unable to be loaded.’ I managed to source and think of other types of solutions. I thought about focusing on re-evaluating the procedures and seeking out the inefficiencies. Closely looking at where the bottlenecks are happening, so they can address them. This can be achieved by reviewing and challenging the current process, asking questions such as ‘does this system accurately fit what we wish to achieve?’ and ‘do all staff members have the right qualifications and level of training to complete the tasks before them?’ I also feel ploughing in more time and money into this would help motivate the people working to work to there highest standard. Hertzberg’s two-factor theory supports this outlook. This look into the factors that lead to satisfaction and motivate employees to work harder. Examples include feeling organised and career progression. Another solution would be to prioritise what’s more important when it comes through. If you have petty theft or a rape case and both need solving. Naturally start with the one that’s a more serious crime. A lot less people will be frustrated or annoyed. I would gather in more staff who specify in certain areas. This takes the pressure off the technicians and will ultimately be a lot quicker to get DNA evidence sorted. Also, re-train existing staff. This helps give them a refresher of what’s expected of them. It also gives them a boost to do to well and work efficiently. Re-check in of what’s expected of you and always keep in contact with the police about the case you are working on. This helps to stop confusion and to know what you are trying to find or eliminate.

Social harms effected by the Forensic backlog

Suspects re-offending whilst on bail

One of the major concerns for the social harms of society is that suspects typically re-offend whilst they are on bail. 75% of people who are arrested are released from police custody within just only 6 hours of being questioned and 95% are released within 24 hours. (Professor Brent Fisse, 2018) As the forensics aren’t being dealt with quick enough this leads to the suspects being let out. More then 350 murders were committed by people on bail over the last 5 years states the telegraph (23rd November 2018, Laura Picketts). Statistics show that one killing per week could have been prevented if the ‘criminal justice system did their job’ states Randal Simmons in a recent report. In October 2011 a man called Jonathan Vass was jailed for 30 years with the chance of parole after murdering his ex-girlfriend while on bail for the rape of her. This is one of many shocking cases I have come across. If he was tested there and then for his DNA he would have been found guilty within hours. Instead he was let out and then murdered her.

Solution

Keep the suspects in custody for the full 24 hours, instead of letting them out after 6 in some cases. Be thorough with their questioning. Come together with other before questioning an ascertain what type of information you want out of the person. This links in very well with the theory of ‘good cop, bad cop’. The ‘bad cop’ will always take an aggressive and negative stance towards the suspect in custody. Making accusations and sometimes threatening them. This sets a good presence to have a ‘good cop’ put in place. They would normally act sympathic towards the suspect, appearing somewhat supportive to them and in a lot of cases will defend the suspect to the bad cop. The person in custody usually feels co-operative towards the good cop out of trust, or sometimes feel obliged to say something out of fear of the ‘bad cop’. If the cases are more serious like murder, rape or violent abuse the police can apply to hold you up 36 or 96 hours which gives them more time to gather the evidence or facts. When on bail the police should give everyone a curfew that the suspect should abide by.

Witnesses

Due to the long wait of cases being heard and in a lot of cases not even having the chance to be heard, witnesses and victims were failed by the criminal justice system. Only 55% of those would have been a witness in the courtroom say they would not be prepared to come back and do so again, due to the lack of support they had. This is an outstanding statistic that would envitably damage a case.( Hannan, M.T. and J. Freeman (1999) Witnesses are a key part of a court case and will help the judge make a decision whether someone is guilty or not. Without that put in place a lot of cases would ultimately fail. An average 134 day wait between the case leaving the magistrates court and the start of the crown court hearing was on a 99-day average to a 2 year wait. As you can imagine this had a recurring impact on many aspects within the criminal justice system.

Solutions

The biggest solution I would introduce here is keeping the witnesses up to date with what is going on. In some case’s you can’t help the delay of the evidence some-times and therefore a witness may have to wait around a lot longer then they would plan to. Also giving a witness a run though of what to expect at court, what types of questions they may be asked. This will help them stay at ease before a trial. Linking this all into the theory of emotions. More specifically the James-Lange theory of emotion. This theory suggests that when you see an external stimulus that leads to a physiological reaction. Your emotional reaction is dependent upon how you interpret those physical reactions. For example, being held back and not kept in the loop about the case you are being a witness for can have a negative effect on you. If you feel you aren’t being treated right, then your physical emotions will stop you from helping others in a case.

