The advertisement which will be analyzed in this paper is of FIFA 09, the game is a sequel to the FIFA series which is released by EA sports each year. This paper will throw light upon the game and how good the game is. The game is released every year by EA SPORTS, EA stands for Electronic Arts. The paper will also throw light upon how big the gaming industry is.
Gaming has grown as a business over the time, these days there are consoles specifically meant to play games like the Playstation3, Xbox, and Nintendo. This goes to show that the gaming industry presents a very good opportunity for those who are creative and are ready to try their hands at this field. The FIFA series is the most popular football game series, EA sports has established a brand name over a period of time. The game is really a very well designed game, the features of the player’s faces is very visible from the trailer. This goes to show that EA sports are working really hard to maintain the top position which they have achieved because of the FIFA series and the most developed game till now is undoubtedly FIFA 09. The advertisement of the game showcases the best players to catch the eye of the people who have been waiting for the launch of the game. The advertisement is a very well crafted advertisement it is an impeccable advertisement. It shows trailers of many intriguing matches taking place. The company has left no stone unturned in making sure that they attract as many people as possible. The game has been an immediate hit among the players and some have already started waiting for the next sequel of the game. The madness in the gaming industry is being made use of by EA sports, the company is just making sure that the advertisement designed by them for the game becomes immensely popular and works for the benefit of the company.
Football is the most popular sport in the world, which means the majority of people are acquainted with the rules of the game. However, even regular watchers of football are sometimes confused about offsides and when and why they happen. In this paper, the author will explain in detail what offside is, how it is detected, and implications for a team that commits this foul.
An offside position is a situation when a player of the attacking team is closer to the opponent’s goal than the ball and the opponent’s last player except for the goalkeeper during passing. This definition is only suitable for general understanding because there are several intricate details. For instance, if a player is in an offside position but neglects the ball and does not interfere with the attack, then no foul is committed (Law 11: Offside, 2020). Also, if the attacking player was in their half at the time of the pass, even if they are closer to the opponent’s goal than the rival’s defenders, the situation is not considered to be offside (Law 11: Offside, 2020). There cannot be an offside position if the last pass comes from a goal kick, a corner kick, or a throw-in (Law 11: Offside, 2020). It is essential to understand that being closer to the goal means having any part of the body with which one can legally touch the ball closer to the goal than the opponent’s last player (Law 11: Offside, 2020). Therefore, hands are not counted when drawing the offside line.
The referee must stop the play at the moment when a pass is sent to a player who is in an offside position. In the event of offside, the ball is returned to the opposing team, and a free kick is awarded. Offside may also be called in a situation in which the ball is not addressed directly to an offside player (The International Football Association Board, 2020). For example, the goalkeeper parries the shot but the attempt is complemented by another player who was offside at the time of the strike. The decision to stop the game and to call an offside position is made by the main referee of the match (The International Football Association Board, 2020). However, the assistant arbiters often help them – at the moment of detecting an offside position, the linesman raises the flag and holds it horizontally in front of them (The International Football Association Board, 2020). This way, they show that offside has occurred, and the game needs to be stopped. The main referee has the right to disagree with the decisions of linesmen.
With the introduction of video assistance (VAR) during games, spotting offside positions has become less stressful for referees. The reason is that computer-aided systems can draw precise offside lines to check whether or not the initial decision of a linesman was correct (The International Football Association Board, 2020). In case a mistake was made, then the main referee has the right to overrule the initial decision. Despite VAR’s contribution to equal play, many fans around the world express their frustration about the technology.
The offside rule in football can be challenging to understand because it has many intricacies. Even the official rule definition provided by FIFA cannot be encompassed within one sentence and is instead disseminated across multiple bullet points. At the same time, the offside rule is one of the most important laws of the game to understand because decisions regarding offside positions can impact play outcomes significantly.
References
Law 11: Offside. (2020). The Football Association. Web.
The International Football Association Board. (2020). Laws of the game. Web.
There is no doubt that safety for football spectators has tremendously improved over the past decades especially in contrast to some disastrous events that have marred the football scene during earlier times. For instance, in the year 1971, Ibrox stadium reported one of the most catastrophic figures in football history when sixty six people died and several others were injured. This was largely as a result of a collision between two sets of people who were leaving and entering the stadium; these fans were reacting to the activities going on in the field and most of them ended up falling in their stadium’s stairway. Fourteen years later, the United Kingdom fell victim to yet another incident. Someone was smoking a cigarette at Valley parade stadium and irresponsibly threw it near a wooden stand in the stadium. The fire quickly spread killing fifty six fans. Perhaps one of the worst incidences to date was one that occurred in 1989 where ninety six people passed away at Hillsborough Stadium. Their deaths were caused by a collision between fans who had been delayed by traffic and earlier fans. The former group entered the stadium through a narrow entry and crushed into the seated group thus ramming them onto steel barriers that had been set up in the stadium for safety reasons. (Fuller & Hawkins, 1998)
All the latter events caused UK policy makers to pass several legislations that have gone a long way in curbing similar occurrences. The paper shall look at these legislations, how they have been implemented and how they have contributed towards a safer environment for football spectators in various stadiums.
Legislations
Wheatley Committee Report
One of the first steps towards boosting safety within football stadiums was made in the year 1972 during creation of the Wheatley Committee Report. The latter Report was an analysis of the Ibrox stadium incidents. This report revealed that the disaster had been caused by three major issues that included; structural failures, lack of statutes on sports grounds as well as poor risk assessment. Through this report, UK policy makers realised that there was a need to make statutory laws on football or sports and this tremendously improved safety levels in those areas.
Safety of Sports Ground Act
After the horrific incident of 1971, one of the most relevant pieces of sports legislations was passed i.e. the Safety of Sports Ground Act 1975. This law grants the secretary of state the responsibility for designating sports grounds. Designation here refers to the right to own a safety certificate offered by a Certifying Authority. In the Act, grounds that qualify are those ones with a capacity of approximately ten thousand spectators, or those ones that host Premier League as well as Football League clubs with about five thousand spectators housed there. (Myron, 2007)
In these safety certificates, the Certifying Authority normally lays out rules that it sees necessary for the creation of a safe environment at sports grounds. It is therefore an offence if a designated sports ground has not obtained a certificate or if it violates the terms of the certificate. It should be noted that there is set procedure that Certifying Authorities follow prior to issuance of the certificate. They are directed by the Safety at Sports Grounds Guide created by the Department of media, sport and culture. This Guide was published under the name Green Guide. It is mostly used to determine the most appropriate capacity levels for any sports ground. On top of that, it also lays out some advice to the concerned parties over what they could do in order to ensure that their grounds are safe enough. The Green Guide itself is not a law but becomes enforceable once it has been included in safety certificates.
The Green Guide
The Green Guide is also called the Guide to Safety of Sports Grounds. It was revised in the year 1986 and published again after some work had been done by the Popplewell Report. The report covers the following issues:
Structures of stairways and ramps
Structures of buildings and stands
Exits and entrances
Crush barriers
Terraces
Perimeter walls
Handrails (Geraint, 2007)
Through this Guide, football stadiums can be able to calculate the safety capacity for their sports grounds; they may also be in a position to plan for safety and stewardship issues. On top of this, structural issues surrounding ramps, stairways, barriers, seating, communication and even fire safety are addressed at length. This implies that almost all areas that could bring about accidents have been handled by football stadiums and this means greater safety for spectators.
Since it has already been stated that the Certifying Authority is responsible for implementation of the green guide, it is crucial to see how this has been achieved. The latter authority usually decides whether there will be a formal liaison or whether this will be done through the use of regular liaisons. Whenever a risk alert is found, then it is the duty of one authority to notify another authority in charge of the stadium so as to ensure that coordinated caution is enforced within these premises. In the event that a group seriously breaches these rules, then the certifying authority is obliged to notify a district council which then takes action. These various collaborations ensure that football stadiums are kept on their toes because at any on time, there are always several authorities that are watching it. (Ware football club, 2008)
However, in case an emergency arises, then there are several avenues that may be followed in order to deal with impending dangers. Firstly, local enforcement officers may opt to issue a prohibition order for spectator protection. This must be done in liaison with the Certification Authority. Beside that, if the matter is so intense then law enforcement officers may be involved in order to ensure that people being affected by the matter are duly protected. All the issues covered by the Green Guide have been instrumental in bringing out the best in football stadiums because owners and stakeholders are aware of the repercussions of inadequacy or recklessness. Also, the guide assists football stadium owners in knowing which aspects of their stadiums could be dangerous and what needs to be done in order to improve safety. (Home Affairs Committee, 2007)
When a football stadium has obtained a safety certificate, it must comply with two main requirements; safety management as well as sports ground safety. Certification requires that a suitable risk assessment be made by the sports ground manager, that there be contingency plans for handling spectators, that there should be safety policies of spectators, detailed graphical illustrations of the stadium and, existence and qualification of a safety officer. All these conditions must be adhered even after issuance of the certificate. In order to ensure this, the Certifying Authority normally carries out frequent checks as specified by the Safety of Sports Act 1975 section 1 b. Prior to matches, the Certifying Authority is also required to look into sports ground compliance to the Certificate conditions before commencement of some matches. The kinds of matches chosen are dependent on the choice of the Authority. (Northgate Arinso, 2009)
In the event that a Certifying Authority inspects and finds a sports ground risky, then he /she can issue a notice that will prohibit admission of certain numbers of spectators. This means that a football stadium may be prevented from carrying out its day to day activities even if it had managed to obtained designation. The Sports Certification has gone a long way in boosting safety at football stadiums because respective managers must abide by these rules if they are to stay in business.
The Green Guide has also been important in outlining the importance of football stewardship. (Northgate Arinso, 2009) In other words, through this legislation football stadiums have become safe areas owing to the contributions made by staff members. For example, nowadays, stadiums have chief stewards, deputy safety officers as well supervisors to ensure that everything is running smoothly in a football arena. Aside from that, the latter areas also have static points that are designed to ensure smooth movement of people. For instance, perimeter gates have been installed, escalators as well as spectator monitoring points. Football stewardship also entails designating one steward over a certain number of people. For example, many stadiums usually employ a ratio of one to 200 depending on the levels of attendance. However, if a stadium anticipates a high number of children or if it feels that the expected crowd will not comply with their responsibilities as spectators, then more stewards can be allocated for a smaller number of people. Stadiums have also introduced specialist stewards whose main purpose is to deal with children or persons with disabilities.
Popplewell Report
In 1985, football stakeholders also created the Popplewell Report. This was a paper released after a commission of inquiry was set up to look into the Bradford football stadium disaster of 1985. In the latter report, members of the committee asserted that sports legislation in the region i.e. the 1975 Act was not sufficient to cover all issues in sports safety. Besides that, members also claimed that there was a need to look into the distinctions between sports grounds as well as stadiums so as to differentiate the risks associated with either case. Also, the Inquiry team felt that there was a need to clarify all the issues that are laid out in safety certificates. They spearheaded the change towards this by drafting model certificates. Additionally, they recommended that all fire risks be handled by one team in football stadiums while structural aspects be handled by another. This would go a long way in ascertaining that one group was not overburdened by the problems. This report was important in bringing in the idea of the Fire Precautions Act which was supposed to address all the fire risks in football stadiums hosting five hundred spectators or more. Thanks to this report, the Green Guide for sports grounds was revised and the Fire Safety and Safety of Places of Sport Act ’87 was created. (Fuller & Hawkins, 1998)
Fire Safety and Safety of places of Sport Act 1987
As stated in the introduction, some sixty six fans died at Bradford due to a cigarette fire in 1985. This incident also prompted another piece of legislation known as the Fire Safety and Safety of places of Sport Act 1987. In this legislation, it was affirmed that sports grounds that can hold more than five hundred spectators ought to ensure that they possess a safety certificate. It should be noted that these grounds fall under another category known as a regulated stand. This type of Certificate largely focuses on escape routes and stands. Unlike the first type of certificate, this regulation does not focus on the sports ground itself. In most areas within the UK, a Building Control authority will be required to disseminate it. This is largely because every time a certain sports ground thinks of expansion, then they are likely to seek advice from a Building Control Authority. The latter group has the ability to determine whether stadium alterations will increase the levels of safety in those areas. (Ware football club, 2008) This Certificate has a gone a long way in preventing fire incidences in football stadiums.
