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Can The Low-country Firefighter Peer Support Team Help Prevent Suicides?

Posted on December 15, 2024 | by Laureen

Abstract

According to a 2015 article published in the Journal of Emergency Medical Services, first responders attempted suicide rate is 10 times greater than that of the general population within the United States. More than 4,000 first responders or 6.6 percent had attempted suicide in 2015, and first responders attempted suicide rate has been gradually increasing over the past 10 years. Stress is an inevitable part of a first responders life. They deal with many different types of stressors on a daily bases and work under conditions which present a constant danger in unsecured environments. These professionals are constantly exposed to diseases, unsafe environments, and traumatic events that present a threat to their health and well-being. The exposure to these stressors put first responders at risk for psychological challenges, which include but not limited to: depression, anxiety, anger and post-traumatic stress (PTS). Any psychological challenges can lead to other problems, such as relationship difficulties, substance abuse, absenteeism, and suicide ideations.

This paper will research and discuss the effectiveness of peer support intervention programs that are design to help first responders to cope with stress, tragic or traumatic events. Through research this paper will identify the difference between “crisis-focused psychological intervention programs” and “peer support programs”. Identifying, “How the LowCountry Firefighter Support Team can help prevent suicides within the first responder community?”

Introduction

Some hard cold facts about first responders and suicide. “Between 2015 and 2018, more first responders died by suicide than in the line of duty.” (Heyman, PhD, Dill, MA, NBCC, & Douglas, DCC, 2018b) In 2015, Abbot et al. found that suicide among first responders are often driven by emotional strain in a work culture that as long to discouraged individuals from showing any signs of weakness. In a recent study (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Service Administration, 2018, p. 3), “It is estimated that 30 percent of first responders develop behavioral health conditions including, but not limited to, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), as compared with 20 percent in the general population.” According to the Code Green Campaign, a Washington based non-profit organization that tracks first responders suicide rates, “First responders deaths involving suicide received less attention than other types of first responder incidents.” A study completed by the Firefighter Behavioral Health Alliance (FBHA), reveals that there had been 374 suicides committed by active duty firefighters, compared to 268 Line of Duty Deaths (LODDs) between 2014-2016. The study also revealed that suicidal ideation rate among first responders is 10x greater than that of the general public, 12x greater for firefighters, and that first responders’ suicide attempts were 13x higher, while Firefighter suicide attempts were 30x higher than the general public. First responders risk of successful suicide was more than 2.5x that of the general public.

In 2018, academic journal Canadian Psychology, revealed the results from a self-reported sampling of more that was 5,000 Canadian first responders that suggested, “all public-safety professionals are above the national averages in terms of suicidal behaviors.” According to this report “these results even surprised many seasoned researchers who have spent years mapping out mental-health disorders among first responders.” According to the 2017 survey, 10 percent of the public-safety professional admitted to having suicidal ideations and had seriously thought about killing themselves. Four percent admitted that they actually had planned a suicide attempt, while only 1 percent actually admitted to acting out a suicide attempt.

A study conducted by the Ruderman Family Foundation, a philanthropic organization looked at depression, post-traumatic stress disorder and other issues affecting first responders as well as national suicide rates. This study revealed that first responders are five times greater to be affected by Post Traumatic Stress (PTS) and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PSTD) than an average person and less than 5% of Emergency Services Departments have suicide prevention programs. One core risk factor affecting first responders is the fast pace of their work. First responders are always on the front line facing stressful, highly risky and dangerous situations. The fast tempo and stressful workload of the EMS professional can lead to an inability for EMS professionals to recover between traumatic events (Bentley et al., 2013). As a result, depression, stress and PTS symptoms, suicidal ideation, and a host of other functional conditions have been reported. Research studies and empirical data on the problem remains scarce, but the behavioral health problems among emergency responders seems to be widespread. Studies done by the Code Green Campaign and the Blue Study have shown that as many as “37 percent of firefighters may exhibit symptoms of PTSD. Compounding the problem is a lingering stigma that can make it difficult for emergency responders to acknowledge behavioral issues like depression, whether it’s their own or that of a colleague” (Wilmont, J., 2014, May 2).

Emotional strain among the first responders community are often driven by a culture that discourages an individual to show weakness. Firefighter, police officers and EMS training does not prepare trainees for the mental impact of what they visualize, feel or experience during their careers. Visual, auditory, and sensory details from bad a experiences become embedded into the brains of a first responders. As these experiences and memories become embedded and emotional triggers begin to build up. Different triggers, such as a smell or sound can render an emotional response or memory of a horrific event that occurred during the first responders career. Unfortunately, social and cultural settings may not permit first responders to take time to process their emotions. First responders tend to ignore, tamper down, and suppress their emotions. These emotions’ overtime start to slowly build up and begins to destroy a person’s ability to communicate or relate with others. Some other factors that contribute to stress and suicide among first responders include: high call volumes, long shifts, low pay, sleep deprivation, and a lack of administrative support.

A cultural stigma is tied to first responders’ willingness to seeking help during times of emotional crisis. First Responders are perceived as both physically and mentally strong and are not entitled to show any weakness, because that means there are “chinks in the armor” and is viewed as a sign of weakness. These cultural beliefs prevent many first responders from seeking help and learning how to cope with stress, depression, and PTS. “One study found that 92 percent of the firefighters surveyed were unwilling to get help because of this behavioral health stigma.” (Gleason, 2018) As a culture, First responders are concerned that an outsider or counselor/psychologist may not understand what they go through on a daily basis. Some believe that they will lose their job if they ask for help; many do not understand their rights when it comes to mental health. Many are concern about revealing their feelings and are unsure on who to trust when it comes to talking about confidential matter such as suicide ideations. Talking to an external counselor/psychologist may not be the most viable solution, as many first responder are distrustful of outsiders. Peer support teams can help first responders overcome the cultural stigma of emotional and mental health related issues by providing a safe, comforting and understanding environment.

What is the difference between “peer support programs” and “crisis-focused psychological intervention programs”? Peer support programs are designed to help first responders manage work-life stressors. Department members or members of the first responder community participant in the program and receive specialized training on how to provide support and outreach to their peers. Peer support teams strive to raise awareness and normalize the discussion of behavioral health within the first responder community. Crisis-focused psychological intervention programs are generally conducted following an exposure to a critical incident and are conducted within the workplace. This type of intervention is designed to provide opportunities for support and assistance in connection to work- related stressors. Crisis-focused psychological intervention are focused on the most recent single incident. Peer support teams focus on past and present events. Crisis-focused psychological intervention are grouped based, where peer support team inventions focus on the individual. Crisis-focused psychological are conducted by managers or leadership staff member and peer support team support is provided by a member of the first responders peer group (i.e., a Firefighter will support their co-worker or a police officer will support their co-worker).