Social media

As discussed, prior, due to back-log of forensic evidence there is a major knock on effect. We have potential suspects in custody, that may have some evidence against them but without someone going to trial and being prosecuted properly you will not know of someone’s innocence or guilt. The human right’s act states ‘innocent until proven guilty’ Many suspects are labelled as ‘guilty’. Social media like anything is a great way to get cases out there but is also very damaging to people and their lives. The major problem with social media and suspects is that social media will portray someone as guilty when they haven’t been found guilty yet. In 2010, just before Christmas a 25-year-old woman Joanna Yeates went missing from her home and then later was found murder. Social media went crazy over this story once they discovered who her landlord was. This man was called Chris Jefferies, a former teacher. Due to a lot of newspapers and social media posts he was labelled as ‘weird’, ‘creepy’, ‘strange’ and was prodomently known as the man responsible for her death. Upon being arrested and questioned for a few days he was then released as there was no evidence against him. The British public still portrayed him as guilty. A few months later the real murder was found guilty. It was a younger man who didn’t ‘look’ particualiy weird. He didn’t make any front pages in this story. This is just one case of many others where, the waiting around of evidence to come though from the labs has given the social media time to give the wrong person attention in the public eye.

Solutions

Stop the media from having coverage on people in custody. There should be a guide put in place if someone is writing a piece on a case to not be biased or influential to the reader. I also thin it’s something that the public need to deal with too. They shouldn’t believe everything they read or allow there opinion to be swayed.

Elizabeth Short, who would eventually become known across the globe as The Black Dahlia, was a 22-year-old American woman who was raped, murdered, dismembered, and thrown on a vacant lot in a Los Angeles suburb in Los Angeles County on January 15, 1947. No one knows exactly what happened leading up to Elizabeth Short’s last moments when she fought for her life. There was no murder confession, and there was a lack of evidence to lead investigators further (CITATION THE BRUTAL). The Los Angeles Police Department noted that Shorts body appeared to be posed by the offender, as she was found lying on her back with her arms raised over shoulders, and her legs were spread in what could be said to be a display of seductiveness. She was also found to have cuts and abrasions across her body, and her mouth had been sliced to extend her smile from ear to ear. Her naked body had been cleanly sliced in half, just above her waist (CITATION THE CRIME SCENE). This case unsolved and has been for over 70 years, however in trying to solve it, the best approach would be to look at the forensic victimology and the crime scene analysis.

During the early years of victimology, literature on crime victims remained relatively small when compared to that on criminology. today, it is fair to say that the study of crime victims has become an integral part of criminology. Although victimology has established itself as a major research area within criminology, its nature, importance and standing continue to generate a great deal of comment and controversy (CITATION PAST PRESENT). One of the issues that has come up regarding the issues within victimology is the lack of strong theoretical orientation. As a major part of criminology still stands on sociological theories, victimology also stands on those theories. It is not correct to claim theories, such as, routine activities theory and rational choice theory as victimological theories, as the proponents never had any idea to see their theories from a victimological perspective, though they have utilized victimological concepts to develop their theories. Another issue is that there is more focus on victim rights and assistance Victimology at the present is more application oriented and it deals more with the rights and assistance of victims. Some have felt that victimology has lost its scientific rigor. While victim rights are important, and victims should be given whatever assistance they need have the crime, there also needs to be a little bit more focus on victimology as a tool in determining who an offender is. A final issue with victimology is the need to expand the scope of it. Current victimology is seen only from an small perspective and not from a mass perspective (genocide victimization, state sponsored terrorism, riot victimization) (CITATION HUMAN RIGHTS).

