Ford-150 and Chey 1500 full-size trucks 2012 are two different tracks that have their own differences and similarities (Dickinson 3). There can be a comparison done in regard to both the physical appearance and the performance characteristics of the two trucks. They have a number of features that one needs to fully understand so as to be able to differentiate between the two models. Comparing the two trucks will enable the consumers to choose the one that fits their needs, as well as help the producers gain an advantage in the market once they know what the clients need. This paper will compare the nature, appearance, and performance of the two trucks as it brings out a clear difference between them.
Executive summary
The introduction of various designs of trucks by different companies in the worldwide vehicle industry creates the need for comparison so as to identify the differences they have. According to Dickinson (3), this gives consumers the ability to choose the best option among the available brands in line with their requirements. It is also useful because it is to market and explain the various aspects of the truck brand for the company both in appearance and performance. It can also show the justifications for the different pricing of the various brands. For the manufacturers, comparison enables them to know the customers’ requirements and feedback, competition in the market, and then substantially act to improve their product quality.
Subjects’ identification
The Ford F-150 2012 is a pickup truck of full size available in both single and double cabin types. Physically, it consists of features, such as the completely flat load floor, a camera for rearview, in class towing, optional super crew rear seat, and airbags. It is available in various attractive colors, such as red, white, and gray, among others. In terms of performance, there is a choice of the 6.2-liter V8, 3.5-liter Eco-boost V6, 3.7-liter V6, or the 5.0-liter V8 engines (Lesley 50).
There are two brands to chose some of which are the 6-speed select shift and the 6 speed automatic. It also consists of fully installed integrated trailer brakes controller, anti-lock breaking, roll stability control, mechanized tire pressure monitoring, and safety cage. In addition, the model has a fuel mileage of an estimated EPA 22 mpg highway and 16 mpg city. It has a guarantee for 3 years or 36,000 travel miles warranty (Lesley 51).
The Chey 1500 has a tag for its fuel efficiency, wide model range, luxury features, and high towing capacities. It has cooling and heating seats, which is a truly luxurious feature. It consists of the 9.5-inch rear axle with a 3.73 axle ratio, in addition to disc brakes that facilitate the handling of heavy loads. Furthermore, it has the Vortec 6.2L V8 engine that has up to 403 horsepower and can contain 417 lb.-ft of torque and Z82 Tailoring Package and heavy-duty suspension.
Investigative methods
There was extensive research on secondary data done to identify the range of features of two brands. This involved the use of online sources and library-based research on print sources. There were the identification and reading of various documents that contain information pertaining to the two brands to siphon the required information (Dickinson 6).
There was a physical analysis of the two brands of vehicle trucks done which involved visiting the local dealership to identify the truck and gauge them from observation. Where possible, there were test drives and rides conducted to the available trucks to gauge the feel on the wheel. Entrepreneurial skills also came in handy in determining the nature of the attractive attributes used to sell different products. This is because the two brands would normally apply the use of the strongest attributes of their products in their marketing campaigns (Dickinson 6).
Conclusion
The Ford-150 is a better choice than the Chey 1500 is as it had a recent redesign job and, therefore, has better and advanced features. It has a well-designed interior layout, and the outer structure also looks stronger. Performance-wise, it has more modern control mechanisms than its counterpart does. Furthermore, the Chey 1500’s fit and finish do not meet the levels set by Ram, and its ride is not as smooth as that of the Ford-150.
In the truck market, the two trucks compete hand in hand on almost equal measures. This is attributable to the difference in customer preferences in terms of brands and prices (Bayne 32). Although the Chey 1500 may not be the best option, customers will still prefer it because they choose to deal with well-known brands, such as those of General Motors. Price-wise, it is also a little cheaper than the Ford-150 is, and since it still offers almost the same tow capacity, some will prefer it.
It is clear that the Ford-150 has an extensive touch of modern look while the Chey 1500 is an older model. These modern features make it appeal to different consumer class. The Ford model attracts the modern class while the Chey appeals to the older generation (Bayne 32). This fact has enabled the two brands and many others to survive in the same market.
Works Cited
Bayne, Thomas. “Trucks Market Analysis: Consumer Preferences.” Journal of Economic and Social Research 12.5 (2009): 22-52. Print.
Dickinson, Kennedy. Truck Manufacturers: Ford-150 Vs. Chey 1500, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011. Print.
Lesley, Marya. Advent of the Ford-150, London: Sage Publishers, 2010. Print.
Ford introduced the concept of connected cars, and it entails the development of cars that can communicate with each other and the infrastructure around them (Turban par. 1). This concept aims at ensuring that there is an elimination of current issues being faced by drivers across the world, especially in the rush hours in different cities.
According to the blueprint plan of the development of connected cars, the associated vehicles will be fitted with communication devices that will facilitate communication between drivers on the roads and also develop a communication network for different models and brands of cars. The essence of the communication system is to reduce traffic jam on the roads and to limit the number of accidents reported on a daily basis (Turban par. 2). While the technology required achieving the same is yet to be developed, Ford claims that the goals are attainable; hence, the company has developed a plan to meet the ultimate objective of connected cars in three main phases.
Additionally, the company has also revealed that the connected cars will contain warning systems. The warning systems could be used to alert different cars about the best routes to follow when navigating to specific destinations. Ford Motors will facilitate this feature through the development of an autonomous function in driving its cars. The network will eliminate the reliance of a human driver on the roads to enhance the efficiency of the communication between the cars. Connected cars are expected to communicate and make decisions without the interference of the human entities in the car (Turban par. 4).
This innovation will create a network of vehicles that can solve problems on the roads to enhance the efficiency of the transport system even as the number of cars on the roads increases exponentially.
The Need for Connected Cars
Bill Ford has a futuristic vision of the transport system across the globe, and he is looking to develop a solution to an inevitable challenge in the future. According to his sentiments, the world will experience an exponential increase in cars on the roads in the next few years and this will potentially lead to congestion of cars on most roads; thus, crippling the transportation system across the world (Hillsdon par. 1).
The connected cars will facilitate the elimination of overcrowded routes across the globe by ensuring that the cars on the roads communicate with each other for smooth driving with minimal cases if congestion on the roads. Bill Ford’s idea is to develop a network of cars that can develop innovative solutions to potential challenges on the roads through an autonomous driving experience that is characterized by an efficient mobility system.