How do peer support teams work?

Peer support teams or groups can offer several advantages, because of the peer support team member’s unique client perspective. Peer to peer support helps individuals to accept and engage in assistance and recovery plan a way that other health care professionals might not be able to do. In order for a peer support team to be successful, they first need to select the right team members. It is important to have a detailed screening process with letters of recommendations and completing an interview process. It is important that the selected individuals can be trusted and maintain the strictest level of confidentiality. Peer to peer counseling is can only succeed if the peer teams member is empathic, relatable, and trustworthy.

Next peer team members must go through specialized training. Ongoing training is equally important and team members need to feel confident in their ability to reach and and listen to their peers. Training should be engaging and encourage connections between team members and their peers. Team member’s emotional and mental health should also be monitored. Serving on a peer support team can be emotionally taxing and needs to have a check and balance system in place to ensure team members are maintaining appropriate balance. It is important to have mental health providers overseeing the program and needs to conduct regular check-ins.

Establishing standards and protocols to address a screening process, team member roles, relationship restrictions, mandatory reporting situations, referral guidelines and confidentiality limitations. Peer support team are usually a grassroots activity, leaders need to be in place in order for the program to thrive. According to Mental Health America, research has shown that peer support teams “have a transformative effect on both individuals and systems.” In fact, Peer support can help improve the quality of life for those seeking help. Improves the satisfaction and engagement with support and services.

What is the LowCountry Firefighter Support Team?

The LowCountry Firefighter Support Team (LCFFST) was founded in June of 2007 as the Charleston Firefighter Support Team, after nine Charleston firefighters perished in the Charleston Sofa Super Store Fire. The support team was developed to provide mental health counseling and peer assistance to firefighters and their families. Over the last 12 years it has grown into a full-service counseling program dedicated to supporting the behavioral health of firefighters (F.F.), Emergency Medical Service (EMS) personnel, police officers, 911 dispatchers, and their families. The LowCountry Firefighter Support Teams mission is to promote peer-based and clinical behavioral health services that are easily accessible and available, insure that services meet the needs of first responders and their families, and identify responders who are in distress and respond effectively. The LCFFST provides peer support by having trained personnel respond, provide initial support and referrals for emergency services personnel and their families during times of crisis. LCFFST also provides clinical support, physician support, crisis intervention, and group counseling uses the power of peer support to tackle issues and together seek solutions. The LCFFST also provides training, education as well Community outreach and support.

The question becomes “How the LowCountry Firefighter Support Team can help prevent suicides within the first responder community?”

In order for the LCFFST to be successful in developing a peer support for individuals contemplating suicide they must have a group leader or facilitator. They must remember that the facilitator doe not act as a therapist, but is the leader that facilitates the discussions, allowing all members to have a chance to speak. A group or peer leader must be able to listen and guide the conversation, while being empathic to each individuals needs. Peer team members must be able to make everyone feel safe and keep the concentration on the issues at hand. LCFFST must set rules, be respectful, and practice confidentiality. Team member need to be trained on how address a member who needs professional help or have ideations of self-harm, suicide, or harming others. The LCFFST can be successful in providing assistant to their peers and providing further resources to individuals in crisis. They must commit to building a strong foundation and a robust training program.

Conclusion

To stop this trend, many fire, police, and EMS department are creating formal peer-support programs to encourage first responders to talk about stressors before they become overwhelming.

Research conducted by the Code Green Campaign and The Blue Paper has shown that peer support teams and peer support groups for first responders are effective in providing support to their peers. Support teams or groups are effective for improving self esteem, reducing anxiety, providing cultural change, and creating an overall sense of well-being and security. Peer support work better than Critical Stress Debriefing, when it comes to suicide ideations. Individuals feel more comfortable speaking to their peers and avoiding speaking out in a large group setting. First responders feel more comfortable and trusting when it comes to talking to people, when an individual can relate to them and their story.

References

Abbot, C., Barber, E., Burke, B., Harvey, J., Newland, C., Rose, M., & Young, A. (2015). What’s killing our medics? Ambulance Service Manager Program. Conifer, CO: Reviving Responders. Retrieved from http://www. revivingresponders.com/originalpaper
Firefighter, Police Suicides Outpacing LODDs [Article]. (2018, April 12). Retrieved February 19, 2019, from https://www.firehouse.com/safety-health/news/21000688/firefighters-police-suicides-outpace-line-of-duty-deaths
Asad, S. & Chreim, S. (2015, February 15). Peer Support Providers’ Role Experiences on Interprofessional Mental Health Care Teams: A Qualitative Study. Retrieved March 18, 2019, from http://content.ebscohost.com/ContentServer.asp?T=P
Bentley, M. A., Crawford, J. M., Wilkins, J. R., Fernandez, A. R., & Studnek, J. R. (2013). An assessment of depression, anxiety, and stress among nationally certified EMS professionals. Prehospital Emergency Care, 17(3), 330–338. https://doi.org/10.3109/10903127.2012.761307
Gleason, M. (2018, November 29). Suicide rates among firefighters reach alarming levels. Retrieved February 21, 2019, from https://www.inmyarea.com/firefighters-need-saving-too
Heyman PhD, M., Dill MA, NBCC, J., & Douglas DCC, R. (2018, February). Study: Police Officers and Firefighters Are More Likely to Die by Suicide than in Line of Duty. Retrieved February 19, 2019, from https://rudermanfoundation.org/white_papers/police-officers-and-firefighters-are-more-likely-to-die-by-suicide-than-in-line-of-duty/
Jeanette, J. and Scoboria, A. (2008). Firefighter preferences regarding post incident intervention. Work & Stress, 22(4), 314-326.
Kazan MD, C. (2018, February 21). Paramedics face suicidal thoughts more frequently than other emergency responders, study finds. Retrieved March 28, 2019, from https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/paramedics-in-canada-more-likely-to-experience-suicidal-ideation-study-finds/article38045978/
Neil H. Vigil, Andrew R. Grant, Octavio Perez, Robyn N. Blust, Vatsal Chikani, Tyler F. Vadeboncoeur, Daniel W. Spaite & Bentley J. Bobrow (2018) Death by Suicide—The EMS Profession Compared to the General Public, Prehospital Emergency Care, DOI: 10.1080/10903127.2018.1514090
Ruderman Family Foundation. (2018, April). Study: Police Officers and Firefighters Are More Likely to Die by Suicide than in Line of Duty. Retrieved March 27, 2019, from https://rudermanfoundation.org/white_papers/police-officers-and-firefighters-are-more-likely-to-die-by-suicide-than-in-line-of-duty/
Stanley, I. H., Hom, M. A., & Joiner, T. E. (2016). A systematic review of suicidal thoughts and behaviors among police officers, firefighters, EMTs, and paramedics. Clinical Psychology Review, 44, 25–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. cpr.2015.12.002
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Service Administration. (2018). First Responders: Behavioral Health Concerns, Emergency Response, and Trauma. Disaster Technical Assistance Center Supplemental Research Bulletin, , 1–13.
The Code Green Campaign. (n.d.). Retrieved February 19, 2019, from https://codegreencampaign.org
University of Regina. (in press). Peer Support and Crisis Focused Psychology Intervention Programs in Canadian First Responders: Blue Paper. Research That Has Impact, 1–78. Retrieved from http://www.justiceandsafety.ca/rsu_docs/blue_paper_full_web_final_production_aug_16_2016.pdf
Venteicher, W. (2017, March 1). Increasing suicide rates among first responders spark concern [Article]. Retrieved February 23, 2019, from https://www.firerescue1.com/fire-ems/articles/222673018-Increasing-suicide-rates-among-first-responders-spark-concern/
Winnipeg Suicide Prevention Network. (n.d.). A Guide for Early Responders Supporting Survivors Bereaved by Suicide [Journal]. Retrieved February 26, 2018, from https://www.sprc.org/sites/default/files/resource-program/guide-for-early-responders2016.pdf
Wilmont, J. (2014, May 2). Special report: Firefighter behavioral health – NFPA Journal. Retrieved March 8, 2019, from https://www.nfpa.org/News-and-Research/Publications-and-media/NFPA-Journal/2014/May-June-2014/Features/Special-report-Firefighter-behavioral-health