Whenever a football stadium is about to host a large group of spectators, then there are several teams mandated by law to be included in the management of such events. These teams are made up of the following groups
Ambulance Services
Fire Authorities
The Police
Building control
Other service groups. (Geraint, 2007)
Such teams usually ensure that all the parameters involved in safety are considered and enforced by football stadiums. Also, the fact that they are working together goes a long way in ascertaining that one aspect in not forgotten while overemphasising on others. This is probably the reason why safety levels in football stadiums have given up and also why catastrophic events like the ones mentioned earlier have not occurred in this decade.
The Fire Safety and places of Sport Act 1987 has ensured that football stadiums prevent occurrence of fires accidentally. Clubs normally monitor, review, plan and organise matters surrounding fire incidents. Statistics have shown that fire risk assessments are fundamental in preventing actual fire incidences and this has contributed tremendously towards more safety in football stadiums. Many stadiums are well aware of the Bradford issue and the recommendations made by the inquiry committee. Consequently, most staff members have been trained on rapid fire evacuation techniques. The Bradford Stadium fire was catapulted by closed fire exits, few fire exits as well as over-stretched capacities. Most stadium owners and managers have implemented several measures to ensure that spectators can safely leave premises in case of emergencies. This has effectively prevented another Bradford incident.
In different areas of the UK, several football stadiums have now adopted a three tier management structure that involves local authorities, emergency services as well as themselves. The latter approach has emerged after the realisation that coordination of activities is very necessary in ensuring footballer safety. (Irish Football Association, 2006)
Football Spectators Act 1989
The UK also passed a Football Spectators Act in the year 1989 and amended it in 1991 to allow the Football Licensing Authority to deal with Licensing of all the groups covered under the Championship League as well as the Premier League. These football events are some of the most important in the UK’s calendar and implementation of such legislation has therefore been crucial in ascertaining that some of the risks associated with the spectators are dealt with before they can turn into dangerous aspects of their lives.
Health and Safety at Work Act 1974
The health and Safety at Work Act of 1974 has also been crucial in ensuring that another dimension on football safety that was not covered by the latter mentioned legislations is dealt with; this involves all the risks related to the actual sporting event taking place. This law requires that event organisers analyse and hence manage all the risks to spectators as well as to worker’s health while watching sporting events. Consequently, potential risks like steel rein forcers are analysed and checked for potential danger; this has protected many spectators from looming dangers associated with being in a large crowd while watching football matches.
The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 has also gone a long way in making sure that stadiums take preventive measures to make spectators’ safety a priority in football stadium. Here, most stadium mangers have created several day to day action plans that consider each sporting event and the level of risk associated with the event.
On top of these, the Health and safety at Work Act 1974 has been useful in protecting spectators during times of emergencies especially when it comes to medical issues as well as first aid arrangements. These days, no football match occurs without the presence of less than two first aiders in attendance. On top of that, when a match entails a crowd of large proportions, then every first aider is usually allocated about one thousand members. Football clubs have also created ample room in which members can receive first aid without having to worry about exposure to the elements or other crowd members. NHS trust representatives as well as doctors specialising in crowds need to collaborate with one another so that they can be in a position where they can offer first aid responses quickly and efficiently to spectators who may need it. Many footballs stadiums also have defibrillators in compliance with legislations of workplace safety. These measures have ensured prompt responses from concerned parties and have also been able to boost outcomes in such institutions
The Health and safety at work Act has also ascertained that most football stadiums address issues that may cause discrepancy after commencement of a match. For example, when a match has been abandoned by team players, then a number of stadiums have made provisions for refunds. This is also common in case matches have been cancelled or postponed. Therefore by anticipating issues that may cause discrepancy and dealing with them before hand, football stadiums (in compliance with the latter legislation) have made such stadiums peaceful environments that are safe for the spectators. (Irish Football Association, 2006)
Taylor Report
There was also another important government intervention known as the Taylor Report. This was enacted in the year 1989 after the Hillsborough stadium incident. The report was supposed to look into the issues that had caused the latter incident and whether these could be addressed in the future. It was affirmed that poor leadership in football was lacking, that poor facilities led to the problem, that fans and officials did not consult, that alcohol selling in such stadiums contributed and so did newspaper as well as television perceptions. This report recommended that terraces be replaced by seats, perimeter fencing be made less than 2.2 metres, that ticket touting be made a criminal offence and that missile throwing, racist chanting as well as other offences should be dealt with. Most of these recommendations have been implemented thus going a long way in ensuring that sports grounds are safe in football. (Irish Football Association, 2006)
There are several ways in which the Taylor Report recommendations have been implemented in football stadiums. For instance, most grounds normally ensure that they assess the entry capacity of their stadiums so as to make certain that people entering are within manageable limits. This considerably improves the level of order and hence safety in such facilities. Besides that, these very groups usually look into their holding capacities. In other words, all stadiums have a capacity that can be dealt with comfortably; consequently, adherence to this holding limit has improved safety levels especially when a football match has a high number of followers. Closely related to the latter is the issue of exit capacities. Following previous disasters where several people were not in a position to leave the stadium securely, stadiums have realised that they must assess and hence allow only certain numbers of people within their exit doors at any one time. In the case of emergencies, stadiums have implemented several evacuation routes and evacuation methods that are directly related to the level of risk within their facilities.
The Taylor report as well the Green Guide has been instrumental in promoting peace in football stadiums because of their prohibitions on alcohol. Nowadays, England and Wales have enacted legislations that only allow the following; consumption of alcohol in football stadiums where the teams involved are entering in the Football League or other leagues for the first time and alcohol consumption is only allowed when an association football match is going. However, even in those stadiums, persons consuming alcohol are usually not allowed to get drunk, they are not supposed to enter the grounds with alcohol in their hands, they cannot take alcohol two hours prior to the match if seated in areas where the match can be seen. Spectators are also not allowed to consume alcohol in hospitality boxes that are in view of the football field. Here, they can only do so fifteen minutes before and after a match. Spectators are also not allowed to hold beer cans or other alcoholic containers because these may be used to injure other persons watching the match. In such regard, spectators even violating these rules may be immediately removed from such matches. By enacting all the following issues, football stadium managers have eradicated some of the possible dangers associated with drunken and disorderly members of the audience. (Northgate Arinso, 2009)
Disability Discrimination Act 2005
The Disability Discrimination Act of 2005 has been very vital in increasing safety levels at such stadiums. This Act was designed in order to ensure that the needs of disabled persons are catered for by football clubs. The latter group are particularly sensitive because in case a certain accident occurs, then it may be disabled persons who suffer the most. Many stadiums have implemented a series of structural as well as strategic measures to implement this Act and hence protect disabled spectators. For instance, blind people with guard dogs are normally given precedence during entrance or exist and spaces have been designed for this very purpose.
Conclusion
It can be said that legislations have in fact made UK football stadiums much safer than they were prior to those laws. The Wheatley Committee report of 1972 was one of the first pieces and it contributed towards better structural facilities in these stadiums. Shortly, after, the safety of Sports Ground Act of 1975 was passed and it has ensured that safety certificates are issued to football stadiums depending on their capacity thus leading to reinforcement of crowd limits. The Popplewell Report of 1985 was vital in introducing new elements such as fire risks during football matches. The Fire Safety and Safety of Places of Sports Act of 1987 has gone a long way in preparing football stadiums to deal with fire incidents through safety precautions. The Green Guide which was revised in ’86 was instrumental in making football stadium structures and capacities comply with the needs of the spectators thus preparing them to deal with any eventualities. Lastly, the Taylor Report contributed towards eradication of certain behaviour that could impede safety and these include alcohol consumption, chanting racist slogans among others. All these aspects have caused stadium managers/ owners/ stakeholders to become more vigilant and strict about protection of spectators hence contributing towards greater safety in these facilities.
References
Geraint, L. (2007). Stadia: a development guide. Amsterdam: Architectural Publishers.
Myron, S. (2007). Wembley kick off: England first to play. Daily Mail..
The aim of the study is to identify leadership strategies used by football and tennis coaches in the UK and the motivations behind the selection of these strategies.
Objectives
To identify the coaching leadership styles used by football and tennis coaches
To compare the motivations for using coaching leadership style in football and tennis
To uncover the effect of the coaching leadership styles on player satisfaction
To develop possible suggestions for improving the current situation
Literature Review Chapter
Leadership Strategy
The leadership strategy used by a coach has an impact on the performance and satisfaction of the team members. According to Ferrar et al. (2018), leadership is a behavioral process where the leader influences others to achieve the set goals. The importance of this definition is that it places special emphasis on the intentions of the leader (achieving the set goals) while mentioning the necessity for interactions between team members and the leader. In defining the nature of effective leadership Heidari et al. (2019) state that it involves an understanding of the motivations of team members and should target to minimize potential losses of productivity. However, Collins and Durand-Bush (2014) believe that this can be achieved when the leader develops team cohesion, therefore, allowing the team to operate at its potential. Consequently, cohesion depends on the relationship between the team members and the coach.
One common theme in all leadership styles is the ability of the leader to have a positive impact on group dynamics by following the objective of the team. In this sense, Heidari et al. (2019) argue that the act of leadership seeks to influence others to follow the leader. Konter et al. (2019) further concluded that effective leadership is best achieved through methods such as manipulation, coercion, and persuasion. However, Ferrar et al. (2018) insist that there must be respect and an understanding of the power dynamics between the follower and the leader. It means that all parties must acknowledge the power balance between them. Furthermore, every action involved in successful leadership is political because there is always room for coercion.
General Approach to Leadership Theories
Several articles have been written about leadership, with some claiming that it can be achieved through heredity and others by experience. Nawaz and Khan (2016) describe leadership as a sophisticated concept in modern times. In the past, leaders were differentiated from their followers using words like the chief, king, or head of state. However, Anderson et al. (2017) argue that the definition of a leader was only introduced into the Oxford English Dictionary in the first half of the nineteenth century but was aligned with political influence and control. The word has, therefore, gained prominence in modern languages in recent times. Considering that there are many definitions of leadership today, social scientists have developed leadership theories to accommodate the varying definitions. Nawaz and Khan (2016) classify these theories into three approaches:
Trait Theories
Much of the research on leadership during the early twentieth century focused on the identification of the traits which defined leaders. According to Nawaz and Khan (2016), trait theories sought to answer questions such as what an effective leader looked like rather than how they lead. Based on this approach, Mills and Boardley (2017) suggested that successful leadership requires an individual to have a certain personality, which makes him or her lead in every situation. Given this perspective, the author states that good leaders are rather born than made. In this regard, it was thought that leaders who succeeded in particular contexts were likely to equally succeed in every situation (Nawaz and Khan, 2016). This means that successful leaders possess a set of common traits, such as self-confidence, intelligence, and self-assurance.