Bill Ford sees the need for such a system as a preventive measure to a possible global gridlock, an increase in traffic jam, and the wastage of resources and time on a slow transport system (Hillsdon par. 1). Ford understands that the global commerce is heavily reliant on the transportation system, especially the road system; hence, there is a need for the global society to embrace a plan that will mitigate future problems. The consumption level of motor vehicles across the globe has increased over the years, and Ford believes that the 1 billion cars on the roads in the current world will increase to 4 billion cars in the future (Hillsdon par. 2). The road systems will still be the same, and this will result in a global gridlock that will hurt economies and the global society.
Global Gridlock
Ford refers to a global gridlock as a situation where there will be endless queues of cars on every road across the world, which will cause a stand still situation on every road (Ford). His sentiments imply that the world is approaching a time when there will be no possible way of reducing traffic jams on the roads. This development will lead to a situation where it will be impossible for people to transport products through the roads.
People will be forced to use alternative ways to go to work because the roads will be overly congested and terribly slow throughout the day. The global gridlock will influence a slower delivery of products from the manufacturers to the stores, and human assets will fail to get to work on time. This will ultimately result in a situation where economic activities across the globe will take a halt because transportation will be crippled (Sahota par. 3). Ford believes that the global gridlock will be a function of an increase in the number of cars on the roads, poor infrastructural development, and the lack of a communication network that can facilitate the elimination of traffic jams (Hillsdon par. 1).
How an IT Network Can Help Reduce Global Gridlock
An IT network can help reduce to bypass the potential global gridlock by facilitating a more efficient transportation system on the roads. The proposed network looks to ensure that every car on the roads across the world can communicate with other cars on the roads. This network implies that the cars can develop a mobility system that ensures that there are minimal delays on every road. The IT network would also help in the development of a navigation plan for every car based on its destination (“Waze” par. 2).
The navigation plan would be designed in a manner that reduces traffic jam on the roads while ensuring there is efficiency in time and resource usage. Ford proposes an IT network that will eliminate the reliance on human drivers to solve congestion issues on the roads (Hillsdon par. 3). It is apparent that humans cannot communicate effectively on the roads, and they are the major reasons that a global gridlock would occur. A standardized IT network that includes autonomous cars would be more efficient in controlling the mobility of cars on the roads to avoid the global gridlock.
Effects of Taking No Action
According to Ford, if the world fails to take any action toward preventing the challenges in the future, there will be no way of bypassing the global gridlock (“Ford” 2). This issue means that the world should be braced for a period where economic activities will come to a halt because of their overreliance on road transport. Nations will struggle to grow their economies because there will be high rates of resource and time wastage on the roads.
Just like the issue of global warming, I no action is taken to solve the underlying issues, the global gridlock will become a reality, and the consequences will be dire for the global society. For instance, there will be no food for most people across the world, health care services will be unreachable, and people will not have access to their workplaces. There is a need for the global society to take this matter seriously and act accordingly. Car manufacturers should be particularly involved in developing a standardized IT network that will facilitate the development of connected cars.
Historical tour of the key artifacts that represent the milestones in the human thought development produces a truly ample effect and memorable impressions. The Henry Ford Museum is one of such places, as it provides a virtual tour of the essential milestones in the evolution of the human thought and technology. Though the items to be compared in this essay, namely, the printing press and Edison’s electric pen, are seemingly unrelated to each other, the specified items represent a continuity of technological progress.
The works mentioned above, namely, the printing press and the pen, are entirely different in their form and function, yet they communicate similar ideas. The printing press is large and bulky, representing a contraption that perfectly reflects its time period, containing a sufficient amount of complexity while being built with the help of basic materials (“Ramage hand-lever printing press, circa 1809,” n.d). Specifically, the device reflects the emergence of technological progress while demonstrating the lack of sophistication in the choice of materials and the structure itself. Furthermore, the device itself is representative of the time period rife with emergent opportunities for an increase in literacy among general audiences, as well as for a rise in communication opportunities and information sharing between communities.
Similarly, Edison’s electric pen is quite representative of its time period since it points to an increase in the options for sharing information and transferring it effectively. Though the pen did not leave as much of legacy as the printing press did, it has still transformed people’s idea of how visual information can be copied and transferred to others, therefore, making it increasingly more available (“Edison electric pen, circa 1877,” n.d.). Moreover, the very invention of the pen signaled the advent of a new era and the turning of a new leaf in the history of the humankind. The specified point in time was marked by several crucial inventions and discoveries that would guide further scientific research and technological development. Therefore, though a seemingly minor addition to the range of inventions, the pen also symbolizes crucial change and, therefore, represents its time period properly.
Being representative of the essential cultural and technological milestones that the humankind has achieved, each of the art pieces in question can also be scrutinized from a philosophical perspective. For example, the image of the printing press might lead to asking whether the opportunity to print and sell books, which was once a tremendously important change, has retained its importance today, or whether the increased availability of digital books has devalued the role of their print versions. In turn, the pen created by Edison inspires a question of whether the opportunity to record an idea in any environment could contribute to an increase in the extent of creativity or whether the availability of tools and options stifles creative thought. To conduct research on the specified topics, one might consider consulting scholars’ opinions by reading the latest articles on the issue. For this purpose, keywords such as ‘digital technology,” “availability,” “impact creativity,” and similar search terms can be used.
Despite being seemingly unrelated, the hand-lever printing press and Erikson’s pen represent two crucial components of continuous technological progress. The items in question reflect their corresponding time periods perfectly, emphasizing the growing importance of information sharing, both on a public and a personal level. Furthermore, the increase in the influence of citizens’ individual contributions to the evolution of thought that the pen illustrates needs to be emphasized. Therefore, both the pen and the printing press deserve to be seen as crucial contributors to the massive change that was about to take place on a global level.
The beginning of the 20th century witnessed the Progressive Era. Innovations and new technologies changed the life of the whole population. Many entrepreneurs profited at this prolific period. Although, many companies could be listed as the one who bolstered the US economy in the 1900s, the name of Henry Ford, a person who made a vehicle affordable for everyone, should definitely be in the first place.