Uniform Service Heroes: Police And Firefighters

Posted on December 15, 2024 | by Laureen

Both firefighters and the police officers are the professional public servants and every day they are courageous and lay their lives on the line to become our daily superheroes.

A law enforcement officer is a police officer who investigates a crime. On the other hand, a firefighter is largely responsible for firefighting or rescuing people. In addition,they face various threats. A firefighter faces the possibility of burning while a police officer may be shot. To prevent this, both professions must begin with different initial training so they can be fit and ready for the challenges they may face in the future within their career.

Firefighters

Intensive 12 to 18 weeks are needed to complete the initial firefighter training. It normally takes place at a specially designed training centre, where basic firefighting skills, such as safety of ladders, hose laying and the use of respiratory equipment, are demonstrated. Training requires learning about the protection of fire and the value of sharing the message in the local community. It is important to conduct a regular study both at and outside the training centre and the progress is reviewed on a regular basis. After the first aid certificate has been received and the basic skills have been achieved, a simulated fire can be experienced.

When the initial training is complete, they enter a fire station on probation and will be continually tested in their results. It usually takes approximately two years to learn about the environment and the risks surrounding its station and demonstrate expertise in the fields covered by the training center. The firefights are required to carry out a CPD programme throughout their careers, which involves courses, exercises, practical training and other training types in order to retain their level of competence. They will build their own skills and knowledge and maintain fitness.(How to become a firefighter, webpage)

Fitness plans can include up to three running sessions, two strength and muscle endurance training sessions, and two flexibility sessions per week. The programme begins very easily and becomes increasingly difficult. Some other types of training activities may include circuit training, ladder climb exercises, ladder lift exercises, equipment carry exercises, etc. (Fitness programme, webpage) Some locations of training centres are found in London, Moretto-in Marsh; Derbyshire, Lancashire, Greater Manchester, Liverpool, and Daventry.

Police

The new police officers require probationary training. The probation lasts for graduates and for pre-graduates for two years and for those who start the degree route for three years in accordance with their degree programme completion. The training they undergo depends on the path they select, but includes classroom, role-play, and functional training. When they are in patrol, they are taught by a constable instructor to help them develop their practical skills .. During their probation, they will come back to the classroom to learn more and take on courses and activities.

Two-year Police Now programme graduates engage in an intense six-week summer academy before completing a week of training in force. This is preceded by an 8-12 week immersion phase during which they are paired with a police officer who serves as his mentor. They will hold positions and build strategies and ideas for coping with a variety of problems in some of the most challenging communities. Police officers must continue to be trained throughout their careers and constant monitoring, instruction and support are given priority. (Police profile job, webpage)

The firefighters and the police officers may face a disciplinary action if they are not following a service routine and not carrying out duties as instructed. They may receive a warning letter, management advice, final warning letter or an official warning which could include an additional training or assistance; dismissal with or without notice. If charged for the death of a member of the public because of their misconduct and due to the fact that they did not carry out their duties as instructed, could face a suspension and a process that may last as much as the court retains necessary, lose their badge straight away, and eventually be arrested.

All these punishments may have a huge impact on the officers and firefighters lives and their families as individuals. Could bring financial problems as they will lose their job and not being able to work again, at least until the Court process will be over; could ruin their own reputation as the members of the public will not feel safe in their community anymore; could have some implications in their career; and lose their family and friends as nobody will want to have ‘’an eye’’ on them and being criticised by the community, and all the police friends will have to stay away as this could impact on their career as well.

Uniform Service Heroes: Police And Firefighters

Posted on December 5, 2024 | by Laureen

Both firefighters and the police officers are the professional public servants and every day they are courageous and lay their lives on the line to become our daily superheroes.

Firefighters

Police

Fire Department Strategic Plan and Analysis

Posted on December 4, 2024 | by Laureen

Table of Contents

Introduction
Planning standards
Ground Rules
Assumptions
Short-term plans
Long-term plans
SWOT Analysis
Approvals by
Conclusion

Introduction

The fire department strategic plan sets out objectives and priorities for managing services and outlining any anticipatable outcomes. The plan also addresses the strategies, opportunities, and challenges that the fire service faces.