In the last twenty-five years, victimology has undergone a major transformation. Early victimology was mainly theoretical, concerned almost exclusively with causal explanations of crime and the victim’s role in crime. It focused mainly on characteristics of victims, their relationships and interactions with their victimizers, and the analysis of victim behavior as a situational variable, as a triggering, actualizing or precipitating factor. One of the primary tasks of theoretical victimology is to collect empirical data on crime victims. Some of this data could include opportunities, which are closely linked to the characteristics of potential targets (persons, households, businesses) and to the activities and behavior of these targets. Another is risk factors, particularly those related to sociodemographic characteristics such as age and gender, area of residence, absence of guardianship, presence of alcohol and so forth. Motivated offenders are also something to look at. Offenders, even non-professional ones, do not choose their victim/targets at random but select their victims/targets according to specific criteria. Another example of data to be looked at is exposure. Exposure to potential offenders and to high-risk situations and environments enhances the risk of criminal victimization. High-risk activities also increase the potential for victimization. Among such activities is the pursuit of fun, which may include deviant and illegal activities. Short only had one run-in with the law a few years prior to her death. She had been out with a group of rowdy friends in a restaurant until the owners called the police. She was booked and fingerprinted but never charged (CITATION THE LIFE). Because she didn’t get in a lot of trouble in her young life, it is unlikely that any high-risk activities had anything to do with her death and would not prove very useful in trying to solve the case. It is also well known that certain occupations such as prostitution carry with them a higher than average potential for criminal victimization (CITATION PAST PRESENT). Although Elizabeth short was not a prostitute, she did frequently go out in the evenings looking for men on her quest for marriage (CITATION THE LIFE). It is of course possible that one of the many suitors she had over time was the one who committed the murder.

Crime scenes of violent sex offenders and sexual murderers could be divided into two general groups: those that are organized, reflecting a great deal of planning in which little evidence is left behind, and those that are disorganized, reflecting an impulsive, unplanned crime with a lot of evidence left. Individuals who leave highly organized crime scenes seem to have distinctly different personality characteristics and behavioral patterns than individuals who leave highly disorganized crime scenes. Organized and disorganized offenders display different approaches to crime as a result of their different personality make-ups. Organized crime scenes reflect a high level of control by the offender where restraints are used and the body is disposed of in a thought-out manner, usually transported to another location from where the murder took place (CITATION JPL). There was no blood present on the Elizabeth Shorts body, and there was none on the grass beneath her either. Investigators determined that she must have been killed elsewhere, cleaned of blood, and then dumped in the vacant lot overnight (CITATION THE CRIME). This should lead investigators to believe that whoever murdered Elizabeth Short fell under the category of an organized offender. Organized offenders are often socially competent, intelligent, live with a partner, follow the crime in the media, and change locations after the offense. They are apt to have psychopathic, manipulative or narcissistic personalities, and can be charming, neat in appearance, physically attractive, and able to speak with ease to members of the opposite sex. Disorganized crime scenes reflect impulsivity and lack of planning; the victim is often known to the offender, bodies are left in plain view (typically at the death scene), and a weapon of opportunity (rather than a specific weapon brought with) is used. Disorganized offenders often have poor work histories, live alone and near the crime scene, have little interest in the media’s coverage of the case, do not change their lifestyle following the crime, and are much more mentally unstable. They may be schizoid, schizotypal, borderline and sometimes schizophrenic. Such individuals may be unattractive physically, have little experience with members of the opposite sex, and live alone because others find it difficult to tolerate their eccentric behavior. After evaluating the crime scene as highly organized or disorganized, inferences regarding the personality and behavior patterns of the offender can be drawn (CITATION JPL).

General inconsistencies in the crime are part of the scene. The crime is classified as sex related, nonsexual, or unknown. Any crime with evidence, in any part of the crime scene, of some type of sexual component is classified as sex related. A sex-related crime can be determined from the victim’s attire; lack of clothing; exposure of genitalia; body positioning; sexual injury; or evidence of sexual activity on, in, or near the body. In additional, evidence of substitute sexual activity or sadistic fantasy can be evidence of sexual activity. Elizabeth Shorts murder would be considered as being sex related considering that there was evidence that she had been raped, as well as the fact that her body was found in what most would call a sexual position. The classification of the crime scene is a critical aspect in the development of every profile. The crime scene is classified by the amount of planning and predetermination by the offender and the degree of control that the offender exercised over the victim. The offender’s pattern of behavior is determined by the crime scene, particularly in sex-related offenses (CITATION 8CC).

