Determination of the materials distinctive characteristics based on the analysis of its unique properties is a constant task of the forensic expert. Glass analysis in forensic science consists of comparing several fragments to establish their source. At the moment, only a comparison of the physical properties of glass makes it possible to conduct this procedure. After identifying the material as glass using microscopic examination, simple physical properties such as shape, color, thickness, and texture are described (Siegel and Mirakovits 441). There is a chance that these measurements would be enough to exclude the possibility of fragments originating from a specific source. Otherwise, it is necessary to conduct a more detailed analysis.
Density and refractive index are the most critical parameters. Density matters because it does not change depending on the size of the fragment. The floatation method is usually used to measure the property (Siegel and Mirakovits 446). The technique of such measurements consists of immersing the glass in a liquid of a specific density. The glass will be finally suspended in the same density liquid, and then the measurements can be recorded. For determining the refractive index, a microscope equipped with a hot stage is usually used. The glass is immersed in oil with a specific refractive index. The oil is then heated, which changes the index until the glass is no longer visible. With the help of such procedures, more accurate data on the physical properties is obtained.
The methods are used to fulfill their function, but the physical properties determination is not always sufficient to establish the belonging of the glass to a specific source. The same refractive index and density do not guarantee the identity of two two glass fragments, only the probability (Siegel and Mirakovits 450). This is because different types of glass can be common. In such cases, it is necessary to pay attention to additional signs of a specific glass fragment, such as glue, paint, cover among others. In more complicated situations, chemical analysis is used, but this rarely happens due to the processs high cost and complexity. Most often, the first stage of describing the simple physical properties of glass is sufficient to determine the source.
Work Cited
Siegel, Jay A., and Kathy Mirakovits. Forensic Science: The Basics. 2nd ed, CRC Press, 2016.
As a forensic investigator for the prosecution team in the case of State vs. Sandusky, several things are to be collected, analyzed, and presented in court. The alleged molestations took place in1996-2009 and, there is no physical evidence from the case that can be linked to the molestations. As a forensic investigator in the case, most of the evidence collected will revolve around the statements made by the alleged victims, witnesses, defendant, University police report, and the child protection agency (indictment, 2011). The statements made by the alleged victims are important, as they are the foundation for the prosecution. The statements should be analyzed and verified that they do not contain any inconsistencies such as the alleged dates. Where possible the statements should capture important things such as the date, time and place where the alleged molestation took place. The witnesses statements should be analyzed just like the alleged victims statement to avoid having discrepancies in the statements. The University police report filed in 1998 should be obtained as evidence in the case (indictment, 2011). This is important because it will support the prosecution by showing that the victim reported the alleged molestation to the authority. It should be analyzed and verified by statements made by the alleged victim who reported the molestation claims. The statement made by Sandusky should be obtained and analyzed. This is important because it will give the prosecution a chance to get Sanduskys side of the story and during cross-examination, they can verify if there are discrepancies such as Sandusky contradicting himself during the cross-examination. The next piece of evidence that is required or is important is showing that the alleged victims and Sandusky had a close relationship that Sandusky violated. This can be done by getting telephone records that show that they had regular communication during the time of the alleged molestations (Saferstein, 2010).
Forensic Investigator for the defense team
As a forensic investigator for the defense team, the goal will be to gather evidence, which can be used to prove that Sandusky is innocent. Some of the records needed include criminal history records of witnesses and the victims, education records, court records, witness statements, interviews, bad character evidence of the alleged victims, and key witnesses (Seelye, 2011). The goal of the defense team will be to prove that the evidence and witnesses presented are inadmissible on various grounds. This can be done by searching and analyzing the criminal records of the alleged victims and key witnesses (Saferstein, 2010). This is important because it can be used to prove that the witnesses and alleged victims are malicious and cannot be trusted. The education records of the victims should be obtained and analyzed to see if their performance during the period of molestation was consistent with those of molested persons. Another record that is important to search for is court records for the alleged victims and key witnesses (Saferstein, 2010). It is important to gather as much information about the court records of the witnesses and alleged victim that may be used in the case. It would be important to get evidence that proves that Sandusky has not been charged previously and does not have a criminal record. Getting bad character evidence for the alleged victims and key witnesses is important because the defense team can use this to show the court that the alleged victims and witnesses are malicious and have their evidence thrown out.
References
indictment. (2011). In Sandusky_Grand_Jury_Presentment. Web.
Saferstein, R. (2010). Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 10th Ed. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
Seelye. K. Q. (2011). Concerns Raised for Boys in Sandusky Case. The New York Times. Web.
Eyewitness memory is a vivid remembrance of occurrences or events before a crime. Even though eyewitness recounts may be unreliable, they are reliable when uncontaminated (Wixted, 2018). Accounts from eyewitnesses may create a skeleton on which a case will be built. Therefore, evaluating eyewitnesses and their statements is a crucial responsibility of a forensic psychiatrist. The information gathered from survivors, eyewitnesses, and suspects during criminal interviews offers vital investigation leads and influences the evidence presented in future court processes. Effective interviews improve probes by extracting trustworthy and high-quality information (Durrant, 2018). On the contrary, improperly performed questioning risks generating inaccurate information, undermining the legitimacy of an eyewitness or victim, and compromising the investigation process. Importantly, improper interviewing techniques may result in grave injustices.
In the scenario, the detective leading the investigation observes that there are problems with DNA extraction and other corroborating proof being acquired. Therefore the only evidence the authorities have is eyewitness testimony. Additionally, the investigator understands that the eyewitnesses gave different accounts. Further, research has shown that an individuals memory of an incident is not necessarily the same as what they choose to report during an interview (Melinder et al., 2020). As the situation demonstrates, only three of the 20 customers who were questioned correctly identified the girl in a photo lineup using a picture provided by the parents. Similarly, eight customers said the perpetrator seemed to be a male Latino, while four said the suspect was Black. Investigators can use aspects of forensic psychology to help such witnesses recreate mental pictures of incidents to help retrieve important clues. Therefore, forensic interviewing is the ideal scientific methodology for investigators in this scenario.
Theoretical Framework
Typically investigations conducted by Child Protective Services (CPS) begin with a forensic interview. This method creates proof that will result in criminal charges if the inquiry results in prosecution in conjunction with the information required to determine if a crime has occurred. According to research, forensic psychologists should conduct ethical interviews that adhere to the law by ensuring the interviewers neutrality, using non-leading approaches, and prioritizing meticulous interview documentation (Powell et al., 2017). In addition, the victims testimony is crucial evidence in child cruelty trials since most offenders refute the abuse, and the majority of abusive actions are not seen.
The expert must conduct regulated forensic interviews to guarantee that evidence is acquired in a manner that is admissible in court. The comments and body language of witnesses must be impartial, and alternate reasons for their testimonies must be extensively investigated. The psychologist should not be aggressive or pushy, for instance, while interacting with witnesses who claim to identify the man but not the girl. Moreover, evidence suggests that properly recorded interview findings may withstand legal examination (ODonohue, 2021). Using these findings, the forensic psychologist may build evidence-based techniques and deliver successful client services.