The plan is equally a baseline for building upon general solutions that can meet the community’s specific or special needs. The deployment of resources to the risky area is a real achievement accomplished through the fire-department management plan. Thus, the program is an effective or efficient plan that is imperative for the offering of services that are a value for the implementation costs. The plan supports a specific direction for the improvement of services or operations in accordance with acceptable standards.

Planning standards

Vision, core values, and mission statements will assist in internal development required to improve personnel policies and operations training procedures.

Mission

Shield people against fire disasters, protect property against fire destruction, and safeguard the environment by providing services that cause some constructive or resourceful distinctions.

Vision

Become the best fire organization by providing advanced services and training personnel to ensure they deliver quality and timely services by use of the available resources. To enhance continuity of the firm through enhanced quick responses and the ability to cater to the community’s diverse needs.

Core Values

Honesty, allegiance to services, veracity, and professionalism.

Ground Rules

Enhance growth through mentoring the young generations of employees as a measure of building and supporting good service and leadership legacy.
Hold training sessions that enhance team building and other activities that promote both short and long-term developments.
Develop guidance strategies that promote current and future activities, for instance, instilling core values on young/new employees to ensure conservation or good firm’s history and customer services.
Market the firm through enhanced or better services beyond customer’s expectations.
Expand and adjust flexibly in accordance with the needs of the customers.
Coordinate with other agencies to enhance educational, medical, and other community-based activities.
Ensure readiness of the personnel by equipping them with skills properly and resourcefully according to the standards, required workforce, group actions, and improved philosophical assistance.
Ensure prompt response to customer calls and handle each situation as an emergency, thus administer service provisions accordingly.
Update the plan periodically to meet service demands.

Assumptions

The department can respond timely and through virtual connections to enhance quick and timely responses to emergencies.
The department can train and retrain personnel to mitigate through various emergencies either as an entity or through the assistance of other agencies.
The department can provide quality services as stipulated by laws and elected officials, especially on matters concerning health services, fire suppression, and prevention procedures.
The department can transform services as per the technological advancement and clients’ demands.

Short-term plans

Obtaining better IT support for the department.
Including paramedics and other physicians among the response units.
Establish evens officers through a development program.
Review, implement and retrain promotion as well as experiences facilitation programs.

Long-term plans

Establishment of alternatives to handle the populated call logs.
Develop senior personnel who must have enough skills and experience to enhance the performance of various sectors.
Quality assurance programs.
Health awareness programs.
Develop electronic ways of disseminating information to the public, such as the use of the internet.

SWOT Analysis

SWOT is an analysis to determine the firm’s destructive and constructive forces that may negatively or positively influence performance in the present or the near future.

Strength Analysis

Finding out services that the firm can identify with and capitalize on so that the performance is better than potential competitors.
Focus on possible future challenges that the department might face.
Identify factors that can hamper or strengthen the policies, vision, or mission of the firm.
Focus on utilizing all the national policies to strengthen the service provision.
Manage companies’ interoperability and the ability to adjust performance measures to the expected standards. This involves restructuring or enhancing combined efforts, collaborating, or team efforts to maximize strong points and opportunities.
The firm will have highly qualified employees and must be willing to provide the requested services.
Ability to acquire modern equipment and replace worn-outs.
Ability to suppress demands.
Ordinance to residential sprinkles will enhance safety.
Good employees to management relationship.
Ability to enforce local and divisional training programs.

Opportunities

Advancing skills through studies and experienced techniques for facilitating the study.
Ability to measure up to upcoming techniques such as technical analysis and guidance.
Training young people on fire management techniques, especially at school levels through awareness forums or by granting various learning programs.
Ability to mentor and manage unique changes.
Speeding and categorizing the training procedures according to qualifications and acquired skills.
Consider the main hazardous response agents and seek measures of utilizing their collaborations whenever possible.
Management of future opportunities and enabling employees to gain opportunities for appointments and promotions in various fire departments globally.
Federal grants.

The strategic plan also focuses on the weaknesses and threats of performance as a measure of encouraging the implementation of measures to combat them for future development.

Weaknesses

Retirement of experienced personnel, thus major “brain drains” especially on experiences.
Inadequacy of budgetary allocations to meet demands, particularly demand for training in schools and enforcing career improvement levels.
Insufficiency in the development of health-related programs.
Electronic interaction and accessibility to clients.
Operations consistency.
Challenges relating to training, fire prevention, and mentoring operations.
Staff inadequacy.
Low or poor support from information technology.

Threats

Undefined administrative duties and inadequacy of response teams required for medical attention during fire emergencies.
Escalating financial cost of managing training programs.
Lack of enough program coordinators.
Increased demands and decreased response-time anticipated by clients.
Increase in likelihood of incidences.
Adjustments on service delivery due to demands for redevelopment and change of demographics.
Threat of low turnover due to loss of experienced personnel, especially management personnel, through retirement.

Approvals by

Training divisions.
Fire prevention and investigation teams.
Operation’s focus team.
Fire logistic department.
Government Associates.

Conclusion

The development of the strategic plan involved discussion of service-delivery levels with some degree of references to fire operation studies results. The plan also addresses some implications and incorporates anticipated results in the process. The strategic plan is tentative and enhances the ability to perform periodic updates as warranted by time and occurrences. The main function of implementing this strategic plan was to enhance a proposal that improves and assists the firm’s vision. The SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) are essential aspects that provide valuable input into developing goals.

The long and shorter goals are essential aspects that enhance the assessment of resources, assignment, planning, and budgeting for resources to meet clients’ needs by providing key services. A strategic plan focuses on future development by changing the status quo to functions in the ongoing procedure. The staff was dedicated to seeing the advancement through and deciding on the best long-term vision. The main aim is to succeed in making the department an excellent organization.

Personal Protective Equipment for Firefighters

Posted on December 4, 2024 | by Laureen

Table of Contents

Introduction and significance
Characteristics of fire
Hazard assessment for firefighters
Firefighter deaths and Injuries due to fires
Occupational hazards and PPE for firefighter
PPE and training
PPE and responsibilities
Inspection and storage of PPE
Conclusion and recommendations
Reference

Introduction and significance

Background

Fire is the invention of man and played a major role in advancing his life. For instances fire has been used to cook, heat boilers in industries warm bodies, clear lands among others. However, there have been various incidences in which fire has proved very destructive especially in areas where it was not wanted. This has led to the loss of not only properties but precious human lives both of the victims and firefighters. It is worth noting from the onset that fire outbreaks can be attributed to two main causes; accidental and deliberate. All of these causes are serious and result in serious and unimaginable consequences.