The First Steps
At the age of 16 in a few years after Ford mother’s death, a young boy decided to leave his house and started to work in The Flower Brother’s shop. It was a store with three old owners. They produced a variety of things, such as gate valves, valves for water pipes, gongs and so on. In nine months, he decided that he had already taken everything from that place and got a job in the Dry Dock Company. Ford found a shelter for some time. In 1880, this very company was the core for the machinery life in Detroit. If a new mechanic strived for new knowledge, he would go there, so did the young boy. Soon an avid learner came back home to help on the family farm and at the same time to practice self-studying. When Henry was 19, he constructed his first engine: there was almost no light in the houses of Detroit, so the boy made a miniature turbine, which was able to operate city’s water and produce energy, enough for a tiny lathe. In 1882, Ford was acquainted with the Michigan agent of Westinghouse and their portable steam engines. The next years a young fellow spent traveling across Southern Michigan in the role of maintenance engineer on behalf of the company.
A new stage of life began when Edison Illuminating Company recruited Ford. After some time of working there, a young man gained attention and money to his gasoline engines trials. The experiments were fruitful, and in 1896, the world saw the appearance of Quadricycle. Later on, he was introduced to Thomas Edison (Olson 26). Consolidating all his forces, in 1899 Henry organized the Detroit Automobile Company with some affiliates. Soon after that, a settler turned to the construction of racing cars, as some disagreements between the associates broke out and Ford quitted. A new career branch went against mechanic’s initial ideas and strivings: to make a car affordable for the common consumer. However, this turnaround soon made Ford popular and attracted many people to his motor inventions. In 1901, Barney Oldfield broke all the existing records in racing and brought glory to the engineer.
Ford Motors Company
In 1903, Henry Ford overthought the idea of motor transportation and suggested the vehicle that would considerably cut the expenditures of its owners. At that time, he believed that the most precious things could cost “just five cents” (Doctorow 227). Initially, the public played jokes on the early models made by Ford Motors, as it was thought that they were intended only for the low- income consumer. However, year by year the models were modernized and the scope of the poor gradually increased (Olson 32). The opening of the company would be impossible without basic capital, so Ford was bound to give his permission to the partnership. His first investor was Alex Malcomson, a coal dealer from Detroit. Soon the executive attracted other depositors, such as Charles Woodall and James Couzens, the lawyer John Anderson and the banker John Gray. Ford and Malcomson divided 51 percent of the shares between them. After some time Ford’s income amounted about 28 000 dollars (Gorman 245).
The first vehicle produced was called Fordmobile or Model A. The assembly line was in prospect, and almost 20 people constructed a single car. Its initial cost was 800 dollars, plus the additional 100 dollars for the detachable tonneau. In a while, Ford decided that Model A did not meet the expectations of an American consumer any longer, so he decided to dive into work again. 1908 witnessed the birth of Model K with the six-cylinder engine and soon Model N with the four-cylinder engine. However, none of them satisfied Henry Ford. On the one hand, the first one was too expensive to be claimed affordable. Regardless of Malcomson who thought that this car was the path to the luxurious cars for the rich and lobbied its mass production, Ford discontinued the line. Model N was cheaper and encompassed wider audience regarding its price (the car could be competitive with 600 dollars automobiles, though its cost was only 450 dollars) nonetheless, it did not meet engineer’s basic demands: lightness, simplicity, and strength.
On October 1, 1908, the Model T saw the light. The design of the car was peculiar and differed from the other cars that were on the market: the interior was enclosed, four cylinders formulated one block, and the constructor installed a steering wheel on the driver’s place. The new automobile seemed to meet all Ford’s requirements from the simplicity of driving to the small weight of the car. The reaction of the public was triumphant. In a very short time, the sales outreached all possible maximums made by prior automobiles. In 18 years, Ford Motors Company sold about 15 million vehicles of this Model (Batchelor 21).
The Assembly Line
The rise of the production volume asked for the change in the approach to the assembly line and mass production. With an opening of a huge factory in Highland Park, the Company had been keeping on modifying the process of production until it reached perfection for five years. The key target was to structure it. One worker passed his or her finished fragment of work to another until the vehicle was made. Even though the companies settled before had already implemented these features on the rudimentary level, The Ford was the first who perfected it.
The production intensified as soon as the flywheel magneto was regarded as the subassembly. While in the previous year it took twenty minutes for one individual to assemble the magneto, Ford’s innovations let the whole procedure get less by 4 minutes. He separated this process into twenty-nine stages, and after it was finished, the tool was moved on a conveyor belt. The scheme worked quite fruitfully, so the owner decided to go further and modernize the whole process of the car construction. After all, there were maintained forty-five sub-operations. The automobile construction time decreased to ninety-three minutes.
One of the problems that occurred during the construction were the cumbersome parts, which had to be handled somehow. The assembly supervisors also tried to solve it by taking light materials into the separate building. Such heavy parts as engines and axles stayed in a bigger premise. Then the board organized a special department, which would sort all the details according to its characteristics. Therefore, all the bulky pieces did not interfere with the work and prevented the production area from being cluttered up.
The struggles to intensify the massive production had not ended though. They considered that the assembly would get faster if the setting up would begin with the frame, wheels, and axles; then moving the whole chassis to the storage room and do not arrange the process vice versa. When the workers got used to the offered fashion of work, the company intended to put it on a streamline. With the use of skids, the workers put a frame and acquired wheels and axles. At the same time, the rest of the team worked on the subassembly details: put the steering gear, finished radiator and installed it properly (“Henry Ford Changes the World, 1908“). Finally, all these slight modifications put the vehicle assembly on a brand new level regarding speed and quality. Last but not least, the lowering of the time consumed by the one car, Ford succeeded to lessen the price, thus, making his brand even more irreproachable for the rivals.
Conclusion
Finally, Henry Ford managed to create the biggest automobile manufacturing in the USA. The constant strive for the perfection made it possible to turn the industrial history of the country upside down. A brand new vision of the future converted the role of the vehicle for the population so that it terminated to be an object of luxury and turned into a tool of comfort and accessibility.
Works Cited
Batchelor, Ray. Henry Ford, Mass Production, Modernism, and Design. Vol. 1, Manchester University Press, 1994.
Doctorow, Edgar L. Ragtime. Penguin, 2006.
Gorman, Robert F., editor. Great Lives from History: The Twentieth Century. Salem Press, 2008.
“Henry Ford Changes the World, 1908.” EyeWitness to History, 2005. Web.
Olson, Sidney. Young Henry Ford: Aba Picture History of the First Forty Years. Wayne State University Press, 2015.