Victimology and crime scene analysis are two extremely helpful tools when it comes to determining who a potential offender might be. The two methods would be the best options in trying to find the person who killed Elizabeth Short. Analysis of the crime scene, such as how the victims body was left, and what exactly was done to her could be helpful in terms of an offenders signature, because it is possible that connections could have been made between this crime and other crimes that have taken place before and after it. Victimology could also play a big part in solving the crime because knowledge of the kind of people Short was associated with, as well as what she did with her time could provide hints on who could have done this to her. Although it has been over 70 years since the murder, advances in the way we look at crime scene analysis and victimology might be able to shed some light on what happened all those years ago in Los Angeles County.

Forensic photography

Forensic Photography is nothing but photography of a crime scene. The replication and recreation of the actual crime scene to solve a crime is an important factor. To reconstruct the crime scene and recreates scenarios of the crime committed. A mixture of visual comprehension and criminal nature may be identified as forensic photography. Photographers of crime or accident scenes typically capture photographs in color, but often in black and white. Crime scene photography enables us to photograph the actual crime scene and by that, it wouldn’t be hard to develop the theories for it is the photograph of the actual crime scene and it can be preserved for further analysis. Also, theories could be established on how and what crime was committed and who was the perpetrator of the crime.

History/Explanation of the technique

Forensic photography is the technique of photographing details within many different crime scenes, such as burglary cases, where fingerprints and any signs of forced entry would be gathered, or in murder cases where blood stains/spatter, hair and fibers would also be collected. This type of photography is essential within a police department’s line of work, as the photographer documents pieces of evidence throughout the scene, which then are used within a courtroom as unbiased evidence, providing accurate images as a photographic record of the crimes committed. Also, there are other uses such as to jolt people’s memory if they happened to see something. The history of forensic photography can be traced back to the 19th century, where in the early day criminals had “mugshots” taken, this began in Belgium in the 1840s, where amateur photographers were employed.

Equipment

The typical camera kit required to achieve forensic imagery should include the following: a professional-grade DSLR camera( without hot mirror), at least several memory cards, macro lenses, tripod with ball-head attachment, wide-angle lens, flash and cables, shutter release cable, many filters such as UV, IR transmission, hot mirror filter, also include extra batteries as cameras have been well known to die out without prior notice. Markers such as tape measures may also be used to take precise sizes from evidence, ensuring accuracy.

Techniques and explanation of the use

Forensic photographers are required to photograph and record many different types of crime scenes, from indoor to outdoor photography with many different lighting scenarios, therefore the photographer will be required to use many different camera settings suitable for the situation such as torchlight, to light a night time scene. Also, the photographer needs to know the basics such as iso, aperture, and shutter speed settings. Infrared photography may be required to document such items of evidence as fingerprints and bodily fluids, and UV photography may also be required for bitemarks on bodies.

Applications/Real-world uses

The applied technique of forensic photography is used in many everyday situations within a police department, from the scene of the crime collecting all different types of evidence to taking criminals’ headshots. The importance of forensic photography within the real world is major, due to the fact the images are taken to preserve the evidence within a potential crime scene. These images are then used in many different situations, including courtrooms as vital parts of the trial evidence.

Advantages and disadvantages of digital forensic photography

In this era of modern technology, it somehow helps us in our everyday life because it is convenient and it makes less work because these technologies provide us somehow everything. Just like Digital Photography just like any other technology it has ups and downs one of the advancements of digital photography is that it is easy to use you could make as many copies as you want. Also, it could be preserved so that it could be used in the future. You may also take a color or black-and-white photograph. Since it is digital, you also don’t have to worry about running out of the film. And, there is an LCD monitor that would let you see the photographs you’ve taken and also review them. It is not only just for capturing photographs you could also shoot a video. The disadvantages of digital photography would be it costs a fortune and not all people could afford to buy its features and other things that could maintain it effectively to make the photographs look good. Also, the camera’s battery life is limited that which could affect what you are doing if you are in a hurry then suddenly it turned off because it reaches its low battery life.