It is for the serious impact of the fire that the department of fire fighting was initiated within every country to respond to fire incidences. In Australia, the police charged three teenagers with causing a school blaze that caused destruction to part of Wavell Heights State School in Chermside. Another incident of fire in Australia is the one involving the ignition of gallons of oils; fortunately, this was brought down successfully.

Despite the fact that there have been incidences where fires have been successfully handled, the problems and hazards the firefighter’s encounter have not been evaluated by the relevant authorities. For that matter, it is important to point out from the onset that the profession of fighting fire is one of the dangerous ventures. In the United States for instance the departments of fire respond to close to 2 million fires annually this has been shown to translate to 4 fires after a minute (Watts, 2003). Those who lose their lives are approximately 5,000 while about 100,000 sustain serious injuries while property loss runs in excess of 10 billion. Returning on the hazardous consequences of fire to firefighters, close to 100 of them die per year while in line of duty (Watts, 2003). The causes might be direct fires, falling debris among others. It has been shown that primarily, safety can be enhanced through engineering techniques rather than the use of personal protective equipment. The methods used in most cases include design change, mechanical handling, automation, ventilation among others. However in situations where it is no longer possible to impose any effective engineering methods to help control hazards, then workmen have no option other than to use PPE. The research paper thus closely examines the role of PPE in reducing incidences of death and injury for firefighters when on duty.

Research problem

firefighters who are “are individuals extensively trained primarily to put out hazardous fires that threaten civilian populations and property, to rescue people from car incidents, collapsed and burning buildings and other such situations” despite the fact that they are trained they are also in potential danger of losing their lives while trying to save others’ lives. Statistics show that close to 100 firefighters die annually in the U.S. The major goals of fire fighting include personal safety, saving the lives of the victims, saving properties as well as protecting the environment. For this reason for one to do this successfully and safely there is a need to undergo training. It is important to remember that firefighters are also called upon to provide victims with emergency medical services as well as protect the scene of the crime. The dangers they have been exposed to warrants the use of personal protective equipment. This thus calls for evaluation of the role the PPE plays in protecting firefighters.

Purpose

One of the most important things that should take care of it in the field of fire fighting is the safety of firefighters, through the use of personal protective equipment by checking the selection and correct use of them.

In general, personal protective equipment it’s not the first option to control the potential hazard. PPE shall be used in conjunction with other efforts to eliminate hazards and reduce injuries such as many of the controls and procedures, and safe work practices. So, this study establishes personal protective equipment (PPE) to be utilized by firefighter members when operating at incidents or during training.

In addition, the impact of the use of personal protective equipment for firefighters to reduce injuries during incidents, made on the basis of risk assessments relevant in particular with the Australian Standards and other international standards associated with the subject.

Scope

firefighters who may participate in these usual incidents are targeted in this study; they are required to select, use and care for personal protective equipment during the incidents or training to prevent exposure to injuries or hazards. Officials and supervisors are required to ensure that the equipment was properly selected and diligently used to protect them from risks, as well as take care of it. The study excluded the exceptional nature of incidents that require special handling such as chemical fires, biological or radiological, etc.

Significance of the study

The findings herein will help those in the fire-fighting department know the role that PPE plays in fostering the safety of firefighters. Similarly, other relevant information for instance characteristics of fires, hazard assessment for firefighters, statistics on death and injuries due to fire, issues regarding occupational hazards and PPE for firefighters among others will be brought to light in a clear manner. Done in a rational manner, then all the relevant stakeholders will be fully aware of issues regarding fire and how best to address the problem. To firefighters, they will benefit since improvement will be recorded in how they use PPE to protect themselves. This will go an extra mile in reducing the number of firefighters who die annually while in the line of duty. Similarly, the manufacturers of the PPE will incorporate some changes in order to fit the required standards from the relevant federal rules and guidelines (Lentile, et al., 2006).

Historical overview of the PPE to firefighters

As noted previously, fire-fighting has been thought of as a dangerous activity that calls for having in place specialized equipment to aid users successfully and safely curb emergencies due to fire (Hasenmeier, 2008). The most important one has been grouped as the personal protective clothing which includes pants, hoods, coats, helmets, boots, gloves, breathing equipment as well as personal alert safety systems (MacCollum, 2006). It is no doubt that what the present firefighters are putting on today is by far much different from what was worn by their counterparts some decades ago. This thus explains that there have been drastic changes in how the PPE has been manufactured.

According to Hasenmeier, 2008: pp.1 “unfortunately, there isn’t a lot of good and accurate information documented about the history of PPE, but some theories of yesteryear and modern-day requirements have helped me to piece together how a firefighter’s ensemble came to be”. In the early years, it is evident that mankind had to fight fires, heat as well as smoke with the absence of modern technologies. This led to a scenario in which buildings more often than not burned down to ashes since firefighters were not in a position to fight the fire from the inside. This was the case since the clothing the firefighters were provided with was not sufficient enough to protect them from flames and heat. With the passage of time so did improvement in PPE recorded (Lentile, et al., 2006). The first fire helmet was made available back in the 1730s thanks to the efforts of Jacobus Turck. The helmet was made up of leather and a high crown and a wide brim. A century later Gratacap came up with the traditional fire helmet which looks similar to what current firefighters use. The design encompassed a dome-shaped helmet made of leather having a front shield and brim that rolled to a long back tail (Watts, 2003). This offered protection from falling objects as well as water that could flow back of the equipment.

During the 1840s the uniform to be used by firefighters was being produced. It was made up of wool and offered protection from extreme temperatures. Pants, as well as long coats, were made up of wool, under the coat firefighters put on a red shirt made up of cotton or wool. This was also accompanied by leather boots. With the advent of rubber, slickers made up of rubber which was worn on top of the wool clothing was beneficial as it offered further protection from heat as well as keeping the firefighter dry the same applied to rubber boots (Lentile, et al., 2006). During this time the use of respiratory protection was very minimal. History has it that firefighters left their beards to grow then soak them in water bite them and breathe through them when in an environment full of smoke (Hasenmeier, 2008). The beards were used as filters. In the year 1825, Giovanni tried to design a mask to provide firefighters with protection from heat and offer them fresh air. The initiative saw to it that numerous efforts were put in place to come up with more effective respiratory equipment (MacCollum, 2006).