Henry Ford was born in 1863 in Michigan to become one of the greatest men in the history of America and the entire world (Gelderman par. 1-2). His visionary approach to the automobile industry promoted the innovations of cars and assembly lines and contributed greatly to the modern concepts of mass production and personal transport.
Early Life
Ford was the son of farmers, but he did not want to follow his father’s steps; instead, he demonstrated talents for other things. When telling his story, the Henry Ford museum emphasizes that Henry showed interest in building and engineering since childhood. For example, he constructed “rudimentary” water wheels and steam engines (“Henry Ford” par. 2).
Moreover, Ford engaged other youngsters in these activities and managed to organize their work. Apart from that, he learned to fix watches himself. In fact, it might be more accurate to state that he taught himself to do it, and it was another talent of Henry Ford: he wanted knowledge, and he learned to find it by exploring, investigating, making mistakes, and fixing them. Watches became his “textbook,” and he learned about the “rudiments of machine design” with their help (“Henry Ford” par. 2).
Early Career
In 1879, young Ford went to work as an apprentice at the Michigan Car Company in Detroit, which started his quest for jobs that could provide him with more knowledge of mechanics. He always sought for the jobs that offered the opportunity to learn something new (“Henry Ford” par. 4). In 1882, he came back to his family farm but kept working with machinery: the steam engines that the farmers used or odd jobs at Detroit factories took up his time. However, it was also clear that he did not really enjoy working for someone else.
In 1888, he got married and moved to Detroit. Ford chose to work for the Edison Electric Illuminating Company because he needed to know more about electricity (“Henry Ford” par. 5). In five years, he was taking the post of the chief engineer in the Company, but Ford also worked in another direction: he was among those 19th-century people who were trying to build the “horseless carriage”. His first model, the Quadricycle, appeared in 1896. It had heavy wheels that reminded one of bicycles but no reverse. His second car was created in 1898, and Ford grew ambitious enough to create his own company that would manufacture his carriages.
Ford Motor Company
When Ford first started to take up business, it turned out that he needed to learn about this sphere of human activities as well. He did it in the same way as before: started two companies and learned through errors that the ventures did not survive. Ford, however, did not give up, and his visionary leadership skills together with the rising popularity of racing cars provided him with the investing that helped him create the Ford Motor Company in 1903.
The Company was geared by Ford’s vision of a “motorcar for the great multitude” that would be constructed of highest-quality materials with the help of the simplest of designs and sold at the smallest price possible (Ford 106). What Ford wanted is an affordable but a quality car, and for that, he attracted the most talented people to his company. These people, who he picked himself for his team, created the famous Model T, and in 1908, the wide public could get acquainted with it (“Henry Ford” par. 8).
The recipe for the success of the Model T corresponded to Ford’s vision: it was indeed high-quality and relatively cheap, but what is more, it was easy to operate even on a rough road. The success, however, prompted the next greatest achievement of Ford: his employment of assembly line. According to Ford himself, “it is better to sell a large number of cars at a reasonably small margin than to sell fewer cars at a large margin of profit” (p. 232). To reach the economies of scale that he wanted, he made several steps (Watts 279).
First, he moved to a bigger factory at the Highland Park that provided him with the opportunity to produce more cars. Then he tried to decrease their cost with the help of his own, customized assembly line. This line concept was based on the ideas from watch, gun, and bicycle makes as well as meat packers; apart from that, Ford and the team introduced their own ideas, and the final technique was developed by the end of 1913. When the workers complained about the repetitive work, Ford raised their wage, which led to two positive outcomes: the turnover rates at the factory dropped, and the employees received the opportunity to become the consumers as well. By 1922, every second car in the US was the Model T (“Henry Ford” par. 10).
Unfortunately, these figures made Ford overconfident. He bought out the enterprise, which gave him the complete control over its operations. He was certain that Model T was the perfect car, so he tried to deny the declining sales until it was impossible. After that, new Ford models did appear, but none of them repeated the Model T success. Because of the competition, Ford Motor Company soon became the third in the US market. During the Great Depression, the wages of the workers dropped, and many layoffs followed. Ford also did not want to deal with the Workers Union, but eventually was forced to sign a contract with them. Ford remained influential, of course, and his Company contributed greatly to the victory over the Nazism in the World War II by supplying the US military with vehicles. Still, the glorious success of Model T was over, and in 1945, Henry Ford officially retired.
The Person and The Achievements
Henry Ford died in 1947 (Gelderman par. 1). He was not a man without a flaw. He never tried to receive formal education and stayed distrustful to things he did not know. He was an idealist, but it somehow combined this trait with a mean-spirited attitude to the people who surrounded him (Watts xiii). He had a bright personality that always attracted the attention of the media, but the headlines about him could both praise and condemn him (Gelderman par. 2). Still, his complex personality fueled the change that he brought upon our world.
It is noteworthy that Ford did not invent the automobile as such, and the assembly line was not created by him (“Henry Ford” par. 1). However, his methods of using the assembly line for factory production have been termed as “revolutionary” (Gelderman par. 1). He acted as an innovator by promoting the ideas that might have stayed unnoticed and turned them into an important part of our everyday life. He was visionary and creative, ingenious and hard-working, and very ambitious. These ambitions helped him make his visions come true. They also have determined the American society and industry to an extent that few other people can be as commended or blamed for our modern lifestyle, and he will always be remembered for that (Watts xv).
Works Cited
Ford, Henry. My Life and Work. New York, New York: Open Road Integrated Media, 2015. Print.
Gelderman, Carol W. “Henry Ford.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2016.
An artifact in simple terms refers to something created by humans for practical purposes. It, therefore, refers to a simple object, could be an ornament or tool made by man to show modification and human workmanship as separated from a natural object. This paper analyses a T.V commercial in which an artifact has been incorporated.
The artifact under discussion in this paper is Ford explorer, a vehicle for sport utility that was manufactured in Chicago by Ford Corporation. In this passage, I used a video from YouTube which is filmed by Devin Graham to convey an advertisement for Ford explorer (Graham, 2013).
In the video, a group of people set their journey to a crazy adventure using Ford explorer. When inside Ford, one cannot miss the comfy seats at home because it offers the same relaxation. One tank of gas in the engine is enough for the explorer to cover over 1000 kilometers irrespective of the rough terrain. The video shows that Ford has a massive boot to accommodate all their cargo hauling and as soon as they are set, the adventurous ride begins. Ford has strong and durable wheels, which helps it to stand the heat and climb terrains. From the video clip, one can observe that Ford is not only luxurious, but also durable; it has comfy seats, automatic transmission, unlimited speed, spacious boot, unique wheels and grille, and its ability to economize fuel among other qualities.