Issues regarding the use of digital photography in police work

One of the issues regarding the use of digital photography in police work is that the photographs were manipulated or tampered with to draw conclusions from the people who see them. Also, because the photograph has now been tampered with and manipulated it provides false information or evidence that could make the investigation vague and unclear. That could lead to prosecuting an innocent person and letting a guilty person set free and possibly commit a more heinous crime.

The CSI Effect on Jury Expectations

The CSI effect is a significant issue in Forensics because the jury is formed of members of the public who most likely do not have experience in the field of forensics, so their expectations are based on what they see in television programs and in the media. The jury has a lot of influence over the outcome of a trial so therefore, the expectations they have about forensics compared to reality may have a major impact on the verdict of the trial. In CSI, it was found that the protagonist searched for DNA evidence in 86% of all episodes, found it in 84%, and used it to solve a case in 39% of episodes (Brewer and Ley 2009). This shows that forensic programs usually place a lot of emphasis on the use of scientific evidence to solve the crime, so therefore, if a case does not involve the use of scientific evidence such as DNA and fingerprints, the jurors may be reluctant to see a defendant as guilty as they are more likely to see someone as guilty if there is scientific evidence due to the CSI effect.

Shelton et al (2006), conducted a study to see whether the CSI effect exists and how much of an impact this can have on the jury. In this study, 1027 jurors who were summoned for jury duty had to complete a survey before them being assigned a case. This survey listed thirty-three programs and asked respondents to rate their watching patterns. Based on the results gathered from the surveys, the sample was divided into two groups: CSI watchers and non-CSI watchers to see how exposure to CSI affects juror decision-making. The study’s authors then spoke to the jurors in detail to determine their expectations about the types of evidence that may be presented during a trial. Overall, 46.3% of the jurors expected to see some form of scientific evidence in every criminal case. The jury members were also asked specific questions about different types of forensic evidence. In every case, 21.9% of the jury members expected to see DNA, 36.4% expected to see fingerprint evidence, and 32.3% expected to see ballistic or other firearm evidence. Their expectations about the types of scientific evidence varied according to the type of crime. 45.5% expected to see DNA evidence in more serious violent crimes such as murder and 72.6% expected to see DNA in rape cases. 71.1% expected to see fingerprint evidence in breaking and entering crimes and 65.5% in crimes involving a gun (Shelton et al, 2006)

It was concluded through a series of t-test analyses that CSI watchers had higher expectations for all kinds of evidence than non-CSI watchers had. CSI watchers also had higher expectations that they would see ballistic evidence in a murder case and fingerprints in crimes involving breaking and entering which is an example of how forensic-related programs have changed the juries’ expectations of what should be present at a crime due to the dramatization of forensics. (Shelton et al, 2006)

Schweitzer and Saks (2007) carried out a similar study to assess whether the CSI effect has an impact on jurors’ expectations and the findings are similar to the results of Shelton et al’s (2006) study. In this study, participants were grouped based on their forensic-related television-watching habits. It was found that participants that were viewers of forensic-related programs had a greater understanding of forensic science, greater confidence in their verdicts, and were more skeptical about the forensic evidence presented during the trial (Schweitzer and Saks, 2007). Both of the above studies show the CSI effect’s impact on jurors’ expectations and the way they perceive forensic evidence. Overall, jurors are more knowledgeable about forensic science due to the exposure to CSI which could have a positive impact on their confidence in their verdict, however, watchers of CSI are more likely to be skeptical about forensic evidence leading to potential wrongful convictions or acquittals.

The CSI Effect’s Influence on Legal Professionals

The CSI effect also has an impact and is a sign for those who work in the courts such as judges, prosecutors, and defense attorneys. Since the popularity of CSI has increased, jobs have been affected both positively and negatively in many ways. A positive impact the CSI effect has had is the fact that the jury is more educated so therefore, there may not be as many questions regarding different forms of evidence however, this has also had a negative impact as the jury has developed the idea that all forensic evidence is relevant due to the CSI effect so therefore, the prosecutors could spend more valuable time during trials explaining why certain evidence is not relevant. As a result of the popularity of CSI, the jury may also have certain ideas of the prosecutors and the defense because of how they are portrayed in forensic-related programs. The defense is often painted in a bad light which could result in an unfair trial as the jury are more likely to be biased towards the prosecution due to how they have depicted television (Robbers, 2008).