There have been attempts to use the trait approach for identifying successful coaches in sports. Billsberry et al. (2018), for example, profiled a typical coach as a leader who is independent in thinking, authoritarian, and emotionally mature. However, social scientists supporting the approach lost favor after World War II, when a review of trait-related leadership studies was conducted and only a couple of personality traits were found to be consistent (Peachey et al., 2015). According to the authors, this was not enough evidence to show that successful leaders had similar sets of leadership traits. Another review by Mills and Boardley (2017) made similar conclusions relative to sports leadership. Given the turn of events, there have been a reduced number of research articles on trait leadership.
Behavioral Theories
Owing to the failure of the trait approach, researchers began using behaviors to define a leader. In this sense, the behaviors of successful leaders were examined. Contrary to the trait approach, the behavioral approach asserted that leaders were made, rather than born (Mills and Boardley, 2016). The focus, therefore, shifted to the leadership style instead of what the leader looked like. Behaviorist scientists such as Keegan et al. (2014) argue that everyone has the potential of becoming a leader as long as they learn from the behaviors of other leaders. Based on behavior, the authors classify leaders as either autocratic or democratic. On the other hand, Turnnidge and Côté (2019) classified leaders as permissive or directive, while Mills and Boardley (2016) used task or people, oriented behaviors. It means that the behavioral dimension focuses on concepts related to the actions of leaders.
Situational Theories
Personality theories became ineffective in predicting the performance of groups. Contrary to the trait and behavioral perspectives of leadership theories, the situational approach assumes that no type of leader is better than the other (Kovach, 2018). The effectiveness of each leader depends on how they interact with every situation. According to Megheirkouni (2018), a situation referred to variables such as team behaviors, type and complexity of the task, and the size of the team. However, Kovach (2018) argues that there has been an irregular application of situational theories in sports. Researchers only focus on specific variables and how they influence leader behaviors rather than seeking to understand the leadership process.
A Sports Specific Approach
Two theoretical frameworks are commonly used in sports leadership studies. The cognitive-behavioral model was proposed by Smoll and Smith (Nelson et al., 2014). According to Jones et al. (2016), leadership depends on the difference in cognitive processes and situational factors that are believed to mediate the behaviors of coaches and the reactions of athletes toward the leaders. The second theoretical framework is the Multidimensional Leadership Model whose focus is on the congruence among the required, actual, and preferred behaviors (Nelson et al., 2014). The antecedents of the three leader traits are the nature of the situation and the characteristics of both the coach and team members.
The Cognitive-behavioral Model
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is known to produce lasting results in Psychology. Under this theory, the cognitive model concept is built upon the premise that the emotions and behaviors of individuals are determined by how they perceive events (Lee et al., 2015). In this sense, Jones et al. (2016) argue that the situation itself does not influence the feelings and reactions of people, but their interpretation of it which in turn generates emotions and affects their behaviors. The cognitive model links a person’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. According to Dixon et al. (2017), thoughts can be functional or dysfunctional, meaning that they have the potential of helping or disrupting the process of achieving goals. In his regard, they add that thought can produce desired or undesired emotions hence influencing positive or negative behaviors. However, Nelson et al. (2014) argue that the influence depends on the evaluation the person makes of the situation. The mechanism of the cognitive-behavioral model produces core beliefs, which form the description of the self.
The focus of the cognitive-behavioral model is on how personal, environmental, and behavioral factors interrelate. North (2017) indicates that these factors form a reciprocal causal network. In this sense, the three factors interact to produce various attitudinal consequences. Collins and Collins (2016) also state that the model acknowledges that human interactions take place in a dynamic environmental context, which influences the outcomes of the interactions. According to Dixon et al. (2017), when identical interactions are put in two different sports contexts (elite level sport and youth physical education), they will produce different outcomes. In explaining this observation, the authors state that the cognitive-behavioral model assumes all humans to be different and hence the differences in outcomes of their interactions. In this regard, the distinct outcomes produced by the identical set of interactions are affected by the personality of the individuals involved.
Personal experiences in life affect how people give meaning to the situational state. Didymus and Fletcher (2017), therefore, indicate that an individual may interpret or reinterpret the situation as favorable or dangerous. Coaches thus have to learn various ways of identifying, evaluating, and responding to the thoughts and beliefs of team members (Dixon et al., 2017). Having identified the thoughts, the leader must carry out an analysis to determine their validity for the respective context and finally develop a course of action. However, Weaver and Simet (2015) believe that a realistic evaluation of the situation will end up modifying the thought, enhancing emotions, and producing functional behaviors relative to the sport’s setting. The application of CBT by coaches in sports ensures that athletes can identify and evaluate their thoughts to improve the resultant emotions and try to produce the desired behaviors.
Coaches can also derive cognitive and behavioral techniques from the theory which they would use to help team members to manage internal thoughts and emotions in both practices and competitions. According to Lyle and Cushion (2016), athletes are likely to experience and interpret events, thoughts, and emotions differently as a result of expectations and past previous experiences. Furthermore, Arnold et al. (2016) found that athletes have different psychological stressors, which depend on their gender, the type of sporting activity, and their performance level. These authors argued that men and women produce different internal responses in terms of appraisals and coping strategies when they face organizational stressors. In a study that produced similar results, Didymus and Fletcher (2014) found that swimming coaches successfully used diaries to keep athlete records, which helped the athletes become aware and differentiate between their thoughts and emotions. However, in this study due to the long-term data gathering, it is difficult to know the criteria used by the swimmers to judge the effectiveness of their coping.
The leadership styles used by coaches in various sports have value on the performance of players. It means that coaching requires one to follow different leadership styles depending on the prevailing situation (Lyle and Cushion, 2016). The leadership behavior model conforms to these sentiments as it is based on situation-specific behaviors. According to Arnold et al. (2016), the central process of the model lies with the perception of the players regarding the behaviors of the coach as well as how the players respond to the coach’s leadership style. Weaver and Simet (2015) further state that the model stipulates that the meaning the players attribute to the leadership style employed by the coach is likely to have the ultimate effects of the choice of coaching behaviors. In other words, the attitudes toward the coach are a product of cognitive and affective processes. Given the various perspectives of the model, Heidari et al. (2019) conclude that it measures and defines the link between the role of the coach, the perception of the players regarding the coach, and the attitudinal responses of the players to the entire situation.
There are coach individual variables that help determine their behavior. Jones et al. (2016) mention factors such as intentions, perception of self and players, and gender. North (2017) also argues that player individual variables such as motivation, anxiety, age, gender, and confidence level can affect the behavior of the coach. On the other hand, situational factors include the nature of the sport (Didymus and Fletcher, 2017), team cohesion (Konter et al., 2019), the success of the team, and competitive level (Nelson et al., 2014). Dixon et al. (2017) observed that some coaches were treated athletes with low self-confidence differently from others. The Coaching Behavior Assessment System (CBAS) was developed to help observe and code the behaviors of coaches (Turnnidge and Côté, 2019). CBAS allows for the observation of the leadership strategies used by coaches during practices and games. Based on the observations made, the coach can ascertain the effectiveness of the leadership strategies employed. The CBAS assesses both coach reactive and spontaneous behaviors towards team members.
Multidimensional Model of Leadership
The model is built upon three types of leader behaviors. First is the required behavior, which Cummins et al. (2017) describe as a set of prescriptions of the situation within which the leadership occurs. Jackson et al. (2014) also noted that the behaviors of leaders are mostly defined by situations such as the intended objectives, the type of task, and the socio-cultural context of the team. According to Bekiari and Balla (2017), the nature of the team, which contributes to the required behavior, is determined by aspects such as skill level, gender, and age. The second type of leader behavior is preferred behavior. Kao et al. (2015) describe this as the preferences of team members for a particular set of behavior such as social support and feedback. However, Cummins et al. (2017) believe that the preferences of team members are largely dependent on individual characteristics such as personality and ability to achieve the task at hand. Leaders, therefore, must abide by situational requirements and accommodate the preferences of all team members.
The Leadership Scale for Sport was developed to test the effectiveness of the Multidimensional Model of Leadership. According to Lyle and Cushion (2016), LSS measures all the aspects of leadership behaviors. These include the preferences of the team members, the perceptions of athletes regarding their coaches, and the perceptions of the coaches on their behavior (Jackson et al. 2014). In this regard, Bekiari and Balla (2017) proposed that coaches should consider using multiple leadership styles depending on differences in the characteristics of team members such as gender and educational background. The five dimensions used in the LSS are discussed hereafter:
Training and Instruction
The objective of the coach is to bolster the skill set of the team members. Koh et al. (2014) for example state that under this dimension, a strength coach can take the necessary steps to refine players’ running technique. Similarly, tennis players may be taken through newly introduced flexibility exercises by their trainers (Cummins et al., 2017). The focus of the training and instruction dimension is to explain the techniques and tactics involved in the exercises, therefore, providing a rationale for the reasons behind implementing the new concepts (Chiu et al., 2016). It ensures that the athlete is familiar with the training priorities for the particular sport.
Autocratic behavior
Autocratic leaders tend to ensure that athletes are less involved in decision-making regarding their training. According to Chiu et al. (2016), coaches are likely to use strategies such as commands and punishments to facilitate the fulfillment of training plans and activities. However, Weaver and Simet (2015) criticize autocratic leadership based on the premise that the coach develops training plans with no input from team members. In this sense, the autocratic behavior dimension portrays a coach who uses their judgment to decide on what the athlete needs.
Democratic behavior
The democratic behavior dimension allows athletes to participate in decisions affecting their training. Soyer et al. (2014) consider it to be a means for coaches to respect the rights of team members. Koh et al. (2014) also concluded that democratic behavior by coaches allowed players to set their own goals and contribute to their training program. Given this form of leadership, the participants feel important to the success of the team.
Positive Feedback
The positive feedback dimension reinforces athletes by acknowledging them for their successes. In so doing, the coaches are likely to maintain high motivational levels within the teams.
Social Support
Social support is a humanistic dimension that seeks to address athletes’ interpersonal needs. In this case, Billsberry et al. (2018) argue that the coach should remain sensitive to players and help with solving their issues. However, Cummins et al. (2017) assert that coaches require a high degree of emotional intelligence, which involves understanding the players’ emotional makeup and handling them in a manner that conforms to their emotional reactions. Given this ability, coaches can effectively oversee the implementation of this dimension.
In the past, researchers used theories from non-sports settings to develop frameworks that helped to understand leadership in sports. However, Kao et al. (2015) argue that researchers faced the task of identifying specific approaches which reflected the unique needs of sports settings. The multidimensional model of leadership was therefore developed in response to the tedious efforts associated with other theories (Cummins et al., 2017). It provides a conceptual framework allowing for the study of leadership effectiveness within the sports context. The effectiveness of the multidimensional model of leadership depends on the relationship between the coach and team members, the structure of the task at hand, and the power position (Chiu et al., 2016). Additionally, Moen et al. (2014) indicate that situational factors also influence the effectiveness of the coach. In an analysis of athlete preferred behaviors, Collins and Collins (2016) found that good leaders were flexible and were expected to adopt coaching behaviors that fit the context of different players. Similar observations were made by Heidari et al. (2019), who concluded that the majority of coaches adapt their behaviors to match athletes’ preferred behaviors. In such cases, the team members were more inclined toward the coach, satisfied, and performed better.
behavior does develop in isolation but rather through the influence of antecedent factors such as leader and group preferences. In the case of football, Megheirkouni (2018) found out that leaders face the challenge of adapting to one dominant leadership style with the potential of satisfying all leadership situations. Additionally, the authors links such challenges with a large number of highly paid players, making it difficult to keep everyone satisfied. On the contrary, the multidimensional model of leadership stresses the significance of ‘fit’ with high satisfaction levels with individual performance (Anderson et al., 2017). Therefore, the occurrence of discrepancies put to question the ability of coaches to handle important dilemmas such as whether to carry on without making changes and encourage other team members to accommodate those slow at adapting to changes. In this regard, the coach must be able to decide whether to remove barriers including players creating disharmony, or to become more flexible, which may not work for authoritarian managers.