Overall, the lack of trustworthiness of eyewitness statements has prompted academics to strive to improve retrieval techniques. Among these methods is the cognitive interview (CI) is one of these approaches. The CI is a method by the detectives to elicit more information concerning a crime scene from witnesses and the victim. The CI was created by Geiselman et al. (1985) as a substitute for the Standard Interview (Fisher & Geiselman, 2019). It considers cognitive insights regarding cue-dependent forgetfulness and consists of four steps to trigger many indicators to maximize multiple retrieval pathways.
Stage 1: Restate the context.
Stage 2: Recalling events in reverse chronological sequence
Stage 3: Give every detail they can recall
Stage 4: Explain events from another persons perspective
Since human memories are comprised of a web of connections instead of separate and unrelated experiences, several methods exist to retrieve them. The CI takes advantage of this by employing several retrieval techniques (Fisher & Geiselman, 2019). The forensic psychologist can use this method to interview the witnesses. The cognitive interview can complement forensic interviewing to ensure that the investigator retrieves adequate and reliable information from the witnesses. Both techniques can be crucial when interviewing the 12 patrons who provided differing racial descriptions of the suspect.
Recommendations for Best Practices in Forensic Interviewing
Forensic psychologists recognize that the circumstances that lead to psychic examinations of people engaged in legal procedures may affect their behavior in several critical ways, notably their capacity to comprehend and agree to the assessment process. For example, in the case, 15 witnesses stated that the sketch resembled the man they saw with the girl, yet only three could positively identify her. This should indicate that the witnesses are not being truthful with the psychologist. Thus, the witnesses should be reminded that the girl could have been anyones child, and with the suspect still at large, there is no certainty of whose child will be next. This way, they will be encouraged to provide as much descriptive information as possible.
The methodologies and processes of forensic professionals are intricate and cannot be correctly predicted by those who get forensic assistance. Therefore, the forensic psychologist must advise the patrons of the scope and boundaries of the assistance rendered. They should be promptly notified of the type and scope of realistically expected forensic assistance. For example, informing that their assistance will be required beyond interviews and may require them to attend the actual criminal trial if the suspect is arrested.
Further, considerable rights, freedoms, and assets are frequently at stake in forensic issues. Accordingly, the forensic psychologist may encounter patrons who have been judged or assumed by law to be incapable of providing informed consent for the expected interview. In such situations, the forensic expert must obtain authorization from a lawfully recognized individual, as allowed or needed by regulations (Gredecki & Turner, 2022). The forensic psychologist should carefully examine whether it is acceptable to perform a forensic examination of a person not accompanied by a lawyer, given the substantial rights that could be disputed in a judicial case. Forensic examiners can contemplate doing such assessments or postponing them to allow the clients to confer with an attorney.
Determining the Clients Level of Cognition
To demonstrate a persons competence, the prosecutors will benefit from completing a thorough evaluation of a witnesss trustworthiness. This will assist the prosecution in responding to competency concerns. The first interview should determine whether the youngster or anyone with low mental ability understands the obligation to speak the truth (Gredecki & Turner, 2022). Next, parents, caretakers, instructors, or physicians who know the person and can testify to their mental capabilities and competence to grasp questions and express responses must be interviewed to determine the witnesss competence history. Interviewing toddlers and individuals with limited mental ability is a sensitive and time-consuming procedure. They should be performed in a way appropriate to the witnesss level of maturity and organized using non-leading queries to generate responses (Melinder et al., 2020). When practicable, detectives with specific interviewing expertise should be used.
Conclusion
Asking a possible victim or a possible eyewitness, What happened here? may suffice for the initial field interrogation at the site of an incident. Essentially, it demonstrates that the investigator is not basing their investigation on what is immediately evident to them. Individuals given these questions are encouraged to provide their interpretation of the occurrence. Thus, forensic interviewing is the best method in the absence of hard evidence.
References
Durrant, R. (2018). An introduction to criminal psychology. Routledge.
Fisher, R. P., & Geiselman, R. E. (2019). Expanding the cognitive interview to non-criminal investigations. In J. J. Dickinson, N. S. Compo, R. N. Carol, B. L. Schwartz, & M. R. McCauley (Eds.), Evidence-based investigative interviewing: Applying cognitive principles (pp. 128). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group. Web.
Gredecki, N., & Turner, P. (2022). Forensic psychology. Routledge
ODonohue, W. (2021). A Forensic Interview Protocol for Adult Sexual Assault: Content Validity and Consumer Acceptability. International journal of psychology and psychological therapy, 21(2), 133-147. Web.
To assess the risk of Wildfire Forensic, it seems appropriate to define it. Wildfire is a spontaneous and uncontrolled spread of fire. Causes of fires in the forest or any other open area could be divided into natural and man-made (Corbitt-Dipierro, 2012).
The most common natural causes of large forest fires on Earth are usually lightning. Sometimes, dimensions of fires enable their observation even from space. Assessments of wildfire risk are critical for informing the development and implementation of cost-effective risk mitigation efforts, and comparative risk assessment can be used as a basis to evaluate different treatment alternatives , state Scott, Thompson, and Calkin (2013, 3). According to wildfire investigator Rob Erasmus, chaotic though wildfires appear, they obey the laws of nature and burn in accordingly recognizable if complex patterns among which wind strength, vegetation type, and temperature might be (Rose-Innes, 2015, para. 8).
Assessing the risk of Wildfire Forensic, it is important to establish the levels of disruption resource unavailability. Thus, the following situation emerges personnel 2, building structure 5, building access 5, building contents 5, IT services 5, utility services -5, community resources 1. One may note that almost all the components are of a very high level while community resources are placed on a very low one. This situation is caused due to the very nature of the wildfire that burns everything on its way leaving people without critical services such as loss of police, fire, and emergency medical service along with loss of communication.
It is also necessary to determine the risk prioritization by risk measure. By Engemann and Henderson, the fire has a serious impact (3) and probability classification (2) creating in total 18 points of risk evaluation (2012). Lack of security measures, intentional release of, or exposure to, hazardous materials, or equipment failure might become a reason for Wildfire Forensic. As a result of this disaster, a huge amount of land burns every year. For a short period, the flame destroys millions of hectares of natural land. Wildfire burns out entire villages, towns killing people and animals. Whatever the causes of inflammation, the atmosphere is filled with dark masses dangerous due to their structure of carbon monoxide and gases and nitrous oxide. These emissions are equal to the processing of burnt oil.
In conclusion, it should be stressed that Wildfire Forensic presents a significant risk that might cause appalling and intractable consequences.
Engemann, K. J., & Henderson, D. M. (2012). Business continuity and risk management: Essentials of organizational resilience. Brookfield, CT: Rothstein Associates. Web.
Scott, J. H., Thompson, M. P., & Calkin, D. E. (2013). A wildfire risk assessment framework for land and resource management. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. Web.
There is absolutely no dought that technological advancements have made human beings to work more easily. One area that has benefited immensely from new technological advancements is the area of crime investigations.