Robbers (2008) conducted a study that examined the difference between media depictions of forensics in comparison to reality and the extent to which these depictions of forensics can influence jurors. This study also showed CSI’s impact on those who work in this field. This study randomly selected 290 prosecutors, defense attorneys, and judges to complete a survey. All the respondents had criminal trial experience before and after forensic programs became popular. The respondents were asked to discuss specific instances in which they thought juries’ decisions influenced forensic-related programs. The respondents were also asked whether these programs had an impact on their jobs and the juries’ decisions generally. 79% of the respondents provided specific instances in which they felt juries had made their decisions based on forensic programs they had watched. 53% of respondents mentioned the discounting of eyewitnesses by jurors and their preference for forensic evidence. 46% of judges, 49% of prosecutors, and 39% of defense attorneys discussed cases where the jury acquitted defendants because no forensic evidence was presented at the trial (Robbers, 2008). The respondents also commented on how forensic-related programs had impacted their jobs. Judges mentioned how they had to spend more time clarifying forensic evidence for jurors and prosecutors mentioned how they had to spend more time going through the forensic evidence after experts had discussed it (Robbers, 2008). Prosecutors also claimed to have to take more time during trials to explain the absence of forensic evidence than before due to the jury’s expectations based on CSI (Cole and Dioso-Villa, 2007). 11% of defense attorneys commented that they felt forensic programs portrayed them in a bad light, making it difficult for jurors to view defendants and their attorneys fairly. 54% of respondents wrote about how they felt that watching forensic programs had become a part of their job so they can familiarize themselves with what the jurors might expect from forensic evidence they can be prepared to address why certain techniques were not carried out in their case. (Robbers, 2008)

Overall, 70% of the respondents expressed the issue that jurors have unrealistic expectations about the forensic evidence and police work showing what an impact the CSI effect has had on modern-day forensics. (Robbers, 2008) The respondents used in this study had criminal trial experience before and after CSI become popular so this provided an insight into the impact of CSI. The results showed that the CSI effect does exist and has had a significant impact on trials, especially in cases where individuals have been wrongfully acquitted.

The Police Chief’s Effect: Educating Offenders

The police chief’s effect is that CSI programs make offenders more aware of forensic techniques and educate criminals on how to hide evidence to avoid crime detection (Dioso-Villa, 2015). CSI programs often show different methods of hiding evidence such as using bleach, which destroys DNA, to clean up blood at crime scenes or wearing gloves to avoid leaving fingerprints at the crime scene to prevent police detection (Durnal, 2010). The police chief’s effect is a significant issue in society as it could increase crime rates and make it harder for investigators to obtain evidence potentially meaning the case is not solved and the criminal goes on to commit more crimes (Cole and Dioso-Villa, 2011). This is a contemporary issue as offenders are now more forensically aware than before due to the exposure to CSI-related programs meaning they take additional steps to avoid detection. Beauregard and Field (2008) suggested that offenders who moved the victim’s body after the murder to delay detection showed a higher degree of forensic awareness, this is most likely a result of CSI exposure as potential offenders can see methods that are used in television programs by offenders committing similar crimes. (Beauregard and Field, 2008)

In an examination of 222 stranger sexual assaults, it was found that in 55.9% of cases, offenders showed some form of forensic awareness, and the most common form of modus operandi was related to hiding their identity by wearing gloves or a disguise. Very few offenders took precautions with the removal of DNA and therefore do not understand the significance of DNA in terms of identification (Beauregard and Bouchard, 2010). A study on forensic awareness in sexual homicide cases found that less than half of the offenders took at least one precaution to avoid detection so it could be argued that offenders are educated more by their committing previous crimes rather than education through CSI programs. Only 30.6% of offenders destroyed or removed evidence in this study (Beauregard and Martineau, 2013).

Overall, the CSI effect does not have as much of an impact on offenders in comparison to other areas as it has not resulted in a major increase in criminals being cautious of the evidence they leave at the scene. Offenders will be more aware of the types of forensic evidence because of CSI and other forensic programs, but research has shown that most offenders aren’t cautious and are not aware of the significance of forensic evidence such as DNA.