According to Brannon and Brock (2001), principles of persuasion influence advocacies particularly those conveyed in narrative fiction. On the other hand, Herbert (2001) contends that beyond the paradigm cases of persuasion, there are gray areas of persuasion in which the intention underlying that persuasion is mixed with other motives, combines with other forms of influence or hidden from the audience. To gauge how good an artifact is well designed, one examines the theoretical and empirical goodness (Brock & Green, 2005). The option design connects artifacts to users or practices. In theoretical terms, the best artifact must be the best. Also, if an artifact in prevalent in a given location, it means it was once popular in that location.
The artifact under discussion was retrieved from Youtube. From the prevalence theoretical view, it means that the component used to make the vehicle is common in Chicago. This is because even after the discovery luxurious materials have been used was used to modify the artifact. This theory best explains the effectiveness of artifacts. However, the adaptionist theory can be used to improve the effectiveness of the artifact. According to the adaptionist theory, the more prevalent an artifact is, the more beneficial it becomes. In this regard, more artifacts similar to the one above ought to be used to prove that it is prevalent in Chicago. The above artifact is used as a mode of transport by both the ancient and modern people to make means of movement easier and simpler. Aesthetically, the artifact appears firm and beautiful. It is an illustration of how previous manufacturers value art and design, beauty, and culture and this has been evidenced by upgrading the vehicle to the current elegant status. There no doubt that after watching this video, everyone is persuaded to buy the artifact/vehicle being advertised. This paper has shown that artifacts are used to persuade people by conveying different messages.
References
Brannon, L. A., and Brock, T.C. (2001). Scarcity claims elicit extreme responding to persuasive messages: Role of cognitive elaboration. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 365-375.
Brock, T.C, and Green, M. C. (2005). Persuasion: Psychological Impacts and Perspectives. New York: Sage.
Union wage premium is currently one of the most analyzed issues in labor economics. It is a ratio which compares the earnings of a nonunion worker member to a union worker. Union wage effect can be analyzed as the percentage by use of the wage gain of typical workers when they join a union. According to research findings, a union worker earns 15% more than a typical nonunion worker.
At the Ford Motor company, the union wage effects have pushed the company to its financial limits. In 2007, the company added an additional $1,200 to every vehicle manufactured due to high wage demands. As a result, foreign vehicles gained market share by edging out the expensive Ford vehicles.
Estimates of the union wage gap
The union wage gap is a percentage of the wage differential between union jobs and nonunion jobs. It is countercyclical since it widens in times of high unemployment and narrows during economic expansions. Wage gap is calculated by comparing workers in both union and nonunion jobs having a similar economic and social background such as education, age, industry and region of employment.
Research findings indicate that the union wage gap is slightly lower than nonunion wage gap at a difference of 15% to 25%. In 2008, Ford Motor Company and the workers union agreed to pay new employees $4.50 an hour. This value is much higher when compared to $1.50 per hour earned by the nonunionized workers at Ford’s plant in Mexico.
Union wage gap against union wage gain
Wage gain is the difference between the earnings of a unionized and a nonunionized worker with the same level of skills. This difference in the wage gap cannot be used to measure the union wage gain since a union worker earns 15% more than a nonunion worker.
In the US, Ford pays its workers $8 more per hour than its nonunion counterparts located in other countries. Currently, Ford claims to be paying $58/hour while other automakers pay an average of $50 per hour.
Unions and wage dispersion
The difference in wages among workers at the same workplace level varies differently between unionized and nonunionized workers. Studies indicate that unionized workers are least affected by wage dispersion. Nonunionized workers face 25% higher wage dispersion in comparison to the unionized firms.
Over the past years, Ford Motor Company nonunion employees earned less than their counterparts in foreign motor companies. As a result, foreign automakers are using the pay strategy to discourage its workers from joining unions. Foreign automakers believed that if nonunion worker earns more than union workers, then they will not join the unions.
Apart from the little disparity in their wages, union workers are a uniform group in terms of their education level as well as other related job skills. This is because unions aim at collective bargaining and equity during negotiations which leads to a lack in wage setting depending on productivity of workers.
The nonwage effects of unions
The nonwage effect of unions proves through longitudinal analysis that the impacts of unions in nonwage activities are lower than in wage outcomes. However, as much as unions improve the wage structures for its members they affect other nonwage factors like job satisfaction and worker productivity.
Research indicates that most union workers are dissatisfied with their jobs because of the job quality, industrial relation climate and wages offered by their firms. Most union workers believe their jobs offer little opportunities for promotion and are more complex than nonunion jobs.
Unions, productivity and profits
Unions have a massive influence on the general financial and productive effect of a firm. Firms cannot use theory only to predict the effects of unions since they are inadequate. This means that a firm using theory can either improve or destroy its general performance. It should be noted that factors uplifting or those that destroy productivity occur simultaneously hence; the net effect can only be attained via proper empirical investigation.
Restructuring strategies introduced in 2006 by Ford Motor Company pushed its sales and increased profits in the year 2009 and 2010. This improvement is attributed to increased employee productivity since they wanted to show their commitment to the company. Workers who were not in the upper management positions also got a share of the profits thus enhancing their productivity.
Public sector unions
Public sector unions aim at pushing for the best interests of workers within government owned, supported or regulated organizations. Currently, public sector unions have more influential unions in the world compared to the private sector unions. As a result, the public sector unions have been criticized and branded “black holes” since their workers earn more than what they produce.
This criticism led the conservatives to vouch for the downsizing of these unions claiming they were the cause of the large government deficits (DiLorenzo par. 15).
In support of change, some Ford Motor Company workers argued that public unions need to improve their working standards by using innovative ways of service delivery. Failure to do this, taxpayers as well as consumers will turn elsewhere (“Welcome to the Real World” par. 11).