The use of scientific methods and techniques in investigations and gathering of evidence in crimes has increased in popularity allover the world because of its reliability and high degree of accuracy.
These forensic methods have made court processes much easier and faster due to the fact that evidence can now be gathered more easily. Forensic science experts invent new forensic methods each and every day to make criminal investigations easier and faster.
The murder of Leanne Tiernan in the year 2000 and the discovery of her body nine months later sparked the forensic Science Service (FSS) experts into action as reported by Fred (2006).The case was so complex that (FSS) experts from different forensic fields were called upon to dig out concrete and substantial evidence that would aid in the case proceedings (Fred, 2006).
After the discovery of Leannes body nine months after her disappearance, a serious police investigation was launched by West Yorkshire police (Fred, 2006) .The FSS experts who had been drafted into the murder investigations immediately began the most complicated process of gathering forensic evidence for this case.
At this point, they had managed to link a suspect known as John Tailor to this murder crime. According to Fred (2006), Leannes body had been discovered lying in the forest. According to Fred (2006), some items were collected from the scene that would help the forensic experts in their investigations.
The FSS scientists suffered a setback in the initial stages of their investigations because they could neither obtain the DNA profile nor fingerprint as they had earlier thought due to the contaminated nature of Leannes body (Fred, 2006).
According to Aticlesbase (2008), The DNA profiling is a chemical process that is very elaborate and advanced in which the fingerprint of a person is matched with that from a selected sample for identification purposes .DNA profiling is an advanced modern science that has been proved to give clear identity (Articlesbase,2008).
According to Forensic Science Service (2008), Leannes body was contaminated and all the tests done for DNA profiling failed. This failures made the FSS scientists to conduct mitochondrial DNA testing ,analysis of fibers and twine and even dog DNA testing( Forensic Science Service,2008).
All this efforts were aimed at finding the slightest possible clue that would lead them to the girls killer. The FSS experts concentrated their efforts in gathering forensic evidence the would lead them to the offender (Fred, 2006). These concerted efforts led them to the supplier of the dog collar and cable ties as the key suspect in the case.
According to Fred (2006), the police identified a man called John Tailor and linked him to the murder of Leanne. Detailed forensic investigations had been carried out and substantial evidence was available to prosecute him. The scarf, twine and carpet fibers recovered from Leannes jumper helped the police a great deal in their investigations (Fred, 2006).
Fred (2006) reported that the Lean had a scarf tied around her neck and some hairs were trapped in the knot. Several tests were done on these hairs and failed to bear any fruits forcing the experts to extract a sample from the hair shafts and carryout DNA profiling on them (Explosive Forensics, 2011).
The DNA profile obtained matched Taylor the suspect (Explosive Forensics, 2011). The unusual composition in the twine found at the scene generated some interest. The experts examined the twine found at Taylors home and the results revealed that it completely matched the one found at the scene (Fred, 2006). This information was found from a manufacturer in Devon who was cooperative in giving out the twine details (Fred, 2006).
According to Explosive Forensics (2011), the red nylon carpet fibers recovered from Leannes jumper were carefully examined and the experts found out that there was a clear distinction in the fibers because their dying was quite unusual.
The FSS experts later examined the carpet fibers that belonged to Taylor and a match was evident despite Tailor tying to burn them (Fred, 2006). Some hairs were found on Leannes body and it is believed that the hairs were from a dog. The scientists took a sample of the hairs for DNA profiling (Explosive Forensics, 2011).
According to Fred (2006), the forensic experts managed to obtain a partial DNA profile of the dog hairs found at the scene. The DNA profile results from the dog hairs obtained did not help and the effort proved futile because the experts found out that the dog Tailor owned at the time Leanne was reported missing had already died (Fred, 2006).
This could have changed the direction of this case because this was a clear weakness. Although Tailor admitted to have committed the crimes leveled against him of murder and abduction, he would have appealed this case (Fred, 2006).
Despite enjoying great success, DNA profiling has its limitations (Beta Health Channel, 2010). The process has got various shortcomings and the technology can give incorrect results due to errors arising from contamination of samples. According to Beta Health Channel (2010), some DNA profiling technologies are old and can lead to errors in results are prone to errors.
A DNA profile only offers some percentage of accuracy and the results are not always certain. According to Beta Health Channel (2010), the most crucial problem associated with this technology is that it is vulnerable to exploitation.
Companies that have access to a persons DNA profile information can use it for wrong reasons (Beta Health Channe, 2010). DNA profile information stored computers can be stolen at any time increasing the risk of manipulation (Beta Health Channel, 2010). Holding a persons DNA status is not acceptable as it adds up to a violation of their rights. DNA evidence can easily be planted at a crime scene to set up an innocent person or to distort evidence (Beta Health Channel, 2010).
In conclusion, forensic science criminal investigation methods are still very important in helping the police in their investigations. Forensic laboratories are very expensive to equip and governments should allocate more funds to this department. We can only get better and more accurate results if modern forensic technologies that have high degrees of accuracy are used.
Governments should also put in place proper legislation to reduce the possibility of forensic information being manipulated by some people. Despite the challenges forensic criminal investigation faces, it still remains the most popular evidence collection method around the world.
References
Articlesbase. (2008). DNA profiling a forensic tool. Web.
Computer security and data safety have become the stepping stone for most organizations and individuals. In general data protection and informational safety require increased attention and awareness of the users. Forensic software may be used for various aims, however, the key functionality range is closely linked with data safety, though, these may be used either to protect or to harm the data stored. The key aim of the paper is to analyze the forensic software tools available and, give a detailed description of the functionality range for each software tool or tool pack.
Penguin Sleuth Forensic
This software tool pack is the extended edition for WinHex codes. This involves numerous features that involve various analysis tools, disk editing software pack with lots of useful features and functions. The software is suitable for a range of file systems such as FAT, FAT32, NTFS, Linux Swap, and Raiser FS. Additional tools are Bates-numbering files, picture gallery creation and checking, file preview, and calendar functions for scheduling and planning tasks. The key functional value of this software is the opportunity for low-level disk monitoring and the opportunity of cloning.
Method
The method that is implemented in the Penguin Sleuth software tool pack presupposes bite-by-bite file analysis. On the one hand, this requires more time for analysis in comparison with other tools. On the other hand, this provides better analysis especially if the type of file is unknown. Moreover, this analysis type is more reliable for a low-level disk analysis. (Sturgeon, 2008)
Because Penguin Sleuth Kit is a bootable CD pack, hence, it provides an opportunity to reach every file which may be blocked after system startup. This software pack is aimed at adapting Linux resources to perform a forensic analysis of the entire system and providing effective Security Auditing measures.