Similarly, it was at this period in time that efforts were put in developing a helmet that would have a hose to supply fresh air to users. It was until 1863 that self-contained breathing equipment was available thanks to Braidwood. It was made up of two canvas bags joined and lined with rubber. “An airtight back worn on the back of the user was connected with two hoses made of rubber made it possible for the wearer to breath fresh air” (Lentile, et al., 2006; pp.342). Other equipment that was used included goggles, leather hood, nose clamp and a whistle- Braidwood’s design.

After the first and second world wars, there was a significant development in PPE. The results were long rubber trench coats, boots that were rubber in nature as well as a traditional fire helmet. The long boot covered the users’ legs to above their knees. Immediately after the Second World War standards for firefighters PPE were developed. A number of tests were performed which guided the creation of standards for developing PPE. In the U.S the frontrunner of doing this was the National Fire Protection Association. According to Lentile, et al., 2006; p. 232

[…fire-fighting coats were to have three layers the outer one which would withstand temperatures of about 500 degrees F for about 5 minutes, the second one to prevent water from passing through to the wearer and the last layer which is the inner one was to provide protection from convection, radiation as well as conduction heat transfers]

In 1945, breathing equipment was developed to be used by the crew in the aviation industry. This was after a realization that the filter masks were not offering the desired protection as well as enough breathing air. In the 1970s the PPE used included the following “a vinyl silver long coat, three-quarter rubber boots, orange rubber gloves, and a plastic fire helmet resembling the material used in modern-day construction hard hats” (Lee & Meyer, 2000; pp.45). These were used till 1984 when a new set of PPE was introduced. They consisted of pants having suspenders and a coat of black cotton or wool material. Interestingly, a standard for coming up with personal alert safety system devices was crafted in 1982. The essence of the device was to send signals that were audible in situations where a firefighter became motionless or was in danger of suffocating. Additionally, it was in this period 1980s that materials that could resist fire were used to manufacture the outer layer of the coats and pants.

Currently, fire-fighting PPE used is made up of a collection of yesteryears of testing and technological advancement. It is no doubt that coats and pants have three layers with improved materials used in terms of temperature resistance. There are numerous pockets making it possible for the wearer to carry multiple tools that are essential in fighting the fire. The advent of the PASS device which opens up sending an audio alarm makes it known that a firefighter is running out of fresh air supply. Advancement in PPE is the development of escape ropes which are essential in situations where a rescue will be needed.

It is no doubt that turnout gears as well as manufacturers of PPE are continuing to develop new designs to come up with improved firefighter safety. In the future, I foresee a situation where standards might include increased thermal performance standards, using global positioning systems linked to SCBA. From the review of the history of the use of PPE in fire-fighting, it is evident that there has been tremendous improvement which will continue with the advent of technology. Although fire has been viewed as a harsh reality the ability to have well-developed equipment has played a role in enabling firefighters not only to save lives or property but also their own safety (Lee & Meyer, 2000).

A safe environment for firefighters

From the previous sections, the responsibilities bestowed to firefighters are in no doubt enormous and are thus a matter of life and death. They are responsible for saving lives, property among other things. It thus goes without saying that for them to be effective in doing so there is a need to provide them with a safe working environment that will offer them an ample opportunity to save lives and property (Lee & Meyer, 2000). It has been proved that to successfully provide firefighters with a safe environment, then protecting them from injuries when dealing with the incident follows the following; hazard assessment, selection of appropriate personal protective equipment as well as offering firefighters adequate training on a number of issues regarding the fire.

Hazard assessment is a process usually required by law to identify the hazards linked to a defined task. It is here that a prescription of PPE as well as other relevant protection measures that opt to be employed to reduce risks from hazards. On the same note, the proper choice of PPE follows. The following factors opt to be followed when choosing or selecting PPE; the nature as well as the severity of the hazard, the various types of containment, their concentration, the degree to which the material used to make PPE can withstand high temperatures and pressures, conformity of the equipment with the Australian laws, the ease with which the equipment can be maintained and cleaned, the comfort of the wearer, the operating capabilities as well as limitations of the PPE and finally the expected activities of a firefighter and the duration of the activity. It would be useless to have all the two in place without proper training of the users on how to address all emerging issues while fighting fires. This enhances their chances of taking rational steps while in their line of duty hence a safer environment not only for themselves but for their team members.

Definition of terms

Firefighters; “are individuals extensively trained primarily to put out hazardous fires that threaten civilian populations and property, to rescue people from car incidents, collapsed and burning buildings and other such situations” (Tomecek, & Smeaton, 2004; p. 2). It is worth noting that there are two main categories of firefighters; those paid and voluntary ones.

Personal protective equipment; Has been thought of as clothing, gloves, helmets, respiratory equipment, goggles, belts, and boots among others that are designed to protect the body of the one wearing from injuries caused by falling objects, sharp objects, electrical hazards, heat, infections among others for a job related occupational safety as well as health purposes. The major purpose of PPE is to reduce workers’ exposure to hazards in situations where engineering, as well as administrative efforts, are not sufficient (Hasenmeier, 2008).

Protection; Protection is a term used to describe the act of ensuring that an individual in this context a firefighter is saved from injuries while in his line of duty. The measures taken are well spelled out in various standards.

Standards; Refers to a rule or principles that authority or organization considers being a basis for comparing and to be used to approve other projects. Standards usually define certain criteria that should be followed when doing something for instance developing PPE (Lentile, et al., 2006).

Hazards; “Have been defined as situations that pose a substantial amount or level of threat to life, health, property as well as the surrounding” (Hasenmeier, 2008; p.173). It has been thought that most hazards are dormant associated with a theoretical risk of harm. Risk is a result of a combination of hazard and vulnerability. Three broad categories of hazard are dormant, active and armed.

Assessment; in this context assessment refers to the steps or processes used to identify hazards as well as risks. Both qualitative and quantitative attributes are ascribed. Assessments are always important procedures that raise awareness of various interfaces in fire issues; it contributes to developing and adopting better strategies to mitigate the problems (Lentile, et al., 2006).