Preferred leadership behaviors tend to present more similarities than differences in men and women. However, Mills and Boardley (2017) found that males preferred their coaches to have more instructive behaviors, which calls for an autocratic leadership style. These variations are also evident in different types of sports. In the study by Mills and Boardley (2016), the participants in football, which is a highly interactive sport preferred more autocratic leadership behavior contrary to co-acting sports such as swimming and tennis. On the contrary, Weaver and Simet (2015) found frequent use of social support by coaches as a way of sustaining motivation resulted in poorer team performance in interactive sports. The various researches give evidence of a relationship between required behaviors, preferred and actual behaviors, and the impact of each on athletes’ performance and satisfaction. In this regard, Cummins et al. (2017) argue that larger discrepancies between the three forms of behaviors can produce less satisfaction and result in poor performance. The LSS, is, therefore, largely used to investigate the motivations of coaches’ decision-making styles.
Research Gap
The literature proposes that the decisions made by coaches affect the team process, hence the effectiveness of the teams. However, players and teams in both football and tennis have different needs, and so do their expectations for coaches’ behavior. Considering the definition of leadership which underpins the cognitive-behavioral model, a coach is expected to come up with coaching strategies that meet the needs of individual team members to accomplish group goals. This means that the effectiveness of a team can only be achieved by meeting the collective goals of all team members (Ferrar et al., 2018). However, the existing literature fails to address the fact that different sports provide unique problems and contexts. Ultimately the effectiveness of a coach is judged based on athletes’ wins and losses, even though these outcomes also rely on the performance of the opponent and the team’s performance (Megheirkouni, 2018). By examining differences in the goals of football and tennis, the research will judge the motivations of coaches based on the effectiveness of execution rather than the outcomes. Football and tennis have varying performance goals, but it remains unknown how coaches establish quality goals.
The effectiveness of handling issues relating to athletes by coaches depends on the selection of the appropriate leadership strategy. However, the literature fails to outline a defined criterion for coaches to choose among various leadership strategies but instead relies on judgment and quick thinking. While several studies exist on leadership models, the dominant theme is the relationship between leadership style and outcomes such as satisfaction and team harmony. However, there is limited research on the motivations behind the selection of different leadership strategies in different sports and the resultant effect on athletes’ commitment. Since English football has a good ranking globally compared to tennis, the findings of the current research can motivate clubs, coaches, and other participants in sporting activities to settle on more effective strategies. Therefore the research addressed the reasons behind the adoption of different leadership strategies for football and tennis and the impact of these choices on sportsmanship commitment in the UK.
Reference List
Anderson, H. J., Baur, J. E., Griffith, J. A. and Buckley, M. R., (2017). ‘What works for you may not work for (Gen) Me: Limitations of present leadership theories for the new generation’. The Leadership Quarterly, 28(1), pp. 245-260. doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.08.001
Arnold, R., Fletcher, D. and Daniels, K., (2016). ‘Demographic differences in sport performers’ experiences of organizational stressors’. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 26(3), pp. 348-358. doi: 10.1111/sms.12439
Bekiari, A. and Balla, K. (2017). ‘Instructors and students relations: argumentativeness, leadership and goal orientations’. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 5, pp. 128-143. doi: 10.4236/jss.2017.57009.
Billsberry, J. et al., (2018). ‘Reimagining leadership in sport management: lessons from the social construction of leadership’. Journal of Sport Management, 32(2), pp. 170-182. doi: 10.1123/jsm.2017-0210
Chiu, W., Rodriguez, F. M. and Won, D., (2016). ‘Revisiting the leadership scale for sport: examining factor structure through exploratory structural equation modeling’. Psychological Reports, 119(2), pp. 435-449. doi: 10.1177/0033294116662880
Collins, J. and Durand-Bush, N., (2014). ‘Strategies used by an elite curling coach to nurture athletes’ self-regulation: a single case study’. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 26(2), pp. 211-224. doi: 10.1080/10413200.2013.819823
Collins, L. and Collins, D., (2016). ‘Professional judgement and decision-making in adventure sports coaching: the role of interaction’. Journal of Sports Sciences, 34(13), pp. 1231-1239. doi: 10.1080/02640414.2015.1105379
Cummins, P., O’Boyle, I. and Cassidy, T., (2017). Leadership in sports coaching: a social identity approach (1st Edition). London: Taylor and Francis.
Didymus, F. F. and Fletcher, D., (2017) ‘Effects of a cognitive-behavioral intervention on field hockey players’ appraisals of organizational stressors’. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 30, pp. 173-185. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.03.005
Dixon, M., Turner, M. J. and Gillman, J., (2017) ‘Examining the relationships between challenge and threat cognitive appraisals and coaching behaviors in football coaches’. Journal of Sports Sciences, 35(24), pp. 2446-2452. doi: 10.1080/02640414.2016.1273538
Ferrar, P. et al., (2018) ‘Building high performing coach-athlete relationships: the usoc’s national team coach leadership education program (NTCLEP)’. International Sport Coaching Journal, 5(1), pp. 60-70. doi: 10.1123/iscj.2017-0102
Heidari, M., Ghasemi, S. and Heidari, R., (2019) ‘The effects of leadership and employment in technical capabilities of sport teams’. Journal of Humanities Insights, 3(2), pp. 75-80. doi: 10.22034/jhi.2019.80900
Jackson, B., Gucciardi, D. F. and Dimmock, J. A., (2014) ‘Toward a multidimensional model of athletes’ commitment to coach-athlete relationships and interdependent sport teams: a substantive-methodological synergy’. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 36(1), pp. 52-68. doi: 10.1123/jsep.2013-0038
Jones, R. L., Edwards, C. and Viotto, I. T., (2016) ‘Activity theory, complexity and sports coaching: an epistemology for a discipline’. Sport, Education and Society, 21(2), pp. 200-216. doi: 10.1080/13573322.2014.895713
Kao, S. F., Chen, Y. F., Watson, J. C. and Halbrook, M., (2015) ‘Relationships between the congruence of required and perceived leadership behavior and satisfaction in athletes’. Psychological Reports, 117(2), pp. 391-405. doi: 10.2466/01.07.PR0.117c16z4
Keegan, R. J., Harwood, C. G., Spray, C. M. and Lavallee, D., (2014) ‘A qualitative investigation of the motivational climate in elite sport’. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 15(1), pp. 97-107. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2013.10.006
Koh, K. T., Kawabata, M. and Mallett, C. J., (2014) ‘The coaching behavior scale for sport: factor structure examination for Singaporean youth athletes’. International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, 9(6), pp. 1311-1324. doi: 10.1260/1747-9541.9.6.1311
Konter, E., Loughead, T. M. and Paradis, K. F., (2019) ‘Leadership power in footbal’. Football Psychology: From Theory to Practice, 127. doi: 10.4324/9781315268248-11
Kovach, M., (2018). ‘An examination of leadership theories in business and sport achievement contexts’. The Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 11(2), pp. 14. doi: 10.22543/0733.62.1215
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Lyle, J. and Cushion, C., (2016) Sport coaching concepts: a framework for coaching practice (2nd Edition). London: Taylor and Francis.
Megheirkouni, M., (2018) ‘Mixed methods in sport leadership research: a review of sport management practices’. Choregia, 14(1). doi: 10.4127/ch.2018.0126
Mills, J. P. and Boardley, I. D., (2016) ‘Expert premier league soccer managers’ use of transformational leadership behaviors and attitude towards sport integrity: an intrinsic case study’. International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, 11(3), pp. 382-394. doi: 10.1177/1747954116645011
Mills, J. P. and Boardley, I. D., (2017) ‘Advancing leadership in sport: time to ‘actually’take the blinkers off?’. Sports Medicine, 47(3), pp. 565-570. doi: 10.1007/s40279-016-0513-1
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Nelson, L., Groom, R. and Potrac, P., (2014) Research methods in sports coaching (1st edition). London: Routledge.
North, J., (2017) Sport coaching research and practice: ontology, interdisciplinarity and critical realism (1st edition). London: Taylor and Francis.
Peachey, J. W., Zhou, Y., Damon, Z. J. and Burton, L. J., (2015) ‘Forty years of leadership research in sport management: a review, synthesis, and conceptual framework’. Journal of Sport Management, 29(5), pp. 570-587. doi: 10.1123/jsm.2014-0126
Soyer, F., Sarı, İ. and Talaghir, L. G., (2014) ‘The relationship between perceived coaching behavior and achievement motivation: a research in football players’. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 152, pp. 421-425. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.09.224
Turnnidge, J. and Côté, J., (2019). ‘Observing coaches’ leadership behaviors: the development of the coach leadership assessment system (CLAS)’. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 23(3), pp. 214-226. doi: 10.1080/1091367X.2019.1602835
Weaver, A. and Simet, K., (2015). ‘Intercollegiate athlete as student leader’. New Directions for Student Leadership, 2015(147), pp. 53-63. doi: 10.1002/yd.20143
College football is one sport that is played most consistently in the USA, and most community colleges and universities frequently play it in all 52 States in the country. Many coaches have graced the sport over the years, but Bobby Bowden has stood tall above the rest. When playing football, the rules are simple enough to follow and understand, and that there is never a bad season for football, unlike some other outdoor activities. Bobby Bowden is one of the most celebrated college football coaches. He served as the football coach, head track, and field coach at various colleges, including Howard College, South Georgia College, and Florida State University (Bowden & Schlabach, 2011). His trust and strong confidence in God also became two of the major reasons he was considered the greatest.
Bobby Bowden is, without a doubt, one of the most celebrated football coaches, as seen from his great successes and having coached several young men in different colleges and universities in seven decades. Bowden did things the right way and reached out to help so many young men. He was a coach and a counselor to many young men both on and off the football pitch. He provided his wards with a living example of good character and uprightness, helping to shape the young men into great and successful football players, responsible sons, good spouses, and future fathers. One fact is that many people honored and idolized Bobby Bowden because of always standing up for the truth and honor. He was ethical and always authentic in his doings. Bobby Bowden, at one point, said, “Faith is the most important thing in the world to me. It is the greatest strength, and it has helped me go through hard times” (Bowden et al., 2009). This clearly shows that his birthright was beyond the game of football and his role as a coach.
As one of the sport’s most influential coaches, Bobby Bowden deserves to be remembered because of his accomplishments. He won more games than every college football coach except Penn State’s Joe. In his time with Florida State University, he guided the team to 388 victories and two national tournaments, finishing every season with at least ten wins. Bowden taught the young men important life skills to always tell the truth, compete and make winning their priority, and always have faith in God. He was one of the top active coaches in winning percentage in bowl games. He was the first coach to lead his team to bowl games in 27 consecutive seasons (Bowden & Schlabach, 2011); thus, he deserves to be the greatest college football coach of all time.
Bowden stands out to be the greatest coach of all time as far as his accomplishments are concerned. He remains strongly involved in the fellowship of Christian Athletes, presenting The National Bobby Bowden Award yearly to an outstanding student-athlete for achievement on and off the field. During his seven decades as a coach, Bobby Bowden never dithered in his faith. Bowden’s faith was so strong that he made sure all of the players knew the gospel. Unfettered by his successes as one of the most triumphant college coaches in the history of football, Bowden said his relationship with Jesus was more significant than any of his accomplishments as a player and as a coach (Bowden et al., 2009). He inspired two of his sons to become head coaches at Clemson University and Auburn University (Bowden & Schlabach 2011). Bobby Bowden coached 26 consensus All-Americans, including multiple winners of college football’s outstanding exclusive award.