One of the essential tenets of investment is a technical analysis of stocks. The process enables investors to determine the movement of prices in the stock market and identify the trends of trade. Moreover, technical analysis provides important information that can be used to make proper investment decisions (Aronson, 2007). This study is based on a technical analysis of Ford Motor Company, which is located in the U.S. The company trades in the New York stock market. The technical analysis of the organization’s stocks will embrace the three common methods outlined as follows:
Relative Strength Index (RSI)
The relative strength index focuses on the magnitude and velocity of price changes. It is a momentum indicator that enables Ford Company to determine oversold and overbought instances of its stocks. RSI values in the market start from 0 to the highest figure of 100. For instance, if Ford is using the RSI any stock value at 70 is said to have reached the overbought level. In this case, the stocks may be overvalued despite the instances of a pullback. On the other hand, if the asset is marked at the level of 30 it may be undervalued or it may get oversold (Stock Technical Analysis, 2014). This information can be clearly clarified using the graph below.
Adapted from (Stock Technical Analysis, 2014)
From the graph shown above, the momentum of Ford’s stocks is derived from the ratio of positive price changes to the negative changes in price. At the bottom of the graph, it is evident that the company had an oversold of 30 and an overbought of 70. The neutral point is marked at 50. Any alerts will inform the organization on overbought and oversold by looking at the price movement from the neutral point (Park & Irwin, 2007).
Moving Average Convergence Divergence (MACD)
Moving average convergence divergence shows the average of moving prices of the organization’s stocks (Aronson, 2007). To calculate Ford’s MACD, it is essential to subtract 26-day EMA from the 12-day Exponential Moving Average. However, the signal line of the chart is derived from a 9-day EMA, which is plotted above the MACD. The signal line provides sell and buy signals. A clear analysis of the MACD must embrace three common concepts. One of the concepts is a dramatic rise, which occurs when the long term moving average moves away from the short term moving average (Stock Technical Analysis, 2014). Crossovers are bearish signals that occur when the signal line goes above the MACD. Divergence occurs when there is a divergence between security price and the MACD (Aronson, 2007). Ford’s MACD is indicated in the graph below.
Adapted from (Stock Technical Analysis, 2014).
From the graph, the Company’s MACD trends can be analyzed as follows:
It is therefore evident that the organization has no MACD alerts for short term, intermediate, and long term periods. The values are zero for the three periods as indicated in the graph (Stock Technical Analysis, 2014).
A simple moving average (SMA)
The simple moving average of the company is used to determine to change averages of prices. It is derived from the sum of the past prices for a given period divided by the total number of the prices (Westerhoff, 2005). The company’s SMA can be expressed as in the graph as shown.
From the graph shown above, the company’s moving average has been derived for a short term of 5 to 13 days, the intermediate period has been calculated from 20 days, and the long term period has been calculated from 50 days period. Alerts on prices will be received the bullish signals move above or below the 20 days period (Stock Technical Analysis, 2014).
References
Aronson, D. (2007). Evidence-based technical analysis: Applying the scientific method and statistical interference to trading signals. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Park, C. & Irwin, H. (2007). What do we know about the profitability of technical analysis? Journal of Economic Survey, 21(4), 786-826.
Stock Technical Analysis. (2014). Ford moving average convergence divergence analysis. Web.
Westerhoff, F. (2005). Technical analysis based on price-volume signals and the power of trading breaks. International Journal of Theoretical and Applied finance, 9(2), 227-244.
Financial reporting is a significant task for all businesses, and they should invest much effort to cope with this assignment. Specific documents and templates exist to provide companies with assistance to present their information comprehensively and effectively. Form 10-K is among these documents because it helps publicly-traded companies describe their financial performance. Thus, the principal purpose of this paper is to explain the purpose of a firm’s 10-K and describe three essential items as well as their significance based on Ford Motor Company’s Form 10-K.
Main text
To begin with, one should state that Form 10-K is an annual report that the government represented by the US Securities and Exchange Commission obliges businesses to prepare. This document usually includes company history, risk factors, financial statements, and other significant data. As a rule, Form 10-K is requested by investors. It is so because these individuals can read the report to determine whether it is reasonable to buy or sell shares and whether they should invest in the business’s corporate bonds.
It is not a surprise that investors can make the decisions above since Form 10-K interprets the firm’s financial strength. It relates to the fact that this detailed document offers both selected financial data and its analysis. Consequently, the firm tries to demonstrate that the correlation among earnings per share, executive compensation, and subsidiaries is attractive for investors. In addition to that, this document includes an income statement and balance sheet that are useful to show how much money a particular company can generate. Finally, the letters from the firm’s chief financial officer and chief executive officer are attached to ensure that the information in Form 10-K is valid and up-to-date.
It is reasonable to comment on three essential items that are found in Ford Motor Company’s Form 10-K. The first item is called Business, and it is crucial because it allows stakeholders to understand the company’s background and how it makes money. In its Form 10-K, Ford Motor Company (2012) describes its market position, production process, sales volume, and others. Risk Factors stand for the second significant item to consider. Stakeholders can read this section to understand what problems the firm is likely to witness, and what their probable consequences are. As for Ford Motor Company (2012), these factors include financial crisis, decreased sales, failure to achieve growth, continued or increased price competition, and many others. A positive feature is that there are no unresolved staff comments in the Form 10-K under analysis. The final item relates to the Selected Financial Data because it helps investors decide whether it is rational to deal with the company under review. This item stipulates that Ford Motor Company (2012) obtained higher revenues in 2012 than it did in 2010 and 2009, which makes this business attractive for investors.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Form 10-K is an essential document since it is an annual report filed by publicly-traded companies. This report is the most useful for investors because they read this information to determine whether it is beneficial to buy or sell shares of the business. These decisions can be made since Form 10-K focuses on essential financial data and related items. As for Ford Motor Company’s Form 10-K, these significant items include Business, Risk Factors, and Selected Financial Data. Each of these items is meaningful because they provide stakeholders with information on the company’s history, current and previous financial performance, and the most influential risk factors. The analysis of the three phenomena above can help determine whether to invest in Ford Motor Company.
Management as a scientific discipline originated in the United States at the beginning of the 20th century. It was facilitated by a number of factors, among which the democratic nature of the country, the industriousness of citizens, the high prestige of education, as well as the absence of state intervention in the economy should be noted. The country was free from the conservative dogmas of the old world, and the creation of monopolies led to the complication of their management. Under these conditions, the emergence of scientific management was a response to business needs. Steel management is treated as a subject of scientific study. Business processes began to be carefully analyzed, primarily technological processes, including the movement of workers during work. Management policy, namely managerial economics as part of the microeconomics of market leaders, is a necessary issue for study. The management policy of companies such as Ford, General Motors, and Chrysler is the basis of the heyday of the automotive industry and still remains relevant.