How It Works
Penguin Sleuth Kit is aimed at working with various Linux models that are based on different principles of system file arrangement. In general, the key feature of Penguin Sleuth is the opportunity to examine an offenders computer without leaving any evidence of examination: no data of examination is left on the hard drive. Moreover, it provides an opportunity to view and check multiple operating systems without any complications. The specification of the development presupposes that the pack may be run on Debian and Linux versions, as well as some desktop environments. It is used with OpenOffice.org, AbiWord, The Gimp, Konqueror, Mozilla. The default environment is KDE, which may be used with Gnome and several other environments. (Virtual Appliances, 2010)
Where Obtained
This software tool is free and may be obtained from the official Penguin Sleuth. Web.
Additionally several mirrors may be available, however, it should be emphasized that the software pack is free, and distributed without any restrictions. The version that was used for the analysis was downloaded using p-2-p network.
Author and Company
Penguin Sleuth Kit was created by Klaus Knopper, who works for Knoppix Linux distribution. (Cosgrove, Robi and Rismann, 2009)
Size
Archived version needs only 700 MB of disk space.
Functionality
The principle of its work presupposes searching files all through the system without interrupting the order of files. Hence, it may search files in accordance with the key word and in specific formats, browse internet history, search in recycle, temp files, favorites etc. As for the deleted files, it should be stated that the system generally does not delete files, however, it removes references for the file, so, the other information may be recorded to this place. Considering the fact that low-level structure involves this information (or part of it) until the disk is formatted, Penguin Sleuth may restore and review these deleted files. Actually, there is no need to extend the functionality by adding supplementary programs, however, it may be repacked by volunteers, as this is the open source project.
Screen Shots
File Search and analysis
The system analyzes files independently of its extension, and defines the bit structure which differs in accordance with the file purposes.
Search ResultsImage Gallery Creation
Actually, it is hard to evaluate software packs by reviewing their screenshots, however, the results that may be made in accordance with the offered screenshots are that the software is effective for searching files and analyzing the bit structure of files found. (Baca 2010) Picture gallery is not too effective, as it may be used only during the session. Forensic options of the tool presuppose effective and quick analysis of the files available, and provide the extended range of options associated with the matters of checking files for security (virus and worm check), availability and presence of the necessary system files, assessment of file browsing history and internet browsing history for checking whether prohibited files and sites were opened. (Baca, 2010)
As for the usage difficulty, it requires some knowledge of system structure and file origins, as extended analysis requires awareness on the matters of bit structure. This is of particular importance when renamed, deleted or files with changed extension are analyzed. Hence, the tool is not for wide usage, and may not be applied by inexperienced users.
Advantages and Disadvantages
The pack is intended for extensive file and system analysis using boot CD. This technology is helpful for analyzing the shutdown system when all the system files are available and not blocked by system processes. Additionally, the software tool is effective for analyzing various types of files, as the actual importance of forensic analysis is confirming the availability of files of particular origin.
The key advantage of the kit is that the project in general is open source, and it may be extended or repacked depending on the requirements of any user. Considering the nature of Linux environment malware is ineffective for these software packs, however, in order to avoid any harm, the kit may be downloaded from the official site.
The disadvantages are not evident: it is impossible to create search and analysis profiles, as the system does not have any operative space, and does not have an opportunity to leave anything on the hard drive or any other storage.
Project Executive Summary
The project itself is reliable and effective for file and system analysis, however, the target audience of the tool pack is essentially restricted. In general, this may be used or searching files of a particular contents, and this search is performed not only among the open and unrestricted files, but also among deleted and hidden files. The opportunities of this system are immense, and the functionality is wide enough, however, user needs to have essential experience with nix system operations, as Penguin Sleuth software pack is not intended for inexperienced user.
Reference List
Baca, E (2010) The Penguin Sleuth Kit. penguinsleuth.org. Web.
Baca, E. (2010) Kicking it up a notch!!!! New PSK Plans. Penguin Sleuth. The Ultimate Computer Forensics and Security Platform. Web.
Cosgrove, J., Robi, E., & Rismann, D. (2009). Should Experts Also Be Private Investigators?. The Forensic Examiner, 15(3), 7.
Sturgeon, J. (2008). CSI: Hard Drive Hate Groups, Terrorist Activity, Pimping. A Day in the Life of Local Law Enforcement? No, Just a Routine Sweep of School Computers. Digital Forensic Technology Is Uncovering the Bad, Sometimes Criminal Behavior Students and Faculty Are Guilty Of. T H E Journal (Technological Horizons In Education), 35(1), 22
Virtual Appliances (2010) Penguin Sleuth Computer Forensics and Security Appliance for incident response and Testing. VMWare. Web.
Gas chromatography (GC) is a technique used to separate volatile components of a complex mixture. The method employs a column made of a flow-through narrow tube in which a sample containing various chemical components passes in a gas stream. The gas stream in chromatography is referred to as a mobile phase. The different components in the gas stream interact with a certain column filling referred to as a stationary phase depending on their chemical and physical characteristics.
The individual chemicals are then detected and identified electronically as they exit the column. Different parameters are employed to ensure the successful separation of exiting gases at different retention times. This includes the nature of the stationary phase, carrier gas flow rate, temperature, and column length. The use of gas chromatography in forensic applications has gained popularity mainly due to the versatility, reliability, and sensitivity of the technique. In crime laboratories, gas chromatography, together with other models like mass spectrometry and infrared spectroscopy, has helped solve unique crime-related problems (Amirav, Gordin, Poliak, Alon & Fialkov, 2008).
It is easy to use and has simple instrumentation and automation that allows for easy interpretation of data. This means that the technique will continue to be used for some time. The focus of this paper will be on the role of gas chromatography within forensic applications. The essay will elaborate on the analytical approaches used the challenges faced and some of the current solutions.
Forensic science encompasses many fields of science and creates a connection between their applications and law. In most cases, it entails using chemistry and related science principles to the examination of physical evidence obtained from analyzing samples collected from crime scenes (Houck & Siegel, 2010). The information is then interpreted by forensic experts and can be used as part of the evidence in a court of law. However, gas chromatography is not applicable in all forensic analyses. The most common areas of application include toxicological analyses in blood and drug abuse. The technique is also widely applied in criminalistics that includes analysis of explosives, trace evidence of fibers, paints and other polymers and debris from fire scenes (Bogusz, 2008).
Analytical Approaches Used
In almost all forensic applications of gas chromatography, the sample under study is prepared by dissolving it in a suitable solvent. The formed solution is then introduced into the chromatograph instrument by use of a syringe. The analysis of a suspected compound is carried out by the use of a comparative substance known as a standard. For instance, to analyze a sample suspected to be a drug such as hashish, a small ration is dissolved in an appropriate solvent such as methanol, chloroform, or methylene chloride (Barry & Grob, 2004). The sample is then introduced into the heated injector port of the chromatogram instrument.
The carrier gas, which in most cases is helium, nitrogen, or hydrogen constituting the mobile phase, is also introduced into the injector port. The liquid sample introduced is volatilized due to the high temperature in the port. The carrier gas carries with it the volatilized sample. In addition, this gas introduces its sample into the stationary phase where chromatographic separation occurs. The sample under analysis, hashish, emerges from the column in a certain retention time. This is then compared to the known standard of the sample under analysis. One can positively identify the compound under study if it is part of the introduced sample by studying the retention time and the information recorded on the electronic detector (Scheig, 1970).