Risk assessment; according to FEMA, refers to “a quantitative and qualitative tool used for measuring the probability of incident occurrence and impact that a given area may experience if certain criteria are met during an incident”

Characteristics of fire

Introduction to fire protection

It is no doubt that fire has been used during all the stages of human civilization. The advent of controlled use of fire saw to it that heat, as well as light, was generated making it possible for a man to cook food; this was important since it enhanced nutrition in food. The heat was also used to make people stay warm during cold weather. Similarly, fire has been used to keep wild animals away from man hence enhancing security. However, during its use, there are incidences that fire has proved to be very dangerous whether it was accidental or intentional. People have lost life, property as well as wild animals as a result of a fire that has gone beyond human control. By definition, fire has been thought of as the quick oxidation of materials through combustion which releases heat, light as well as various reaction by-products. Fire usually begins in situations where flammable or materials that are combustible get combined with an adequate amount of oxidizers for instance oxygen or other compounds that are rich in oxygen are exposed to a source of heat usually above the flashpoint for the oxidizer producing a chain of reaction. It is worth noting that fires only exist when the mentioned conditions are present and in their right proportions.

Generally speaking, there are two types of fire; confined and non-confined fires. The former according to NFIRS refers to a class of fire confined to certain types of objects or equipment while the latter is not confined to specific objects or equipment. Strictly speaking, the general causes of fires have been grouped into the following; cooking, heating, electrical malfunction for instance short circuits and wiring problems, unintentional, accidental or careless causes, open flames usually linked to candles and matches and finally intentional causes where individuals set a building or a property on fire with malicious intentions. Characteristically most fires originate when considering residential houses to be from the kitchen, bedrooms, common rooms, den, living room, bathrooms, checkrooms, lavatories, laundry area as well as an exterior balcony. When considering industries, it is evident that most fire originates from where electrical appliances are situated, chemical explosions, hot or smoldering tools as well as heat from powered equipment.

Considering the negative consequences of fire, it is only rational to have efforts in place to protect as well as prevent fires from extending damages. For that reason, there has been in place fire fighting services provision especially in highly developed regions to help contain or put down uncontrolled fires. firefighters use several types of apparatus which include sufficient water supply, fire hydrants or even type A and B foam. It is worth remembering that the firefighters have at their disposal personal protective clothing which plays a major role in ensuring that they are safe when executing their task. The major intention of preventing fire is to help cut down the sources of ignition (Fahy, LeBlanc & Molis, 2011). Additionally educating the relevant stakeholders has been thought to be one of the strategies in preventing fire as people are taught how to avoid causing fires as well as how to respond in case of a fire-out break. Similarly, other strategies aimed at preventing and protecting people from fires include carrying out drills particularly in tall buildings and institutions of learning. This plays an important role in informing as well as preparing people on how to react to a burning building (Lee & Meyer, 2000).

On the same note, engineering methods demand that certain standards be followed when constructing buildings. The standards have been shown to help in minimizing damages resulting from fire. Having in place fire sprinklers is a form of active fire protection mechanism. Similarly, there are incidences where passive fires are as dangerous as active fires (MacCollum, 2006). To curb this federal government under the relevant ministry has in place mechanisms to test the ability of construction materials to resist or withstand higher temperatures or heat, material flammability as well as combustibility. Additionally, materials used in vehicles such as carpets, plastics as well as upholstery are tested to enhance safety. The failure of these mechanisms has seen to it that the insurance sector shielding citizens from damages as a result of fire sprout and gain popularity; the insurance only helps offset the financial impact.

Fire hazard assessment overview

Fire hazard assessments are the steps or processes used to identify qualitative and quantitative attributes of situations that pose a substantial amount or level of threat to life, health, property as well as surroundings as a result of fire outbreaks. This will help the relevant stakeholders to put on prescribed personal protective equipment and take other relevant steps in order to minimize risks from hazards. From existing literature, it is evident that the mechanisms employed when assessing fire hazards have tremendously improved. The major aim of this strategy has been to help the relevant authorities as well as stakeholders to be in the forefront in preventing as well as protecting human lives as well as other properties from the serious consequences of fire. Nonetheless, it is worth mentioning that the entire process of fire hazard assessment is a daunting task but the results are worth the efforts put in if everything was carried out in the most rational way. The process of assessing fire hazards is also made up of fire hazard analysis which eventually has an impact on personnel.

Fire hazard analysis

It is no doubt that there has been tremendous improvement in the manner with which fire has been addressed in terms of changes and advancement in tools, equipment, engineering construction and personnel training. Additionally, the concept of hazard analysis has contributed to increasing success and safety when fighting fires. Tomecek & Smeaton, 2008 have noted that new methods of fire analysis are creating chances for a sober application of fire prevention requirements that could not be otherwise evident to the common citizens. The two also held that;

[…by using a more formalized approach to fire hazards analysis, issues related to fire prevention can be identified that are not necessarily addressed by prescriptive controls or fire protection systems. The use of a fire hazards analysis framework can identify the limits of traditional approaches and can be used to structure and integrate fire prevention and protection programs accordingly. Combining fire hazards analysis with risk assessment, system design, and performance-based analyses, specific fire prevention needs can be identified and effective controls can be developed.] (Tomecek & Smeaton, 2008; 1)

It is worth remembering here that there is no single definition of fire hazard analysis however it is a process that entails a comprehensive evaluation of major causes of fire, impacts of fire as well as the consequences brought about by fire-out break.

Impact to personnel

As noted earlier the entire process of assessment and analysis of fire hazards, those individuals who are trained to rescue people, as well as salvage property from destruction as a result of fire, will have an opportunity to be fully aware of how best to tackle occurrence of fire. It is important to recall that the safety of firefighters is paramount to the successful accomplishment of their tasks.

Fire prevention principles

Just like any other field, there are principles that guide fire prevention. There are various codes that help the relevant authorities to curb issues relating to fire. A summary of these codes is provided as follows; there is a need to manage fire, similarly, there is the principle aimed at ensuring that incidences of fire-out breaks via measured aimed at containing as well as reducing fire dangers, early detection of fires together with the associated early warnings to both staff as well as guests to help in facilitating adequate response; this is attained by providing an automatic fire or smoke detection alarms (Fahy, LeBlanc & Molis, 2011). On the same note engineering methods calls for compartmentalization of buildings as well as constructions of escape routes usually protected from smoke and fire, there is also a need to limit how fire develops and spreads mainly attained by using appropriate construction materials inline the internal as well as the external part of the buildings. Similarly to curb fire there is a need to contain fire and smoke to the rooms in which fire originate accomplished by having in place a self-closing mechanism for doors (Banauch & Alleyne, 2003). Additionally, there is a principle that calls for early suppression of fire achieved by the use of automatic sprinklers, on the same note effective and safe procedures to evacuate victims are necessary usually aided by frequent drills which help in reinforcing as well as improving how the procedures are carried out. Lastly having access and facilities for tackling fire is a requirement.