Also, it is through Bobby Bowden that the Florida State University became one of the prodigious workings out grounds for the upcoming players. This was a great achievement, and that is why he is still remembered up to date. Bobby Bowden was awarded an award that distinguishes a coach each year with matchless attainment on and off the field. This is also one of his greatest achievements as a coach. He formed a team, the Fellowship of Christian Athletes, and trained them on fieldwork and spirituality. In 2011, through the group’s efforts, Bowden was bestowed with the Children’s Champion Award for Leadership Development by the Children’s Hunger Fund to appreciate his humanitarian work. He also received from the United States Sports Academy the Amos Alonzo Stagg Coaching Award for his phenomenal success as a coach. Another greatest achievement is that his team managed to beat Nebraska in 1980 (Bowden et al., 2009). After several attempts his team was one of the few with a winning record playing against Nebraska.
Taking everything into account, Bobby Bowden is truly the paramount college football coach of all time, as seen through his achievements and rewards. Although he is a retired football coach, his accomplishments are still remembered, and he remains a great teacher, role model, and mentor to many young men and women alike. His strong belief in God was on another level and was so inspiring to all who knew him. We all need to follow Bobby Bowden’s steps to be a better person. We can learn a lot through Bowden’s leadership qualities, and as a leader, one can follow Bowden’s ways.
References
Bowden, B., & Bowden, S. (2001). The Bowden Way: 50 years of leadership wisdom. Taylor Trade Publications.
Bowden, B., Bowden, T., Family, B., & Brown, B. (2009). Winning’s only part of the game: Lessons of life and football. Hachette UK.
Bowden, B., & Schlabach, M. (2011). Called to coach: Reflections on life, faith, and football. Simon and Schuster.
According to Sheehy (2015) and Ismail (2009) the present-day CSR is private business self-regulation that makes “business organizations consider the interest of society by taking responsibility for the impact of their activities on customers, suppliers, employees, shareholders, communities and other stakeholders as well as their environment.”
The debate over the issue of corporate social responsibility has started in the 1950s and its definition has been changing in practice and meaning since then. The classical meaning of CSR was restricted to philanthropy, but then the emphasis was put on business-society relations involving the contribution that a company or corporation administered for coping with social problems. According to Sheehy (2015) and Ismail (2009), the present-day CSR is private business self-regulation that makes “business organizations consider the interest of society by taking responsibility for the impact of their activities on customers, suppliers, employees, shareholders, communities and other stakeholders as well as their environment.”
Generally speaking, CSR is a growing business approach of integrating sustainable development into a firm’s business model. It usually addresses economic, social, and environmental concerns on which it often has a positive impact.
The 4 Pillars (pyramid) of CSR
Following Archie Carrol’s (1991) pyramid, the company has four main pillars of responsibility:
Economic.
Legal.
Ethical.
Philanthropic.
However, under Baden (2016), currently, the CSR pillars should be prioritised in such a way: ethical, legal, economic, and philanthropic.
Archie Carrol (1991), for the first time, introduced a CSR pyramid, what since became a very popular CSR theory. Following Carrol’s pyramid, the company has four main pillars of responsibility: Economic, Legal, Ethical, and Philanthropic. Economic responsibility is the lowest level of the pyramid but essential to accomplish the other ones. Only a profitable company can provide jobs, pay its workers, survive long-time, and ultimately contribute to the welfare of society. Legal responsibility means that businesses have to follow the law in their activities, including tax, health and safety regulations, employment laws, etc. Ethical responsibility states that organisations not only have to respect the law but also maintain their business in an ethical way.
This level of responsibility is more about opportunity than an obligation of the business because it delivers positive feedback both from stakeholders and customers. The ultimate pillar of CSR, at the pyramid’s top, is philanthropy what basically means that business should counterbalance their negative influence on the environment and society by giving back to the community (Carrol, 2016). However, according to Baden (2016), currently, the CSR pillars should be prioritised in such a way: ethical, legal, economic, and philanthropic.
How sports organisations such as FAI have approached it?
Three common modes of CSR implementation among football organisations are: in-house projects, outsourcing through charitable foundations, and through a partnership model with a non-profit partner (Zeimers, Zintz, and Willem, 2015).
The most common initiatives launched are education, youth sports, health initiatives, community development and charities.
CSR projects can be divided into environmental and social programmes.
CSR develops all over the world and encourages different football organizations to change their strategy, processes, and organisational structure in line with big corporations (Kolyperas, Morrow, and Sparks, 2015). Professional clubs are very similar to any other medium-sized international companies, and CSR provides them with value creation capacity. There are three common modes of CSR implementation among football organisations: in-house projects, outsourcing through charitable foundations, and through a partnership model with a non-profit partner (Zeimers, Zintz, and Willem, 2015).
Sports organisations such as the FAI have approached CSR with various initiatives to boost positive social changes. According to Erickson (2017), the most common initiatives launched by sport organisations are education, youth sports, health initiatives, community development and charities. It is quite natural that sports organisations address those types of initiatives because they have the strongest relation to their important stakeholders (Heinze, Soderstrom, and Zdroik, 2014). In general, CSR projects can be divided into environmental and social programmes. Social ones are those which deal with diversity, health, peace, anti-racism, reconciliation, or charity efforts.
Football clubs usually partner with local associations, UEFA, FIFA and other organizations such as UNICEF in order to join their CSR activities.
Football clubs usually partner with local associations, UEFA, FIFA and organizations such as UNICEF in order to join their CSR activities, such as the well-known campaign “Say No To Racism.” For instance, FC Barcelona has its own Foundation, which dedicates the 0,7% of club’s revenue to UNICEF, while FC Bayern Munich made its stadium the most-disability friendly in Germany (D’Amico and Cincimino, 2017).
The FAI itself has done a lot addressing the sports engagement of disabled people (Blind Football, Power Chair football), active participation of ethnic and cultural minority groups, anti-racism (Show Racism the Red Card), and reconciliation. To conclude, professional football organizations need to address CSR in order to maintain an image of a reliable brand and receive economic benefits.
The Football Association of Ireland and their Current Corporate Social Responsibility Policy
“We are passionately committed to being a responsible Organisation. This is driven from the very top of the Football Association of Ireland”
FAI – Corporate Social Responsibility Policy and Procedure Document – February 2013.
Many Thanks to Dannie and his comprehensive overview of the very fundamentals of Corporate Social Responsibility.
We can now examine our assigned corporation – The Football Association of Ireland – within this context. Now, the FAIs’ current corporate structure is in a state of some disarray at present. This may be symptomatic or indeed more likely as a direct result of their stated CSR aspirational objectives not been given the absolute respect and attention that they demand. This is illustrated effectively by the fact that their entire CSR policy has not been reviewed or updated since February 2013! – This observation is compounded again by the fact that it took over two weeks, over a dozen e-mails and many follow-up phone calls to management at the organizations head quarters in Abbotstown before their communications department were eventually able to actually locate the said document – (A document that incidentally runs to a mere page and a half!) – Now there are those out there who may be somewhat cynical with regards to the inherent benefits of CSR as a concept – But the FAIs’ current state of affairs could be a case in point to illustrate what can happen to any socially interactive organization if such concepts are ignored by management and a myriad of opportunities are subsequently lost… – But let us not dwell too long on the negatives.. – There are a lot of extremely well intentioned, hardworking and conscientious people involved in the FAI at grass roots level and beyond who instigate and execute CSR initiatives as a matter of course in their endeavors to progress the game and in doing so contribute significantly to the social fabric of their communities.. – It would appear however that due to an unwillingness (or actual negligence??) to date at corporate level to promote the CSR concept, the “folks on the ground” are simply are unaware of their contributions to this particular realm… (a point Barry will develop on later in our examination of how the FAI may promote and implement CSR revisions going forward).
The Four Cornerstones of the FAIs’ Current Corporate Social Responsibility Policy
The Football Association of Ireland CSR document covers four broad areas:
Community.
Responsible Sourcing.
Environment.
Our People.
According to the officially issued CSR document there are 4 stated FAI CSR policy focuses – Let us now examine each in brief to establish their current relevance and effectiveness.
Community
The FAI is active in communities throughout Ireland through its network of development officers and works in partnership with local authorities and national agencies using football as a tool to address important social issues. Their commitment to corporate citizenship is demonstrated on a daily basis through social initiatives in disadvantaged areas, working with people with disabilities through the Football for All programme, using sport to combat racism through its social integration programmes and tackling anti-social behaviour and substance abuse through local authority and Garda liaison programmes. The Association also works with its players and uses their national reach to raise awareness of important social issues through charitable partnerships and the work of the John Giles Foundation.
Through its work in communities nationwide, the Association is committed to ensuring that everyone, irrespective of their ability or disability, colour, creed or gender is able to participate in our sport.
Late Night League – Sports Industry Awards nomination for best CSR Initiative in Sport 2016 – 55 centres – Nearly 3000 participants.
FAI/HSE Kickstart 2 Recovery Mental Health outreach programme – Also nominated for Sports Industry Award.
Responsable Sourcing
Employment is freely chosen and regular.
There is no child labour or no harsh or inhumane treatment.
No discrimination.
Working hours are not excessive.
There are good health and safety standards.
People have freedom of association & living wages are paid.
Environmental impact is kept to a minimum.
Responsible sourcing covers ethical and environmental issues in our supply chain. The Football Association of Ireland Responsible Sourcing Code of Practice sets down standards suppliers are expected to work towards.
Envirnoment
“We understand and manage the impact of the Association on the environment and consider the carbon footprint of our developmental works, offices and storage areas, the waste we dispose of and the packaging of the products we consume”.
This is the FAI’s CSR documents environmental consideration in entirety…! – They “understand” and will “consider”… – This is lip service at best… – No elaboration, road map, specific criterion or initiative is detailed or progressed in this regard within the entire document… – This is a further key area that Barry will develop in respect of potential future FAI CSR specific strategies…
Our People
The FAI insist that “We treat our people fairly, equally and invest in them to make sure everyone can contribute and develop. This ensures, so far as is practicable, that we have a safe environment for our employees through the adoption of consistent health & safety policies”. Programmes such as the coaching development programmes – Sub-set organisations such as the FAI Coaches Association all help to educate and enhance the professionalism and effectiveness of the corporations representatives within the community.
Grassroots programmes such as the previously mentioned Late Night Leagues along with Kick Start and the Football for All programmes are a credit to the corporation and the people who organise such events locally and nationwide. They promote inclusivity that demonstrates a social responsibility and outlook seldom achieved by any organisation.
To this end the FAI 2013 CSR document states “Our employees, affiliates and suppliers expect the Football Association of Ireland to maintain high standards of ethics in its business operations. We therefore expect employees to uphold these high standards and preserve the integrity of our people, the reputation of the Association and the trust and confidence of the public.”
These aspirational objectives are further developed within Kieran Foley’s May 2019 report examining and detailing recommendations for the Association as a whole. This document outlines future proposed pathways and deals – as could only be expected given current circumstance – primarily with Operational Governance issues. A notable point here is that although recommending many commendable initiatives firmly grounded in the CSR ethos, at no point in the entire document is term Corporate Social Responsibly actually even mentioned…
“futbol es para los vivos.”
And so to conclude this section examining the “Here and Now” of the FAI & CSR before handing over to Barry to examine potential implementation of proposed future initiatives – We can perhaps summaries the situation as follows…
South American saying that Football is won by the person who is alert, who’s quick, who’s quick-thinking. Soccer is for the person who can think on their feet both literally and metaphorically.
Which is how the Fai need to approach CSR, Act fast, think on its feet, let the world know what their doing.
Not to say that CSR is sport is easy as it does need to be managed and promoted but when done properly the benefits far out weight.