When the compound of analysis is solid and cannot easily dissolve in conventional solvents, an alternative approach known as pyrolysis is employed. Here, the solid sample is introduced to high temperatures until it decomposes into a gaseous substance. This is most commonly used for products such as polymeric fibers and paint chips collected from crime scenes. The gaseous state of the compound can now then be introduced into a gaseous chromatography column. Gas chromatography employs the use of various detectors. However, the most commonly used detector in the field of forensic science is mass spectrometry, nitrogen-phosphorus, and flame ionization (Bell, Fisher & Shaler, 2008).
The mass spectrometry detector can give a definitive identity of compounds under study, as well as accurately determine the sample quantity. This meant that the detector was most preferred in the majority of forensic applications. A flame ionization detector is mostly applicable in determining samples related to arson cases mainly due to its increased sensitivity to hydrocarbons. In almost all incidents of arson cases, the accelerants have hydrocarbons as the primary constituent (Muller, Levy & Shelef, 2011).
On the other hand, Nitrogen-Phosphorus Detectors are mostly used in toxicological tests and drug analysis. The gas chromatography technique is preferred over other methods in forensic applications. This is because it can accurately provide information on the actual identity of the compound if the appropriate standard is used. This qualitative information is vital particularly in cases of complex criminal investigations. The capability of the technique to provide quantitative data concerning a sample is vital. This is especially in toxicological studies where such information can be used by physicians while making necessary recommendations on an intoxicated patient.
This is also important in drug analysis studies where gas chromatography helps accurately determine the quantities of the different components making up a sample. In such cases, the technique is used to detect whether the compound under analysis is pure for instance in drug syndicate incidents, and this can provide vital evidence for use in a criminal case. Gas chromatography can facilitate the formulation of a chemical identity or signature of the compound under study by utilizing a minute sample collected as evidence in a criminal case (Savchuk, Barsegyan, Barsegyan & Kolesov, 2008).
Interpreting the data from the gas chromatography analysis is one of the most important steps. This leads to the gas chromatography instrument being connected to the detector. The connection between gas chromatography and a mass spectrometer is the most common of these combinations. The mass spectrometer facilitates the performance of a full scan or a selected ion monitoring with modern GC-MS instruments performing such functions concurrently or separately. The spectrum generated offers a guide on the concentration of the sample under analysis. The spectrum gives analytical information in both original and comparative formats (de Vos et al, 2011).
The information can be relayed in two ways. In one way, the spectrum generated is compared with a library of earlier studied spectra that serve as standards. Computers are now a days used to give accurate information by displaying the data on the spectrum scales that are easily readable in digital displays. Computer programs have been developed that can simultaneously correlate data such as between retention times. The other method involves measuring the peaks of another.
The peaks are assigned different values and are associated with different chemical or physical characteristics of the different compounds. Selective ion monitoring entails monitoring only the peaks that are closely associated with the suspected analyte. This is based on the knowledge that related ions such as isotopes will have almost similar or closely related retention times (Mühlen & Marriott, 2012). The methods have been in use within forensic applications, and the results obtained were found reliable and efficient.
An example of the application of gas chromatography is in the analysis of body fluids. This is attributed to the ability of the technique to give accurate results when analyzing non-polar compounds. In analyzing blood samples such as serum or plasma, the technique can easily detect psycho-pharmaceuticals found in the blood in detectable amounts (Varlet, De, Croutte, Augsburger & Mangin, 2012).
For urine to be analyzed through gas chromatography, it requires to undergo derivatization since it contains a myriad of polar metabolites. In such analysis, a comprehensive screening protocol is required to ensure the sample is well prepared. For products such as the urine sample, derivatization improves the quality of detection especially for compounds containing hydroxyl and amino end groups such as phenols, amines, and imines (Halket & Zaikin, 2006). Use of solvent extraction methods that utilize compounds such as butyl acetate and butyl chloride help in fractionating the basic, neutral and acidic drug compounds. These can then be readily introduced into the gas chromatography equipment for analysis. With such a preparation procedure, the technique can record high levels of accuracy in detection (Casale, Colley & LeGatt, 2012).
The application of gas chromatography in criminal forensics has gained a lot of interest in America. There is the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM), which carries out analysis on fire debris in arson suspect scenes. ASTM utilizes the gas chromatography technique for detection and identification. Detection of illegal narcotics and poison detection in toxicological analysis in biological specimens today largely employs gas chromatography owing to its high level of accuracy. Security systems in many nations are employing GC-MS technology in detecting explosives especially in airports (Cook, LaPuma, Hook & Eckenrode, 2010). Medical detectives employ GC-MS techniques to analyze metabolic and congenital disorders in a myriad screening test as well as in crime scene analyses (Watterson & Desrosiers, 2011).
Diagram showing a typical spectrum of human plasma analysis by gas chromatography.Diagram showing a gas chromatogram spectrum representation of PI and THPI metabolites in a human urine sample.
Challenges Faced when using Gas Chromatography
The major shortcomings associated with gas chromatography include a poor performance by the GC screen. Since the instrument requires heat to allow volatilization of analytical compounds, the method may not be applicable in the analysis of some thermally labile components. The temperature of the heat must also be within acceptable ranges as it can affect the performance of column packing. In other cases, some analytes are adsorbed irreversibly into the chromatographic system.
This makes analysis a complex and time-consuming process. The system can analyze complex mixtures, and this leads to a shortcoming in the ability to ensure the system is functioning optimally and generating accurate results (Stauffer, Dolan & Newman, 2008). When the gas chromatography uses a Nitrogen Phosphorus detector, it cannot give accurate results when putrid analytes are introduced. These products in most cases contain organic bases which when in high concentrations are known to affect the performance of a Nitrogen-Phosphorus detector rendering the technique ineffective. The gas chromatography machine is expensive. Furthermore, its operation requires expertise training increasing the cost of its use. The system is also slower in sample analysis as compared to other chromatography techniques (Burleson, Gonzalez, Simons & Yu, 2009).
Current Solutions
The challenges encountered when working with the gas chromatography technique in forensic applications emanate from sample preparation methodology, the physical and functional parameters of the GC equipment, and the interpretation of results. Highly selective methods, targeting one or few analytes, are in application today to overcome the problems in the error-prone sample preparation stage (Moroni et al, 2010).
New solvents, membranes, and columns have been designed to increase efficiency. The use of the online preparation stage allows automation and system integration to ensure the preparation of the analyte and result generation is matched (Koning, Janssen & Brinkman, 2009). The GC instrument parts have been undergoing modifications in line with modern-day inventions to increase efficiency. One part targeted is the column with the length and breadth undergoing changes to decrease the time for analysis. Shorter columns have been found to reduce analysis time to increase efficiency. Adjustments in column temperature based on theoretical research data have informed the development of efficient GC equipment.