Literature Review
The international and national situation significantly impacts the sale of products. Accordingly, macroeconomics makes a significant contribution to managerial economics. The combination of macroeconomic theory and microeconomics is very effective since the practical component is often based on economic methodology while applying analytical tools and principles of marketing and accounting, finance, and personnel management. The close relationship between management and economics has led to the development of managerial economics (Samuelson et al., 2021). Economic analysis is needed for various concepts such as demand, profit, cost, and competition. Thus, managerial economics is seen as economics applied to problems of choice or alternatives and firms’ allocation of scarce resources.
Methods of Managerial Economics
Management economics uses the methods of mathematical economics. Their use is due to the fact that they help to see problems that cannot be identified with a descriptive approach. The mathematical approach makes it possible to determine the boundaries of the analysis. The main methods used in mathematical economics are statistical methods (Samuelson et al., 2021). Static methods explain economic relationships; for example, statistical methods allow you to identify the relationship between the demand for products and price.
Mathematical methods are used:
To determine the factors that influence demand,
To determine the dependence of price on demand.
The listed methods are used in national and international economic conditions. That is because the market is undergoing a process of internationalization. For effective actions in the global and national market, the manager needs to take into account this process; however, this does not always help. The internationalization of production has an effect on conditions different from national ones. For example, American firms that open their production outside the United States adapt their products’ management, marketing strategy, and development to the political and cultural environment of the country where this product is located (Samuelson et al., 2021). It is quite logical; in particular, adaptation helps with personnel management.
Research on the theory of organization began to be carried out systematically in the period 1890-1940, along with deepening developments in scientific management. These studies focus on the whole organization and not the work performed by individual links or members of the organization. The principles of organization, criteria for the formation of organizational structures, the creation of a system of divisions, the definition of manageability, and the delegation of rights and responsibilities were formulated.
Many scientists and practitioners have developed the ideas and concepts that form the scientific theory of organization. One of the first attempts to analyze the organizational aspects of management was made by F. Taylor (Samuelson et al., 2021). The ideas and methods that flow from Taylor’s research are known as scientific management, which focuses on the work done at the bottom of the organization (Samuelson et al., 2021). The development of this school took place in two directions – the rationalization of production and the study of management problems. The main concern of the representatives of this school was efficiency in relation to the work of the entire organization as a whole.
An essential function in managerial economics is decision-making: it includes a complete course of choosing the most appropriate action from two or more alternatives. The primary function is the most beneficial use of limited resources, such as labor, capital, land, and more (Samuelson et al., 2021). The manager is very cautious when making decisions because the future is uncertain; it ensures that the best possible plans are made efficiently to achieve the desired goal of maximizing profits. Table 1 presents the main areas of analysis of companies’ effectiveness of microeconomic processes.
Table 1. Main areas of analysis of companies’ effectiveness of microeconomic processes
Demand analysis and forecasting
Demand assessment is an integral part of decision-making, and future sales assessment helps to strengthen market position and maximize profits. In managerial economics, the analysis and forecasting of demand occupy a very important place.
Profit management
The success of the company depends on its leading indicator – profit. Firms operate for long-term profit, which is usually the reward for taking a risk. Proper planning and profit measurement is the most critical and complex area of management economics.
Capital Management
Wealth management includes planning and controlling expenses. There are many problems associated with capital investments that require a significant investment of time and labor. The cost of capital and the rate of return are important factors in money management.
Demand for managerial economics
Demand for this subject has increased in the post-liberalization and globalization period, primarily due to the increased use of economic logic, concepts, tools, and theories in the decision-making process of large multinational corporations. In addition, this can be explained by the growing demand for professionally trained management personnel who can use the limited resources available to them and get the most out of efficiency and effectiveness.
Due to globalization’s intensifying processes, there have been trends in the division of automotive enterprises into car manufacturers (OEM – Original Equipment Manufacturer). These are industry enterprises that produce final products under their brand by assembling components (Abdel-Basset et al., 2019). As well as auto component manufacturers (OES – Original Equipment Supplier), these industry enterprises specialize in producing automotive components and assemblies.
The methods of structural modernization used as part of the restructuring of automotive enterprises are as follows: organizational optimization of enterprises; withdrawal of non-core assets; optimization of property complexes; increasing the efficiency of existing production; optimization of business processes; change of competence centers (business units) (Abdel-Basset et al., 2019). As it can be seen, modernization at automotive enterprises is fragmented. The concept of cost management today is one of the central business development paradigms (Abdel-Basset et al., 2019). In accordance with the concept, inefficient accounting criteria for the successful functioning of enterprises are replaced by one criterion, the simplest and most understandable for shareholders and investors of an enterprise – added value.
There is a merger of a number of manufacturers. The main reasons for this are the intensification of competition in the market, the rise in the cost of developing new cars, the development of unified automotive platforms, the tightening of regulatory requirements, and the need to unify automotive equipment, especially trucks, as well as commercial vehicles. The increase in the importance of non-material factors of growth in the value of an enterprise, primarily related to human, technological, and information resources, necessitates studying the automotive industry in a complex from the point of view of its systemic nature.
Organizational Business Environment
Changing the culture of an organization has never been an easy task because it entails changing behavior. The organization must involve every person in the process, which means that it requires commitment and loyalty from employees, management, and other stakeholders. Organizational culture is a complex structure of assumptions about roles in a group (Abdel-Basset et al., 2019). In this case, all the values that guide behavior are expected to be learned, but the process must follow a set procedure to prevent conflicts.
One of the challenges an organization may face is adapting to external change. Members of the organization were never willing to accept new ways of doing things, especially old ones, as they saw it as a violation of the normal work schedule. Another challenge an organization may face is creating a survival mechanism that requires developing and maintaining an integrated, solid, and internal identity.
Ford Motors
The Taylor system received the most significant effect from the introduction at the enterprises of Henry Ford. Thanks to the scientific organization of labor, he achieved a revolutionary increase in productivity, and already in 1922, he produced every second car in the world at his factories (Ford reduces manufacturing impact). As a talented mechanical engineer and inventor, Henry Ford, once called the ‘automobile king,’ borrowed from Taylor the basic principles of the rational functioning of the enterprise and practically implemented them in full in his production for the first time.