The negatives.
Clubs from towns, cities or regions command the hearts and minds of their fans. Each club, so its followers believe, embodies the local character, traditions and spirit that define the community. […] Football teams can be fashioned to reflect local and national ideologies, characteristics, spirits, beliefs, practices, and symbols that constitute cultures”. Whatever its sporting results, a football club cannot remain uninfluenced by the society, by the local community. In its activity, the club takes over values of the community of which it is a member and reproduces them onto the football pitch or in each ever other activities it runs.
We have heard the fundamental idea behind CSR and where the FAI currently stand within it, We are now going to use the next few mins to outline what we think would be a viable plan for the organisation going forward.
I’m sure were all aware of the FAI current position, financially broke, and going through a major transition in how its run, We have deliberately avoided including plans that would require major investment or further upheaval to existing structures, Instead we recommend making the most of existing structures and partnering with other organisations such as Linking FAI schools to the Green schools program, LOI clubs with the SEAI, We also think there is a great opportunity to source funding through the likes of the SEC scheme and SEC system. Lastly we hope to show that by embracing a strong CRS policy the FAI brand can grow and strengthen.
Energy projects such as lighting, Solar PV installation, Insulation upgrades etc.
Education and Training.
Energy Audits.
CSR principles insist upon the reality that businesses – hence, football clubs also – must realize that they have an impact on society and they must be responsible for it (Walker & Parent, 2010; Mohr, Webb & Harris, 2001; Quazi, 2003).
One of our most important recommendations would be to work with the SEAI to help promote the SEC scheme.
What is an SEC?
A Sustainable Energy Community in simple terms is a tidy towns committee for energy, Through the league of Ireland the FAI have a present in almost Every big town in Ireland, a partnership with the SEC scheme could be a win win for both sides, the SEAI get access to a huge network of people and it Gives the FAI a chance to promote themselves within the local community with little investment.
The social dimension of corporate responsibility involves the relationship between your Club and society as a whole. When addressing the social dimension, the FAI should aim to use their influence to benefit society as a whole.
When initiating CSR, give the Communities a voice by involving them in the decision-making process. Create an internal team to spearhead the efforts and make the FAI something care about. Contributing to something the Communities are passionate about can increase engagement and success.
Another inactive that could be mutually benefiter would be to partner with green school, Healthy Ireland, active schools campaigns throughout the country.
Once again this gets right down to the grass roots Getting children when their young to promote three huge objectives environmental awareness, health and playing soccer, The important part of this partnership is that’s its not a one size fits all project, The FAI and the schools can provide support But it has to be embraced by the community and the best way to do that is allow the community decide whats best for them weather its A green garden to one side of the pitch if a school is stuck for space or training sessions with league of Ireland players or nutrition advice All this helps embody the club into the community create fans for life.
FAI & CSR – They are doing it – They just don’t know that they are doing it…!
Promote & Promote & Promote
Lastly and most importantly there is little point in doing all this work if your not going to promote it, let the country know you care and were in this together.
Highlight what has been done and what the plans are for the future.
The aim of the FAI should be that every child in Ireland that owns a Premier league shirt and supports a premier league team should also own an Ireland jersey and a league of Ireland jersey,
The fact remains that the FAI can not compete with the money, players or spectacle that is the premier league but “FutBol cs para los vivos” (football is for the quick thinking) so the FAI must fight the battle in areas where it can win, by getting into the communities, making them part of the club, getting kids engaged. No matter how good the game the average kid can’t rock up to Anfield to watch it. They can however go to Oriel park, or turners cross etc to watch and in turn go to the Aviva to watch the international team.
The field of intercollegiate sports is one of the essential parts of activities that are conducted in educational facilities. Researchers note that intercollegiate athletics is a “popular, and at times, a profitable segment of the American sports landscape” (Mayer et al., 2017). Intercollegiate football, however, has one of the richest backgrounds since it has been around since the 19th century. I am examining the topic of this sport and will briefly discuss its history, why it is profitable for universities, and how the phenomenon of rivalry affects it.
In the United States, this type of intercollegiate athletics football is supported by many collegiate sports associations, including the NCAA, the NSAIDs, the NCCAA, and the USCAA. For educational facilities maintaining sports teams is a beneficial business because the audience’s interest is huge. The idea of supporting someone local and close to you attracts many fans, and with them comes the additional funding for universities. Moreover, nowadays, American schools are constantly embracing the idea of supporting girls’ football teams since the idea of equality in sports became popular.
The history of intercollegiate football began at the end of the 19th century when Rutgers University and Princeton University competed for the first time. Nowadays it remains one of the most popular activities that tie communities together. Though various types of athletic activities create interest among students, football can be considered the most profitable. This is because, over the years, universities have been bringing attention to it by building stadiums and “drawing large numbers of people to campuses” (“A brief historical perspective on intercollegiate athletics,” para 22.). Furthermore, the idea of a rivalry between college teams has a significant impact on the audience attraction” (Havard et al., 2016). Therefore, it can be assumed that this sport not only brings finances to universities but also connects the community since they feel united by the competition against other schools.
This topic is of particular importance since it is one of the most famous sports in the field of intercollegiate athletics. Colleges are willing to offer free education and scholarships to make the best athletes to play on their behalf; therefore, I decided to select it for my research. Moreover, during my investigation, I managed to learn several new facts, for instance, the fact that nowadays, more women are included. Moreover, I was interested in why football is this popular and continuously attracts many fans in different educational facilities.
References
A brief historical perspective on intercollegiate athletics. Humankinetics. Web.
Havard, C. T., Shapiro, S. L., & Ridinger, L. L. (2016). Who’s our rival? Investigating the influence of a new intercollegiate football program on rivalry perceptions. Journal of Sport Behavior, 39(4). Web.
Mayer, K. C., Morse, A. L., & DeSchriver, T. (2017). Intercollegiate football and luxury suites: An investigation of factors related to price. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 26(2). Web.
College sports are popular in most parts of the world, including the United Kingdom. They draw large crowds of supporters, the majority of whom are other college students. With this development, most product manufacturers and service providers have seen an opportunity to promote their goods through partnerships with college and university teams. The partnerships occur through sponsorships, just as is the case with significant league games outside school.
It is worth noting that, while college sport commercialization has been ongoing for many years, researchers have conducted few studies to understand its impact on the motivation of players, team performance, and the appeal of the game as measured by the sizes of spectators at events. As such, the author proposes to conduct a study in this area to see what impact the commercialization of college games has had on various aspects of these sports. The author offers to focus specifically on college football in that it is one of the most popular sports in the United Kingdom.
Scope of the Research
For the best research outcomes, a study should not be limited in any way. However, this is both impossible and impractical. It is necessary to restrain a study’s scope to ensure that it is doable within a fixed budget and time frame. After all, a small examination of a given phenomenon may offer a somewhat accurate representation of the entire situation, provided that the researcher addresses issues about validity, reliability, and authenticity. In this regard, the proposed study will have a limited scope regarding the area covered and the general depth. On matters of geographical location, the researcher proposes to examine college football teams within some parts of England only. The researcher will select ten universities in England at random to form the basis of the study.
Concerning depth, the scope of the study is limited to college football. The main reason is that there are many popular sports in the university, but it is impossible to cover all of them with the given finances and time. Limiting the study to football teams will allow for some research rigor that leads to the attainment of more valid, authentic, and reliable findings. College football is also regarded as the most popular sport in universities, making it the most likely choice for inclusion in a college-corporate partnership. Therefore, focusing on college football alone is enough to reveal vital trends within the sector.
Aims and Objectives of the Research
As noted earlier, the study’s main aim is to examine the commercialization of college football in the United Kingdom and its impact on athlete motivation, team performance, and the game’s appeal to spectators. The aim will guide the author in designing the research questions and conducting the study. From this central aim, specific objectives that will act as key performance indicators (KPIs) include the following:
To examine the relationship between the commercialization of college football and its impact on athlete motivation
To explore the relationship between college football and its relationship with team motivation
To investigate the relationship between college football and its impact on the game’s appeal as measured by the spectator sizes
Research Questions
Research questions will guide and direct the proposed study, ensuring that the author remains focused during the entire work. Notably, without the appropriate research questions, it is possible to deviate in the middle of a study leading to poorly executed research with unreliable and unusable outcomes. Since the research questions are related to the study’s main aim and objectives, the primary one is as follows: What is the impact of the commercialization of college football in the United Kingdom on athlete motivation, team performance, and the game’s appeal as measured by spectator sizes? Three specific questions that the author would seek to answer while conducting the study are as follows:
What is the impact of the commercialization of college football in the United Kingdom on athlete motivation?
What is the impact of the commercialization of college football in the United Kingdom on team performance?
What is the impact of college football’s commercialization on the game’s appeal as measured by spectator sizes?
It is essential to conduct the study because the findings will help forge better policies and regulations in the future. For example, if college football’s commercialization proves more helpful than harmful, then all universities should consider implementing them to benefit from them. Also, the government can use the findings of the proposed study to review its policies about university taxation.
A college or university’s tax obligation benefiting tremendously from partnerships with commercial organizations may have to change to reflect this reality. The outcomes may also explain why some university teams are consistently ranked the best-performing ones in the country. Most importantly, the study’s findings will add significant and valuable information to the existing scientific knowledge body. Like other researchers, the author’s purpose in conducting this study is the impartial and honest pursuit of the truth in the quest for evidence of how phenomena relate.
Literature Review
Commercialization of college games is a recent but popular activity sweeping across universities worldwide. It refers to the creation by schools of an overt business context around varsity games to allow sponsors and corporate organizations to advertise their goods or services by sponsoring these activities (Morgan, 2017; Harris, 2019). Companies may support student-oriented goods and services or include merchandise that the rest of the population can also buy. In some parts of the world, collegiate games are a significant income earner for schools. For example, according to the US Congressional Budget Office [CBO] (2009), sponsors, including corporate organizations, contribute more than 50 percent of major-league collegiate athletics’ revenues.
As such, university and college games – particularly elite ones – may have morphed into profitable ventures from what they used to be – extracurricular activities. In non-collegiate sports, teams often demonstrate high motivation and high-octane performances when they have the right sponsors. Indeed, some groups have attributed their poor performance to the lack of reliable or consistent sponsors. In this context, it is expected that varsity teams behave similarly.
The issue of the commercialization of college sports has interested many researchers. However, most of them only investigate its relationship to sporting values and the participating schools’ profitability. For example, Orlowski, Herter, and Wicker (2017) reported that the commercialization of collegiate games has eroded sporting values because it may lead to doctored or biased results. When there are no stakes involved in competitions and games, the pressure to win is not excessive. As a result, only the best teams win. However, sponsors’ involvement means that teams have to do everything within their powers to win games to maintain the sponsorships. Such pressure may result in the erosion of sporting values as athletes may use drugs to enhance their performance (Zimbalist, 2017; Hillman, 2016).
Unfortunately, drug use may permanently alter the well-being of a sports personality. In the short run, the athlete may be motivated to win, resulting in better team performance and greater appeal to spectators (Simon and Owojaiye, 2019; Hoffman, 2020). However, in the long run, athletes who lose regularly may become less motivated and stressed, resulting in poor performance.
While the returns for teams in the commercialization of sporting activities are mixed and varied from time to time, sponsors always benefit from the greater exposure they get through college games. Most of these teams attract a large following, especially from fellow students, representing a great advertising opportunity (Kowalke, 2017; Meyer and Zimbalist, 2017). Unfortunately, since companies are profit maximizers, they can only partner with teams that provide consistently good results. It is the only way that they can justify their expenditure on those activities. Companies know that the best way to win potential customers’ and clients’ hearts is to associate with winning teams only (Gurney, Lopiano and Zimbalist, 2017; Harris, 2019).