The gas chromatography equipment in use today has undergone many changes including automation. The computer-controlled equipment generates real-time accurate data displayed on computer screens. This is a major shift from earlier models that depended on the visual acuity of the expert to interpret data. Of course, this method was prone to deviations due to human and parallax errors (MasÇtovska´ & Lehotay, 2005).
Conclusion
The use of gas chromatography in forensic applications has greatly transformed the field of forensic sciences. The accuracy and efficiency of the technique have informed its widespread use in applications such as toxicological tests, analysis of explosives, trace evidence of fibers, paints and other polymers, and debris from fire scenes. However, the technique faces some technical challenges that may affect the accuracy of results. Nevertheless, advancements in research and technology have enabled continued adjustments to increase the efficiency and accuracy of the technique, and as evidence shows, the role of GC within forensic applications remains relevant.
Reference List
Amirav, A, Gordin, A, Poliak, M, Alon, T and Fialkov, AB 2008, Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry with Supersonic Molecular Beams, Journal of Mass Spectrometry 43: 141163.
Barry, EF & Grob, RL, 2004, Modern practice of gas chromatography, Wiley-Interscience, Hoboken, NJ.
Bell, S, Fisher, BAJ & Shaler, RC 2008, Encyclopedia of forensic science, Facts On File, New York, NY.
Berthet, A, Bouchard, M, Schüpfer, P, Vernez, D, Danuser, B & Huynh, C 2011, Gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC/APCI-MS/MS) methods for the quantification of captan and folpet phthalimide metabolites in human plasma and urine. Analytical & Bioanalytical Chemistry, 399(6), 2243-2255.
Burleson, G, Gonzalez, B, Simons, K & Yu, J 2009, Forensic analysis of a single particle of partially burnt gunpowder by solid phase micro-extractiongas chromatography-nitrogen phosphorus detector, Journal of Chromatography A, 1216, 22, pp. 4679-4683.
Casale, J, Colley, V, & LeGatt, D 2012, Determination of Phenyltetrahydroimidazothiazole Enantiomers (Levamisole/Dexamisole) in Illicit Cocaine Seizures and in the Urine of Cocaine Abusers via Chiral Capillary Gas Chromatography-Flame-Ionization Detection: Clinical and Forensic Perspectives, Journal Of Analytical Toxicology, 36, 2, pp. 130-135.
Cook, G, LaPuma, P, Hook, G & Eckenrode, B 2010, Using Gas Chromatography with Ion Mobility Spectrometry to Resolve Explosive Compounds in the Presence of Interferents, Journal of Forensic Sciences, 55, 6, pp. 1582-1591.
de Vos J, et al 2011, Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography time of flight mass spectrometry (GC×GC-TOFMS) for environmental forensic investigations in developing countries, Chemosphere, 82, 9, pp. 1230-1239.
Halket JM & Zaikin VG 2006, Derivatization in mass spectrometry 7. On-line derivatisation/degradation, European Journal of Mass Spectrometry 12, 1, pp. 113.
Koning S, Janssen H & Brinkman U 2009, Modern Methods of Sample Preparation for GC Analysis. Chromatographia, 69(1): 33-78.
MasÇtovska´, K & Lehotay S 2005, Practical approaches to fast gas chromatographymass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography, 1000 (1-2): 153-180.
Houck, MM & Siegel, JA 2010, Fundamentals of forensic science, Academic Press, Burlington, MA.
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Moroni, R, et al 2010, Statistical modelling of measurement errors in gas chromatographic analyses of blood alcohol content, Forensic Science International, 202, 1-3, pp. 71-74.
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Scheig, RL 1970, Gas Chromatography in Biology and Medicine, The Yale journal of biology and medicine, 43(2): 122-123.
Varlet, V, De Croutte, EL, Augsburger, M & Mangin, P 2012, Accuracy profile validation of a new method for carbon monoxide measurement in the human blood using headspace-gas chromatographymass spectrometry (HS-GCMS), Journal Of Chromatography B: Analytical Technologies In The Biomedical & Life Sciences, 880, pp. 125-131.
Stauffer, E, Dolan, JA & Newman, R 2008, Fire debris analysis, Academic Press, Boston, Mass.
Watterson, J & Desrosiers, N 2011, Examination of the effect of dose-death interval on detection of meperidine exposure in decomposed skeletal tissues using microwave-assisted extraction, Forensic Science International, 207, 1-3, pp. 40-45.
The aspects of the creation of an FRP have to be viewed in consonance with its hypothesis and payback values. The following basic outline design has to be followed in any plan of FRP for the banking industry
List of hazards that A Company could face Source of information how Judgement could be reached Is there any existing risk assessment security policy
The list of hazards could be enormous depending upon the size of the banking company and the scale of its operations. However, the following major types of hazards are being listed:
Fraudulent malpractices carried out by the banks employees in connivance with 3rd Parties or customers
Contractual disputes with customers and depositors
Email and internet misusing by bank employees
Online thefts of important bank data for fraudulent use for benefit.
5. Theft of banks confidential data through commercial espionage, etc
Theft of banking codes through software piracy
Misuse or manipulation of official bank data for private and personal use
Phishing by which customers or 3rd parties are induced to provide critical and
Confidential information to fake websites for benefits
Failure of the banks confidential computer systems such that it does not have far-reaching impacts if it is due to the failure of the inbuilt Banking security system it needs to be taken to task and set right and the necessary Officials need to be disciplined or removed. The repaired system needs to be doubly Reinforced with firewalls and other devices to prevent its recurrence (Sommer 2005).
Description of existing arrangements for managing security and unexpected incidents Status and scope of the existing disaster recovery plans- data backup facilities
The various types of hazards- evidence needed to program insurance/ legal claims and support criminal investigations
Online thefts: It is possible for unauthorized persons to access passwords, PINs, and personal details to be stolen and then illegally used by impersonators and fraudsters. Systems breakdowns: There may be a total systems failure due to malfunctioning of critical components. If alternatives are not presented, this could lead to losses running into billions of British Pounds and could affect the banks credibility.
Virus attacks: Viruses could attack the systems and cause severe damage to them. This is possible since unknown hackers could cause viruses or other forms of attacks to invade the systems. Cyber-attacks have become a major cause of concern in modern-day internet settings, especially in the banking sector. Security systems work well, but in the event of a crisis, they could be severely tested. Therefore, it becomes necessary that the security aspect is prioritized first and foremost, during the installation of the system itself. This can possibly ensure the prevention of future breakdowns. Also regular monitoring need to be conducted to make the employees acquaint with such crises and remain operationally competent and fighting fit.
Phishing is a cause of major worry in todays internet banking world. Under this system, fraudsters, posing as authentic websites, require sensitive personal details like Access Codes, Credit Card and Bank Account Numbers, etc.
(Recognize Phishing Scams and Fraudulent e-mail. 2008).
Having gained knowledge about these details, they systematically use it for illegally siphoning off funds from accounts for other fraudulent purposes. As a common practice, banks do not require customer information through e-mails and therefore, customers who part with it, do it at their own risk and responsibility. Customers stand warned that any requests to disclose sensitive personal banking information through genuine websites are hoaxes and need to be ignored and such requests are brought to the notice of responsible officials for redressals.