Impact of the CSI Effect on Victims

The CSI effect has also impacted victims of crimes both positively and negatively. They can know the value of forensic evidence in the same way the jury can as a result of watching CSI-related programs. Positive impacts of the CSI effect on the public include educating potential victims on how to act in situations such as kidnappings, so they can leave forensic evidence for experts to find and help the investigation (McConnell, 2014). An example of this was Lance Corporal Jonathan Haynes’s case where he raped and kidnapped women. He was caught when one of his victims, who he raped and pushed into his car, tore out strands of her own hair and spat on the seat of his car to provide evidence that she thought could be useful during an investigation. The victim was aware of the significance of DNA evidence after watching CSI, so she knew what to do in that situation. The physical evidence left in the car lead to the conviction of Haynes, and he was given an 11-year sentence (Orr, 2011). This shows the positive impact that the CSI effect has had on modern-day crimes as the knowledge viewers have gained from watching CSI-related programs, has led to the convictions of criminals, and has helped experts during investigations.

Conclusion: The Multifaceted Impact of the CSI Effect

However, the CSI effect can hurt victims regarding the evidence they expect to be collected and tested by experts. CSI has produced expectations to viewers that the police can collect and examine forensic evidence from all crime scenes, because of this, police officers spend more time collecting forensic evidence that may not be relevant to that crime to satisfy victims’ demands (Makin, 2012). Police officers often complain that victims offer advice on how to solve cases and made demands on resources. This is due to the knowledge the public has gained from forensic-related programs due to how they represent police work (Stenross and Kleinman, 1989). A study was carried out by insert article author name where 31 police officers were interviewed about whether they believe CSI has had an impact on their field of work. When asked whether they believed CSI influenced the way the public perceives the police officer’s role and whether they questioned how they carry out their job, 28 respondents stated that they have had an experience where a member of the public questioned something they were doing. Many respondents perceived victims and witnesses as having unrealistic expectations due to television causing dissatisfaction when the reality of the investigation is not the same.

Hypothesis

The main objective of mobile forensics is to obtain information from mobile devices with the intention of coming up with strategies for enhancing them. Although they can simplify daily lives of many through facilitating communication and entertainment, these devices can also incorporate the highest level of security risks to both individuals and organizations in the way they are used.

Consequently, they are also considered to be important tools when tracking crimes and criminals. This research is being conducted with the aim of determining the validity of the stated tools on blackberry forensics. As the revolution in the technological world continues to shape the modern world, more refinements to enhance the user’s interests and tastes have come in handy.

Thus, mobile telephony devices have been not left behind. They are being developed each day with enhanced features such as camera, personal digital assistance and the global positioning systems. Although these features have been tailored to meet user’s needs, they have simplified criminals activities of committing crimes without being physically being available at the crime scene.

Moreover, it has challenged the abilities of law enforcers to track down them as they can predict the movements of the police using modified technologies. The null hypothesis in this case therefore, states that the tools used in mobile forensics are not effective as the authorities have not yet managed to combat these crimes. The alternative hypothesis, on the other hand, indicates that these tools are effective and only need to be updated with the changing technology.

Expected Results

In this research, it is not possible to come up with an ultimate and unequivocal conclusion. This owe to the fact that the tools used in mobile devices tracking are evolving on a daily basis, with the changing technology. This is why the challenge of security is on the rise even as new methods of curbing this challenge are being developed.

The mobile device developers create new ideas daily for the purposes of improving communication, while criminals, on the other hand, are using these devices to improve on their crime rates. Besides, each group employs creativity, in ensuing that the technology invented advances its interests.

In conclusion to this research, it would be appropriate to consider the null hypothesis since most of the proofs obtained indicate that the crime resulting from using mobile devices is outdoing the intended application.

This explains why forensic personnel need to go back to the drawing table and come up with new methods of curbing mobile crimes besides the use of the mobile devices. Alternatively, these experts have the option of studying the operations of the criminals keenly and come up with measures to counter these operations. This means that they should develop different strategies for dealing with crimes such that if one strategy fails a backup strategy is recalled.