Unfortunately, because only a few teams can be the top ones, companies have to fight to sponsor a winning side every season. While this gesture gives the company greater exposure, it leaves less performing teams vulnerable and less motivated (Gurney, Lopiano and Zimbalist, 2017). Teams without sponsors may also feel left behind, and they may attribute their poor performance to a lack of a reliable sponsor.
Athlete motivation is the outcome of many factors (both internal and external to the player). Internal factors that may contribute to player motivation include a genuine liking of the game, talent, and inspiration. All these contribute to player motivation, evidenced by regular training, great discipline, and continuous improvement. External factors that may contribute to greater participation in sporting events include financial incentives, traveling, popularity among peers, winning, and exposure. Therefore, the involvement of corporate organizations and sponsors results in the availability of an external source of motivation for all players.
The sponsor may give the players an assortment of merchandise and financial benefits both to individual players and the group as one (Starsia, 2020; McDermand, 2018). When players taste the sweetness of corporate money, they may become exceedingly motivated so that they can win more games and retain sponsors. Individuals like John Graham were among the pioneers of sports commercialization, which led to greater interest in money (Golden, 2018). Such an attitude pushes individuals to better themselves and to remain motivated for long. If sponsors withdraw support, the player motivation may dwindle as well.
In terms of team performance, the commercialization of collegiate games has led to various impacts, ranging from positive to negative. The involvement of sponsors and corporate organizations transforms college sports into a high-stakes game rather than a friendly competition that it used to be in the past (Okumura and Toyota, 2018). More participants feel the pressure to outdo their competitors, resulting in sneaky moves and greater enmity between rival teams. Playing rough, illegal substance abuse, and violence may characterize high-stakes games, which calls for more accurate and unbiased refereeing.
Assuming that individuals maintain fair play, individual team performance may improve as each competitor aims at winning more significant sponsorship deals (Amay, 2018; Berry, 2017). In college, talented players may take extra-curriculum activities seriously only when they see financial gains in them. As such, teams may become better performers because they may attract and retain better talent (Yaffe et al., 2021). Morality and Values in Sports Among Young Athletes: The Role of Sport Type and Parenting Styles–A Pilot Study. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 98., 2018). Meanwhile, internal and external factors that contribute to player motivation may also result in improved team performance.
Lastly, the involvement of sponsors also creates a more significant impact on the game’s appeal. Corporates sponsoring various teams provide enough money to popularize the sport and arouse interest among potential spectators (Cooper, Nwadike and Macaulay, 2018). There are no sponsors involved; games may go unnoticed due to the event’s poor popularization within campuses. The large numbers of people who go to watch games live show that they are away from the event and are excited to see the winner emerge.
Sponsors participating in college competitions may also offer to have some games broadcast live on TV to reach a larger audience, marketing themselves further (Keshavarz, Farahani and Alizadeh, 2017). Since the proliferation of collegiate games commercialization, sporting events at this level have become increasingly popular to the extent that venues get full (Solberg, 2018). Notably, the famous a sport is, the more people are more likely to watch it, leading to a virtuous circle where more famous games attract an even more significant fanatical following on and off-campus.
Games are a great way of keeping people together, contributing to their continued growth and expansion in colleges. Students engage in games to form social bonds and break the monotony of participating in classroom activities.
However, commercial organizations have now taken over as the new sponsors adding some twist to collegiate games. Seemingly, the increased participation of sponsors in university sports has resulted in more motivated players, better team performance, and greater game appeal as measured by spectator sizes. Unfortunately, these facts only seem true for the top teams only. They tend to win championship games yearly, which has given them access to a more excellent pool of finances while leaving other groups frustrated and unable to perform effectively. In this regard, the commercialization of college games is concentrated among the leaders only. In the proposed research, the author will investigate available statistics to determine their accuracy and back what some research works suggest.
Research Methodology
The author proposes to utilize a mixed-method sequential explanatory design to collect quantitative and qualitative data. The researcher will collect the two data types in two stages. The first one would be on quantitative data about athlete motivation, team performance, and game’s appeal in the first stage. The researcher will obtain this information by creating questionnaires and sending them to 10 university football team leaders in England. The researcher will select only those colleges with sports sponsorship agreements for this activity. The leaders will provide statistical data about their teams before and after sponsorships.
For example, they will show the average frequency of players attending training, the number of games won, and ticket sales in home ground sporting events. In the second phase, the researcher will interview different team representatives to gain more insights into their institutions. The researcher will send online questionnaires to reduce the study’s cost while also improving the collection process. The author may utilize survey monkey or similar web-based applications for this purpose.
For the interviews (qualitative research), the author aims for face-to-face conversations with the selected participants. Face-to-face discussions are useful as they allow the researcher to gauge the accuracy of responses given by observing the interviewee’s utilization of non-verbal cues (Creswell and Creswell, 2017). It is also practical because it helps the researcher to ask additional questions to help the respondent clarify issues and avoid ambiguity.
Face-to-face interviews are also cheaper compared to phone interviews. The setting of these discussions would be a quiet and serene environment with the least amount of distraction. The vicinity of the selected university’s library might serve as a good location for the interviews. The researcher will record all the interviews and take supplementary notes to help with the analysis of the final data. The researcher will also enter the interview with the same questions for all the participants to ensure the results are comparable. However, the author intends to interview one or two individuals per day (at different times), depending on their availability. Ideally, one interview in the morning and another afternoon.
The author would analyze the quantitative data using SPSS, and the qualitative data will require sorting, summarization, and comparison. Part of examining and analyzing the data would involve transcribing the collected qualitative records (Meyers, Gamst and Guarino, 2016). Notably, the analysis of qualitative data requires non-statistical processes. One only needs to observe and report on trends and noticeable variables while analyzing and presenting qualitative research findings. Expectedly, it will be a smooth undertaking that results in useful and reliable conclusions.
After analyzing the qualitative and quantitative data, the author would analyze the results and present them in a well-designed discussion section. In that chapter, the researcher will interpret the findings and make them useful to the public. Without proper interpretation of data, the research can be null and void. Indeed, every researcher must interpret their findings to the public and turn ordinary statistical and qualitative data into useful information that all public members can utilize.
Ethical Considerations
One of the most important ethical considerations is to remain focused on the pursuit of the truth. As such, the author will only report what they find; there will be no attempt to doctor results or change them to support a specific point of view. The author will utilize truthful reporting to maintain the reliability, validity, and authenticity of their findings. The other crucial ethical consideration is to operate legally. The author will follow all requirements in conducting the study to ensure there is no flaunting of existing regulations. The author will also seek approval from the schools involved to participate in the study. The author will obtain written permission for the task and the informed consent form for all the people involved. The author will also respect the privacy of the participants. Thus, they will only report on relevant information. The author will not disclose personally-identifying information of the participants to the public to safeguard their security and privacy.
Resources to Carry out the Research
The two primary research resources needed here are original and secondary research. They include books, journals, and other types of research publications about the commercialization of college football. These resources are available in libraries and online databases. The author will access these online databases using Google Scholar, Microsoft Academic, and other specialized search engines. Getting and retrieving the right resource often requires creativity, innovation, and impeccable researching skills. Additional resources to conduct the study include peers, mentors, and videos. Hopefully, the teams to be selected for the task will have past videos that would help assess changes in their performance over time. Institutions that keep safe and reliable records are more likely to contain this data than those that do not.
The researcher will also contact the university professors for great insights about the topic and how it may proceed. Most importantly, the researcher will be careful with the utilization of the limited time and financial resources.
Organization of the Work
The proposed research will have five chapters. In chapter 1, the introduction, the author will cover the background information, including the study’s aims and objectives and the overarching purpose. In chapter 2, literature review, the author examines some of the available works related to the main question under assessment. Chapter three will be about the methodology used to collect, analyze, and present the findings. In chapter four, the author would provide the research findings or outcomes and discussion. The researcher will not attempt to interpret data in the findings section until the next section. Lastly, in chapter five, the author will give the conclusions and recommendations. All five areas will generate a well-organized paper that communicates meaning to those using it.
Timeframe and Likely Outcomes
The research will start immediately after the school approves the proposal. The author will spend the first two weeks organizing the resources needed for the study. After that, the researcher will spend another two weeks writing the introductory chapter. A literature review completed within two to three weeks will follow shortly after. The actual interviews and online surveys will take another one to two months. The analysis of the data will also last for between one and two months. The author will then spend the last month writing a conclusion and revising and polishing the final work for presentation.
The likely outcome of the first week is a well-organized resource book and schedule. It will help the author comprehend the path to follow to attain the desired objectives. In the following weeks, the author would achieve other outcomes, including a working draft, approved research participants, and the completed paper, which the author must submit on time. Submission will happen after the researcher has read and revised the final draft to communicate the intended message effectively.
Conclusion
The commercialization of college games had become a significant business not just in the UK but also in other parts of the world. It represents the transformation of an innocent activity into a money-making endeavor. Most researchers have not examined the phenomenon yet, but a few studies already exist. The author proposes to examine the relationship or the impact of the commercialization of college games – particularly football in the UK – on player motivation, team performance, and the game’s appeal. The study will reveal these issues to aid with policy formulation and implementation to influence the activity.
It may also affect how governments view colleges and may occasion changes in tax obligations. If the study finds that college games’ commercialization erodes sporting values, people must take appropriate action to prevent other adverse outcomes. More excellent opportunities may arise by preventing the present robust and enigmatic leaders from taking advantage of schools. If the activity yields more favorable results, then it must be supplemented and encouraged at all costs.
Reference List
Amay, Y. (2018) Study of the factors impacting the commercialization of professional sport. Symbiosis International University.
Berry III, W. W. (2017) Employee-athletes, antitrust, and the future of college sports. Standard Law and policy Review, 28, 245.
Cooper, J. N., Nwadike, A., and Macaulay, C. (2017) ‘A critical race theory analysis of big-time college sports: implications for culturally responsive and race-conscious sport leadership.’ Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics.
Creswell, J. W., and Creswell, J. D. (2017) Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage Publications.
Golden, M. W. (2018) The Life and Times of John Graham Chambers: Sports and Commercialization of Leisure in Victorian Britain. University of Maryland, Baltimore County.
Gurney, G., Lopiano, D. A., and Zimbalist, A. (2017) Unwinding madness: what went wrong with college sports and how to fix it. Brookings Institution Press.
Harris, R. J. (2019) Developing Business Deals Consistent With Your Core Values. The Sport Business Handbook: Insights From 100+ Leaders Who Shaped 50 Years of the Industry, (pp. 185-194). Human Kinetics.
Hillman, C. (2016) American sports in an age of consumption: how commercialization is changing the game. McFarland.
Hoffman, J. L. (2020) College Sports and Institutional Values in Competition: Leadership Challenges. 1st edn. Routledge.
Kowalke, C. (2017) ‘When individual rights should tackle unfair commercialization: how the transformative use test should be tailored to meet evolving technological needs in right of publicity cases.’ Cybaris, 8(1), 4.
Keshavarz, L., Farahani, A., and Alizadeh, A. (2017) ‘The pattern design of research commercialization in sport physiology. World, 6(2), 14-20.
McDermand, R. D. (2018) Book Review-Unwinding Madness: What Went Wrong with College Sports-and How to Fix It. Journal of Higher Education Athletics & Innovation, (3), 78-81.
Meyers, L. S., Gamst, G., and Guarino, A. J. (2016) Applied multivariate research: design and interpretation. Sage publications.
Meyer, J., and Zimbalist, A. (2017) Reforming college sports: The case for a limited and conditional antitrust exemption. The Antitrust Bulletin, 62(1), 31-61.