Ford built a production organization system based on the over- specialization of workers, the maximum fragmentation of technological process operations, and the location of technological equipment and jobs in strict accordance with the sequence of operations performed. He introduced an unprecedented form of production process organization – a production line (Brown, 2021). First used by him in 1913 in the form of a conveyor belt, such a line proved to be highly effective for mass production conditions (Albert, 2019). It made it possible to drastically shorten the cycle of manufacturing cars and reduce the cost of their production. Experts believe that thanks to the invention of the conveyor in the production of cars, G. Ford made a “revolution in the shop” (Albert, 2019). He created a system where the first place was occupied by technique and technology, in which a person was fitted.
He applied maximum specialization, the regulated rhythm of work, mechanization of transport operations, developed the enterprise as a complex providing itself with everything necessary and separated the main production from its maintenance. However, Ford did not share all of Taylor’s views, as he was more inclined toward practice and, therefore, was against excessive enthusiasm for organizational charts and structures (Ford looks to the future, 2019). He demanded strict observance of discipline without personal communication of workers at the enterprise and introduced an absolute division of labor on the assembly line.
Figure 1: Organizational structure at Ford
General Motors
Significantly lagging behind the Ford company in the production and not trying to compete with him in this area, Durant tried to expand his niche in the market by combining as many firms as possible. He acquired independent companies or exchanged blocks of shares with them, because of which he constantly needed cash and owed money to several large banks (Heitmann, 2018). Although, since the demand for cars was high, this business was considered promising. Durant made extensive connections in financial and industrial circles, and representatives of the most considerable chemical concern Dupont de Nemours were among the corporation’s directors.
As long as the demand for automobiles remained stable, the corporation’s position looked satisfactory on the surface, but management became its Achilles’ heel. After the end of the First World War, all its branches aimed to expand production and purchase massive amounts of raw materials (Hargrave, 2022). However, in the second half of 1920, due to the economic depression, the demand for cars fell sharply (Heitmann, 2018). Ford’s company suffered relatively little loss as he quickly and forcefully cut off purchases, diverted existing inventory to making cars, which he sold at a reduced price, then stopped production, fired workers, and reduced management costs. On the contrary, the business has fallen on hard times at General Motors.
Once change management has taken place in an organization, the question now is how best to manage change. According to the Levins model, an organization must successfully complete three steps to manage change (Albert, 2019). Unfreeze: the status quo changing to overcome the pressure of both individual resistance and group conformity. Movement: desired end state, the process of change that takes the organization from the status quo to the desired end state. Then re-freezing new change to make it permanent, stabilizing change intervention by balancing the driving and holding forces.
With the support of DuPont, a senior management team was formed and given its power. Two committees were created under the board of directors – financial and executive. The prominent investors were able to control the receipt of income and the distribution of dividends and assess the quality of the business (Albert, 2019). The Executive Committee dealt with general logistics, production, and marketing issues (Groysberg et al., 2021). It was composed of vice presidents responsible for relevant functions, heads of central departments, as well as a vice president of finance.
Chrysler
Chrysler has emphasized business restructuring towards merging with other enterprises: the operations of Fiat and Chrysler are converging. More than half of their supply chains are shared. The two companies have created a single management team to oversee business performance (regional markets and operations), brands, and line and HR processes (Gutierrez-Gutierrez et al., 2018). One of the main criticisms was that Fiat-Chrysler was run by one team of only one person: Marchionne, who had hitherto relied heavily on the strength of his personality to achieve goals. The new management structure took over some of the CEO’s powers (Gutierrez-Gutierrez et al., 2018). Even though the executive board is dominated by executives who grew up on Fiat, 14 out of 23 (Chrysler Group LLC). Employees of both companies work side by side in all production units, avoiding the ‘colonization’ effect that arose during Daimler’s control.
Chrysler’s steady decline was partly due to its inherent weakness. It was that it is less than half the size of Ford Motor Company and about a quarter the size of General Motors Corporation, the two largest Big Three Detroit companies. Mr. Ricciardo insists his company has “a good track record of innovation and delivering what the public needs” (Chrysler Group LLC). In a hugely capital-intensive industry, most say the smaller Chrysler lacks its competitors’ financial strength and agility to respond to changing market demands.
Chrysler suffers from the weaknesses of traditional organizational culture, given that top management is reluctant to embrace change, even as things move at an unprecedented pace. Ford and General Motors preferred producing products without considering new marketing, manufacturing, and public relations methods. Unfortunately, the dynamics of today’s society require the adoption of more effective ways of solving problems if an organization is to achieve its goals. At Chrysler, management has achieved the same results as the cars, regardless of the fact that much has changed, and it is time for management to apply a new strategy.
Mopar brands, each with entire profit and loss reporting. Branded organizations established general commercial, industrial and corporate functions to support the development, production, distribution, and sale of Chrysler, Jeep, and Dodge products and Mopar parts (Escoda, 2018). The new company’s leadership structure was designed to rebuild and grow Chrysler’s four iconic brands. With a simplified organization designed to give leaders ample control, a company can increase the speed of decision-making. It will also improve the flow of communication, ultimately bringing Chrysler Group management and employees closer to customers.
Conclusion
Ford’s conveyor technology was accepted and appreciated by all industrialists. Still, based on low prices and product immutability strategy, the company’s authoritarian management did not find followers – otherwise, it would lead the industry to a dead end. The automotive industry leader in the early 20s was the General Motors Corporation, reformed by its president Alfred P. Sloan. He and the management team he led developed methods and principles of management that competitors, including Ford, had to learn in order not to be left on the sidelines. Chrysler has successfully exploited economies of scale through collaborative manufacturing, which they combine with price discrimination to maximize their venture’s profits.
In conclusion, despite the challenges faced by domestic auto manufacturers in the United States of America, there is room for growth for these firms. One such opportunity discussed here is the full-size automotive market, in which they continue to hold a significant market share. The substitution effect is on the rise as energy costs increasingly push the cost of inefficient SUVs. In addition to the purchase price, other costs and factors have a significant impact on car sales. The analysis showed that throughout the history of the existence of all three leading automobile manufacturers in the United States and around the world. Any changes made at the level of the managerial economy of automotive enterprises affect the cost of their products, methods of structural modernization, and more. In all cases, a system upgrade is required, full-scale and comprehensive. This can increase the level of competitiveness of automotive enterprises and will allow the production of a modern, high-tech and high-quality product that meets all the requirements and needs of customers.