Important deficiencies that may arise from the above analysis
It may not be possible to immediately discover fraudulent dealings, especially if it were done externally. It is also possible that the entire premise of these illegal transactions may not be genuine and correct but without corroboration or legal acceptability, which makes it onerous to reach the real culprits. Moreover, the need for concrete evidence and factual records linking the crime with suspects needs to be made in order to achieve a breakthrough in cybercriminal cases. Unlike other crimes, cyber crimes can leave little audit trails or evidential shreds. Protocols need to be honored and maintained and the law needs to take its course, however lengthy and exasperating it may become.
What steps are necessary to remedy the identified deficiencies list such steps as additional loggings- further backups purchase of additional resources implications for staffing, training, contracting with third parties?
The customer should encrypt sensitive data from risks of misuse or criminal misrepresentation.
AVS (Anti Virus systems protectors) and also firewalls need to be linked to the Internet connections to disengage various types of viruses and cyber-attacks. The firewalls should ensure the highest security precautionary measures. Firewalls are mainly designed and operationalized to separate the internal networking segments from the internet system.
High-security data should be entered through the Encryption method.
The Banks should provide Additional Secure Access passwords to customers for ensuring the total safety of internet banking transactions.
The installation of firewalls should be subject to thorough pre-checking, inspection and evaluation prior to, during and after its installation in order to circumvent future malfunctioning.
Adequacy of existing employment contacts- staff manual- to give the employers additional investigative powers
The employment contracts served to the employees need to contain clauses that protect the company in the event of exigent circumstances arising in the future with respect to contract obligations. It is necessary that the employees need to maintain privacy and confidentiality in matters connected with the banking business, especially with regard to disclosures of customer accounts and matters connected therewith.
Further, it is also necessary that such manuals define all possible aspects enjoining the relationships between the banking company and the employee, especially with regard to ethical practices and code of conduct to be observed by the employees. In all matters connected with the bank.
Comment on the extent to which new or changed management structures might improve the organizations ability to manage incidents in which evidence may be important
Risk management is hampered by the lack of robust and reliable statistics of the nature and extent of cyber-threats, incidents and risks. (Rathmell 2002, p.12).
The main idea behind forensic research programs is to provide digital evidence to control and circumvent cyber crimes. However, it is also necessary that the surrounding environment supports and reinforces the prevention of incidents. The new or revised environments need to address the following aspects to be successful in thwarting or controlling crimes:
Definition and localization of the business setting that needs digital
The identification of obtainable sources and discrete nature of probable proofs
Establish the proof collection responsibility.
Undertake efforts to collect legally admissible evidence
Institute guidelines for protecting storage and handling of prospective data.
Make sure monitoring is focused on identifying and dissuading major incidents.
State circumstances when acceleration to a full formal inquiry (which may use the digital Evidence) should begin.
Educate staff in incident consciousness, so that all those concerned understand their role in the digital evidence process and the legal importance of evidence.
Produce an evidence-based folder describing the occurrence and its implications.
Make certain legal assessments to make possible action in reply to the incident. (Rowlingson 2004).
Conclusion
It is seen that the fundamental need for FRP is to prevent and solve cyber-related crimes and malpractices using state-of-the-art digital technology. To large extent, its success would depend upon its actual utilization in empirical situations and how best it could be fully geared with other prevalent anti-crime systems in ensuring a crime-free environment.
The accent needs to be more on the pre-emptive side since this is a difficult proposition entailing both awareness and execution of plans, policies and procedures. It is also necessary to keep pace with the latest developments and deployment of technology since the hue and variants of cybercrimes are evolving with each passing day and FRP could be rendered obsolete and effective if it did not equip itself to meet modern challenges posed by criminals in the 21st century.
The scientific method is the steps used to ask questions and develop sufficient data to answer the question. The scientific method provides steps in which to follow when testing a hypothesis or theory. The researcher through his and her, standardized steps they can observe, and developed a hypothesis or theory, and answers can be found. Forensic science applies science helps to developing evidence that help in civil or criminal cases. Forensic science comes in many disciplines each applying the scientific method to developing evidence that will point to the guilt or the innocence of the criminal offender in question, this helps in curtailing the humanistic aspects of prejudice and bias during the consideration of the set theories and hypothesis.
In the past, the scientific method, a time-honored approach for discovering and testing scientific truth, does not and cannot work for the forensic sciences in its standard form because it does not work for past events. However, under careful consideration and slight modifications, the scientific methods are now used in forensic science and incorporated into the criminal investigation science (Becker, 2009).
The scientific method is comprised of four steps:
observation and description of a phenomenon or group of phenomena;
formulation of a hypothesis (or hypotheses) to explain the phenomena;
use of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena, or to predict quantitatively the results of new observations; and
performance of experimental tests of the predictions by several independent experimenters.” (Wolfs, 2007, 3.)
Observation and Description of A Phenomenon Or A Group Of Phenomena
The first step involved in the scientific method is the observation and description of a phenomenon or a group of phenomena. The forensic examiner must observe an incident or situation. How this scientific method step relates to forensic science would be, for example, in a crime scene investigation involving ballistics. The observation would be of a bullet impression in an environment. Perhaps the defense in the case would rise in their legal argument that the defendant could not possibly have murdered the victim given the point of entry and point of exit wounds or the type of bullet involved. The forensic examiner on the case may have the responsibility of disputing this claim. Forensic ballistic examination in criminal cases is not limited solely to ballistics, rather encompasses bloodstain pattern analysis as well involving projectile. The following paragraph will discuss the formulation of a hypothesis.
Formulation of A Hypothesis (Or Hypotheses) To Explain the Phenomena
The second step involved in the scientific method is the formulation of a hypothesis (or hypotheses to explain the phenomena. Essentially, this is the framing of a question or theory around the incident. Perhaps there is a particular firearm in question or perhaps the firearm is undetermined at this juncture. The forensic examiner would then determine whether or not the bullet came from a particular gun in question. Tool mark and firearm examinations would be conducted to determine, consisting of analysis of ammunition, tool mark and firearm evidence, to establish whether the weapon in question was employed during the commission of the crime in question. Trajectory paths would also be examined to conduct the bullet’s route. The following paragraph will discuss the usage of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena or to quantitatively predict new observation results.
Use of The Hypothesis to Predict The Existence Of Other Phenomena, Or To Predict Quantitatively The Results Of New Observations
The third step involved in the scientific method is the use of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena, or to predict quantitatively the results of new observations. The hypothesis is the “tentative answer to the question: a testable explanation for what was observed.” (Carter, 1996, 13.) The forensic examiner or scientist attempts to explain what has been observed. This cause and effect relationship, the hypothesis is the possible cause, while the observation is the effect. This is not to be confused with a generalization, as a generalization is based on inductive reasoning. The hypothesis is the potential account for the observation. (Carter, 1996, 15.) Forensic scientists and all scientists in general:
“build on the work of previous researchers, and one important part of any good research is to first do a literature review to find out what previous research has already been done in the field. Science is a process — new things are being discovered and old, long-held theories are modified or replaced with better ones as more data/knowledge is accumulated.” (Carter, 1996, 19.)