Morgan, W. J. (2017) The ethical morass of college sports. In Reflections on Ethics and Responsibility (pp. 117-133). Springer, Cham.
Okumura, H., and Toyota, N. (2018) Observations on institutional change of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA): an impact of increased commercialization. Studies in Health Sport Science.
Orlowski, J., Herter, M., and Wicker, P. (2017) The commodification and commercialization of elite athletes. When Sport Meets Business: Capabilities, Challenges, Critiques, 43-56.
Simon, K., and Owojaiye, S. O. (2019) Sports Administrators’ Health Watch for Young Athletes’ Participation in Sports for Commercialization in Nigeria. KIU Journal of Social Sciences, 5(2), 227-232.
Solberg, W. U. (2018) Creating the big ten: courage, corruption, and commercialization. University of Illinois Press.
Starsia, G. D. (2020) Last call for leadership: intercollegiate athletics in an era of commercialization. UVA-Curry School of Education and Human Development.
Yaffe, Y., Levental, O., Arey, D. L., and Lev, A. (2021) Morality and Values in Sports Among Young Athletes: The Role of Sport Type and Parenting Styles–A Pilot Study. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 98.
Zimbalist, A. (2017) Reforming college sports and a constrained, conditional antitrust exemption. Managerial and Decision Economics, 38(5), 634-643.
Tailgating is a social event that many sports fans enjoy because they are passionate about their teams. Tailgate parties are held in various locations, such as sports facilities, parking lots, and stadiums, where participants can watch their teams compete. Sports fans form groups and become wholly devoted to their teams, attending every game (Stansfield et al. 41). The fan group (Cheddarhead Pack of Huston North- CHPH North) in which I participate for the Green Bay Packers NFL team based in Huston will serve as the study’s focus group, with members shall be interviewed for the study. We meet at a sports bar to watch the games throughout the season as one of our Wisconsin traditions (Food: Cheddar & Pepper Bratwursts, Cheese Curds. Go Pack Go chants heard at Lambeau Field). This study investigates the fundamental intent that drives NFL football tailgating rituals and the impact that these motivating factors have on ritual devotion. An ethnographic study employs participant observation, discussions, and systematic personal interviews. The findings suggest that four fundamental underlying motives and their existence are responsible for the tailgating ritual’s continuation: active participation, human engagement, inter-temporal sentiment, and self-representation.
The Green Bay Packers, also known as The Packers, have a long history since 1919. Despite its origins in Green Bay, it has a large following throughout the United States due to its rich history (Kass). Brannon, a Huston city lawyer and member of our Cheddarhead Pack of Huston North, has been a fan of the team since his father was a fan back in the ’90s. He, like many other members of the group, shares this sentiment. As a result, most fans’ attachment to the team can be traced back to most of their parents or older siblings being fans of the team. The social activities associated with fun that fans enjoy serve as a motivator for members to show their loyalty to the team by attending or watching all of the team’s matches.
Devoted members show their love and loyalty to the team and group differently. All members of the CHPH North, for example, have purchased merchandise from The Packers Shop, which includes Packers Jerseys, beanies, hoodies, jackets, and hats. Wearing a team outfit while tailgating is one of our traditions. Members feel more connected to the team while tailgating in team attire (Drenten et al. 92). Because, in most cases, we will not be able to attend live games at the stadium. After all, Huston is about a nineteen-hour drive away. Loyal tailgaters like Jennie come in handy when she prepares the cheddar cheese and green pepper bratwurst for the members, which she serves in her sports bar where we gather to watch the games while tailgating. Admitting to wanting to prepare this traditional Wisconsin delicacy because the only way Jennie knows how to stay connected to the Green Bay Packers is to serve its fans in order for them to remain loyal to the team. True to her words, none of us members miss out on the delicacy she prepares for us, and we are dedicated to the team and group.
Most group members buy new outfits from The Packers Shop at the start of each season. Because of our tradition of wearing Packers merchandise, the action sets the primary preparation for tailgating (Bradford and Sherry 780). Another aspect of preparation is determining when the Green Bay Packers’ games will be played. It is critical to have this information because all tailgating activities coincide with the day the team plays its live matches. Many members, as a result, organize their calendars to create a free day on the specific day the match is to be played; tailgating is a ritual that members are devoted to following at all costs. Mark, a dentist, and member of the group, boast that he has seen more than 80% of the games played since he began tailgating 23 years ago.
Even though most CHPH North members began tailgating by attending social events with their parents or older siblings, more than half attended tailgate parties with their friends and co-workers. When interviewed, the majority stated that they prefer to attend events with their friends and co-workers rather than their family because they are close to them and share similar interests. They argue that it is easy to relate with peers because not everyone understands what tailgating is all about. It has been associated with disorderly conduct, a harsh judgment on the members because of their loyalty to their teams and its enjoyment (Jones). As a result, they believe that friends and co-workers are the best people to consider while tailgating. It is worth noting that many members agree that when their children become adults, they should be introduced to tailgate parties in the same way that some of their parents introduced them.
Tailgating is a complex subject that sports critics may not understand, but it is a “religion” to sports fans. It enables sports fans to connect with their teams in various ways and remain loyal to their teams despite their challenges (Fellman). The responses from CHPH North tailgate members shed light on the motivations that drive fans to tailgate religiously, such as the desire for human engagement because tailgating is a social event filled with lots of fun. The inter-temporal sentiment, active participation of members, and desire for self-representation demonstrate why tailgating parties will be around for a much longer time.
Works Cited
Bradford, Tonya Williams, and John F. Sherry.“Grooving in the Ludic Foodscape: Bridled Revelry in Collegiate Tailgating.”Journal of Consumer Culture, vol. 17, no. 3, 2016, pp. 774–793. Web.
Drenten, Jenna, Peters Cara, Leigh Thomas and Hollenbeck Candice. “Not Just a Party in the Parking lot: An Exploratory Investigation of The Motives Underlying The Ritual Commitment Of Football Tailgaters.” Sport Marketing Quarterly 18.2 (2009): 92-106.
Fellman, Connie. “Past to Present: The History of Tailgating.” WFRV Local 5 – Green Bay, Appleton, WFRV Local 5 – Green Bay, Appleton, 2021, Web.
Roy Keane, a football player and a book author, is worth mentioning among textbook examples of how dedication and diligence can change the life. Being born in a rural area, in the family of a poor worker, he seemed to have hardly any chance for becoming a successful personality (Keane, 2011). Physical labor as a way to make money, which was dramatically scarce, accompanied Roy since youth; that apparently contributed to his achievements in sports. The psychological component, however, was equally important for his formation and development as an athlete.
Notwithstanding his great desire for playing football at a professional level, which he revealed after several years of boxing, no clubs were interested in Kean initially. He apparently lacked physical abilities as well as technique to enter high-class leagues, for which reason he continued to receive refusals (Keane, 2011). Notwithstanding that, his remarkable perseverance and endurance made him fight to the end not only in amateur youth matches, but in his career ambitions as well. The intensity of the young player that enabled him to overcome any obstacles eventually attracted the attention of Brian Clough, the coach of Nottingham Forest, who became Keane’s guide to big football.
Sports challenges, however, were not the only difficulties that Roy faced on his way to success. In particular, his adaptation to the new environment after joining the above team was quite painful, mostly due to the separation from the family, to whom he had considerable emotional attachment (Keane, 2011). In addition, Roy’s tough spirit, which actually was the source of his outstanding persistence, made effective teamwork that requires flexibility by definition challenging for him. The athlete, therefore, had to work on himself not exclusively in terms of physical abilities, but mentally as well to become one of the greatest football players in history.
Reflection
It is doubtless that the young man who found himself in a foreign country, away from his loved family, and with great responsibility on his shoulders needed psychological support. In fact, Keane received it from Clough, but sometimes in a quite tough form of negative motivation (Keane, 2011). Although the athlete does not feel offended, which actually proves that he is a strong personality, he presumably needed sympathetic spiritual advice as well at the stage of adaptation in Nottingham Forest.
The majority of psychologists who work with sportspeople focus on improving their professional competence and productivity rather than their personal well-being. Even those who realize the causal relationship between the latter and the former are “exclusively performance oriented” (Gamble et al., 2016, p. 188). In other words, such specialists see solving personal issues solely as a way to minimize distraction from sports, not as the critical condition for inner harmony, which everybody needs, regardless of his or her occupation.
In the context of such a kind as the above, the function of spiritual care frequently belongs to chaplains. It is essential to note that spiritual is not synonymic to ritual; simply stated, sports chaplaincy does not come down to teaching athletes to say prayers prior to matches. Rather, its purpose lies in awakening, restoring, and maintaining faith in sportspeople, for which many of them feel disproportionately strong need in comparison with the rest of the population (Gamble et al., 2016). Prayers, in turn, are a manifestation of the inner belief; in some cases, they also can be an effective team-building tool.
The relevance of such a perspective on psychological and spiritual support is apparent from the fact that football players rarely pray for the wins of their teams. Normally, they focus on the topics that are not related to sports, such as their families, friends, and events that happen in the world (Gamble et al., 2016). This allows assuming that Roy Keane most probably would have prayed for the well-being of his parents and siblings. His strong attachment to them would have become an essential point of intersection of him and a chaplain, hence a basement for a trusting relationship. For instance, a chaplain could have asked Roy what he wished his nearest and instructed him to focus on that when addressing the God. The positive emotions associated with such thought, in turn, would have not only inspired and motivated the player throughout the forthcoming match, but also harmonized his personality. The latter actually is even more important than the former is, considering the above characteristic of Keane as an outstandingly persistent athlete but quite a truculent person.
Even if pre-match prayers do refer to the game, its result remains beyond the focus. Instead, players worry about “personal matters,” among which avoiding injuries and performing at the maximum of their abilities (Gamble et al., 2016, p. 186). In the case of Roy Keane, playing perfectly well was his priority when he joined Nottingham Forest, as that was the only way for him to realize his dream. The role of a chaplain in such a situation lies in explaining the connection between faith and effectiveness. Notably, a believer acquires additional inspiration and motivation, which makes him or her derive pleasure from hard work. In a combination with Roy’s perseverance, apparently inborn, that would have made him insuperable. In addition, tranquility derivable from faith could have been helpful in controlling his aggression, which presumably distracted him from improving his technique at the beginning of his career.
Another point that is worth noting is that the scope of a sports chaplain’s activity should not be limited with a single athlete. Spiritual counsellors actually see providing care to all club staff, including adepts of other religions and non-believers, as their duty (Gamble et al., 2016). Such guidance can serve as an icebreaker, in other words, help team members overcome psychological, social, cultural, or other barriers and unite them. This apparently was critical for Kean during his adaptation in Forest. Separated from his relatives, he needed soulmates in his new circle to smooth loneliness, which sense is dramatically demotivating and even can cause depression. A chaplain, meanwhile, could have guided not solely him, but the other members of the team as well; hence belonging and, consequently, a more comfortable integration.
To summarize, the role of a chaplain in the case of Roy Keane after his transfer to Nottingham Forest would have been to assist the athlete in building and/or maintaining faith. The most appropriate ways to do that would have lied in encouraging him to pray for his family as well as good performance, which points apparently were the most important for him at the time. In addition, it would have been reasonable to expand spiritual care to the entire team to alleviate the isolation of the newcomer.
References
Gamble, R., Parker, A., & Hill, D. M. (2016). Football, chaplaincy and sport psychology: Connections and possibilities. In A. Parker, N. Watson, & J. White (Eds.), Sports chaplaincy: Trends, issues and debates (pp.182-194). Routledge.
Keane, R. (2011). Keane: The autobiography. Penguin.