Science is a continually evolving discipline involving ongoing research. Oftentimes experts have presented erroneous opinions, which must be challenged. The following paragraph will discuss the importance of experimental tests conducted by several independent experimenters.
Performance of Experimental Tests of The Predictions By Several Independent Experimenters
The fourth and final step involved in the scientific method is the performance of experimental tests of the predictions by several independent experimenters. This aspect actually denotes whether or not the hypothesis is supported by the results. Once the experimentation has been conducted and predicted results achieved, the hypothesis is reflected to be plausible. The experiment must be a controlled experiment performed by several independent experimenters. The forensic examiners, scientists must “contrast an ‘experimental group’ with a ‘control group.’” (Carter, 1996, 15.) The replication aspect, several experiments, is critical. The experimentation should be attempted various times on various subjects. This is imperative to determine that a result is not simply coincidental, rather intended, and certain.
Forensics science is critical in the application to law and legal questions as justice is hinging on steadfast and accurate results. Fortunately, science and technology have vastly improved in recent years to reduce the number of erroneous indictments and convictions for the innocent. Likewise, this discipline is reaching perfection in that an offender or culprit is almost certain to be apprehended given the likelihood that minute strands of trace evidence is almost always located at the scene of a crime.
Striving for excellence is oftentimes accompanied by adversity, as in Galileo’s stance; according to Bergman, “the actual threat of Galileo to his contemporary scientists was less his position on heliocentricity than his insistence on observation, research, and experimentation to determine reality. It was for this reason that G. A. Magnini, an eminent astronomy professor at Bologna, openly declared that Galileo’s observations, which indicated that Jupiter had satellites, and must be incorrect. Although the scientific revolution emerged gradually, and many of Galileo’s ideas can be traced to before the thirteenth century, Galileo openly challenged the whole system of determining truth that existed then, and therein lay most of his problems” (Bergman, 2004, 20.)
Conclusion
This essay has discussed the four steps of the scientific method in relationship to forensic science, providing examples of how each step is incorporated into the process during a criminal investigation. The accuracy of the findings of forensic examination is critical in the public’s reliance and the credibility of the criminal justice process. It is important that evidence is not compromised for these experts to perform their craft with conviction.
References
Bergman, J. (2004). The Great Galileo Myth. Retrieved February 3, 2008, from A.D.A.M. Web site: http://www.adam.com.au/bstett/ReligGalileoMyth95.htm
Becker, R. F. (2009). Criminal Investigation. Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning
Carter, J. (1996). The Scientific Method. Retrieved February 3, 2008, from University of Cincinnati Web site: http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio104/sci_meth.htm
Wolfs, F. (2007). Appendix E. Introduction to the Scientific Method. Retrieved February 3, 2008, from University of Rochester Web site: http://teacher.nsrl.rochester.edu/phy_labs/AppendixE/AppendixE.html
When a crime has been committed the factor of handwriting, fingerprints, and DNA are used in a process which looks to confirm the identity of an individual and a link between the crime scene and origin of reference. Element traces like fingerprint contribute to a criminal investigation in the form of methodological or scientific indication through different procedures. The first step is called identification that determines what is at the crime scene, bullet deposit, blood and/or hair. After that is found, classification would try to link the traces to something that could have been used in the making of the crime scene. When the object or specific collection is found, the physical evidence is linked to the person who participated in the crime scene. The last process if to find out why the crime happened in the first place. These all play into the process of creating the crime scene and solving the case to catch the perpetrator
A fingerprint mark or handwriting are so vast that it is unlikely to find the exact match to one individual. It can be inferred that the print or of written text would be similar among multiple people that would be extremely hard to pin point it to one person. From this likelihood and the fact that society in general cannot be excluded this would complicate the third process of individualism which would lead to one of the theories from Karl Popper of white swans: We can’t conclude that all swans are white unless we have been able to examine all swans (Popper 1959). This can determine that the finger print or handwriting is shared among numerous people. Popper’s theories search for the truth in science, the answer cannot conclusively be found within inductive reasoning. “What we are trying to do in science is to describe and (as much as possible) to explain the reality. We do it using conjectural theories, i.e. theories that we hope are true (or close to the truth), but it is not possible for us to establish that they are certain, or even probable” (Popper, 1991, p. 94).
Induction is the process of being constructed from a narrow or broad interpretation based from a limited source of information. A person uses an assortment of evidence expanded through time and knowledge and uses it to form a conclusion from the given facts. This basically means the interpretations might turn out to be true but since the information provided is limited, the conclusion could be false. In an attempt to overcome the induction problem in traditional forensic classification, it is trusted on the differences between numerous characteristics. For example, firearms of a cert Deductive reasoning skills are useful in scientific investigations. Deductive reasoning applies broad principles to predict specific answers. For example, the broad principles of human genetics can be applied to DNA analysis, usually yielding very reliable results. In make will leave the same markers on a bullet. The type of weapon could then be identified.
Traditional forensic sciences need to change the current paradigm. The theory of visible individuality that is the central staple of these fields is deteriorated by evidence of errors in proficiency testing and in authentic cases. Changes in the law pertaining to the admissibility of expert evidence, together with the emergence of DNA typing as a model for a scientifically strong approach to questions of shared identity, are driving the older forensic sciences toward a new scientific paradigm.
Forensic sciences are integrating to move an up and coming doubt about the claims of the traditional forensic individualization sciences. As a result, these sciences are moving toward a new scientific paradigm. From Thomas Kuhn’s concept the five characterizes to prove a theory is valid. They are accuracy, consistency, scope, simplicity and fruitfulness (95). Forensic science can fit within accuracy because at the time of court cases and evidence built up against the perp, it is through the current scientific experiments and observations that come to the conclusion. The accuracy of forensics science paradigm is always being shifted to something new when new equipment come out and new research is found. It can also fit within consistency in that it fits with Karl popper’s theory of white swans and how a fingerprint cannot be reduced to one individual. Forensic science can as well be fruitful, the parameters are constantly changing to advance with technology and use everything at hand to merge what they already know to the new theories being added within the science. Forensic science is transforming itself to be a more grounded science to improve with technology. In the past from new articles people who were convicted of grave crimes have been exonerated by DNA analyses of crime scene evidence that had not been tested at the time of their trials. Flawed convictions sometimes occur, that new science and technology can help distinguish and correct future mistakes.
Sometimes errors occur, if the people doing crime scene work are trained to believe evidence has a limited role and value, more errors will occur. There needs to be a real focus on training to ensure that trace is recognized, recorded and recovered and its assessment documented in the triage or case management phase. There is also a need to better express the different reasons applied to intelligence and investigation or assess results considering hypotheses proposed by others through internationally deductive method. A distinctive, vigorous and more reliable science may emerge through rethinking the forensics paradigm, learning from past errors, revisiting fundamental forensic science philosophies and adapting them to the twenty-first century.