Hazard assessment for firefighters

Introduction to hazard assessment

Just like another profession, there is a need as previously noted that firefighter need to be provided with a safer working environment. It has been acknowledged that the most valuable part is the health and safety of employees. This calls for effective mechanisms to be in place to help the relevant stakeholders identify and control hazards in the place of work. Additionally, it is worth noting that hazard can be any activity, conditions or even substances that have the capabilities of causing potential harm to individuals, especially employees. Two major categories of hazards are safety and health hazards. All these calls for hazard assessment which has been viewed as an important action in trying to make personnel aware of the various interfaces of fire as well as identifying the necessary steps to arrest the problem. There is always confusion between risk and hazard assessment; to distinguish the two, the latter is the subset of the former. This means that risk assessment refers to a series of hazard assessments that have been analyzed for their potential of occurrences.

Traditionally and even up-to-date fire safety efforts have a foundation on a fire hazard assessment. The assessment in the past was accomplished by the judgment of those deemed to be experts in the field. However, with the passage of time, there has been the development of various forms that help individuals and organizations to successfully carry out fire hazard assessments. Among the forms used in fire hazard assessment include the structure and site hazard assessment form used to critically evaluate the major characteristics of a building, as well as the neighboring area within a radius of 30m, area hazard assessment form, is used exclusively to evaluate the characteristics of the area over than 30m from the building of interest. When these two forms are filled with accurate and up to date information, then interested stakeholders are provided with a comprehensive evaluation or assessment of potential interface fire hazards that a building in question is facing usually from the point of view of the general area and the local site as well as the building. Strictly speaking, fire hazard assessment is made up of four steps which include identifying fire hazards, people at risk, evaluating the risk and finally recording the findings. Having in mind that the entire process is not a one-time event, there is a need to review, monitor and update the findings.

Key hazard analysis

Fire hazard analysis has no single definition, however, it is closely associated with a number of attributes; “An FHA should include a comprehensive evaluation of the causes of, impacts from, and consequences of fire in a specific location. It is a process, in a building, considering the effects of engineered systems, administrative programs, and manual intervention” (Tomecek & Smeaton, 2008; 2). The major purpose of carrying out a fire hazard analysis is to establish expected results of a certain set of conditions-fire scenarios. The latter is usually made up of information of room dimension, its contents, and construction materials, how the room is arranged, location of doors and windows, major attributes that best define the occupants as well as other relevant information that might have an impact on the outcome. Two major goals of fire hazard analysis id to establish the hazards that are present in a given facility that is already in place or under construction. Additionally, it can be used to help in the design in which engineers are given an opportunity to try a given design plan hence evaluated to see whether such a plan meets certain safety measures.

According to Banauch & Alleyne, 2003 there are seven steps that have been thought to be straightforward. The first one is to choose a target outcome, determine the scenarios of interest that could potentially result in an outcome, select a suitable mechanism to be used in predicting growth rates of fire effect, calculate the time required for those in the building to safely move out/evacuated, analyze or examine the impact the occupants or property are exposed to in case of a fire, examine the various uncertainty in the entire process of FHA and finally document the entire process of fire hazard analysis plus the ground for the chose of the model. Evaluation and updating the document are also of the essence.

Identifying workplace hazards

It is worth noting from the onset that the first and very important step in coming up with an all-inclusive safety as well as health program rests on the ability to succinctly identify both physical as well as health hazards in the workplace a process termed hazard assessment. Based on the policy and guidelines discussed in the previous section, there are predetermined steps in identifying workplace hazards. I shall still emphasize here that identification of fire hazards in the place of work goes an extra mile in ensuring the safety of firefighters who are bestowed with the responsibility of saving lives and property from destruction (Hasenmeier, 2008).

To successfully accomplish hazard assessment there is a need to be fully aware of the requirements of the entire process, steps in performing a hazard assessment and finally being able to carry out hazard analysis. All this helps in preventing as well as protecting individuals as well as property from the negative effects of fire. On the same note, it helps in establishing how to control hazards through the use of PPE (MacCollum, 2006).

How to conduct a hazard assessment

As previously noted this is the most important section in trying to safeguard the lives of firefighters. The first step is to identify the various fire hazards usually accomplished by a clear understanding of what are the conditions necessary for a fire to occur. Generally speaking, this step begins with a walk through the chosen facility in which a survey will be carried out aiding the development of a list of potential hazards usually categorized as follows impact, penetration, compression, chemical, heat, light radiations as well as biologic (Rich, 2006). After establishing the general layout of the building there is a need to critically examine the source(s) of power/electricity, potential sources of high temperature that can possibly lead to burns, fires, the major types of chemicals an organization is using, the possibility of falling objects, sources of radiations for instances from such activities as welding, cutting, heat treatment as well as light characterized with very high intensity, harmful dust and the possibility of having pointed objects that could cut, stab or puncture human.

It is here also that cigarettes and match sticks especially from smokers need to be evaluated, naked flames, heaters especially portable gas-fired types noted to be major causes of fires, ensure that electrical switch rooms are empty and that electrical equipment which is portable is in good condition. Considering fuel these are substances that will enhance the spread of fire. For instance, stationeries, envelopes and other paper works need to be accounted for in the assessment, flammable liquids, paint, varnish, curtains, drapes, flammable gases, printed materials and plastic materials need to be identified as fuels.

After establishing the potential hazards in a workplace, it is of essence to identify anyone who might be at risk in case a fire occurs. In situations where the organization has permanent employees, in addition to the customers, part-time staffs, outsourced contractors are among the individual at risk. In residential houses, the family, neighbors, passers-by and friends are at risk in case there is a fire outbreak. Whether in residential houses or business premises those who will fight the fire are also at risk while performing their duties. Generally speaking, the following are groups of individuals at risk; individuals who work alone, members of the public and visitors who might be unfamiliar with the building, individuals who are not in a position to leave the building as soon as possible in case of an emergency (disabled individual, sick people and very old members of the society) and finally individuals facing a language barrier.

The third step has been deemed the most important of all the steps as it forms the basis of risk assessment. Having established the potential hazards as well as those who are at risk, it will only be rational to try to eliminate completely if possible and in situations where this is not possible then there is a need to put in place measures that will help the organization manage the risk at an acceptable threshold. In this step terms evaluating risk four key things are done; assessing risks of hazards as a result of fire outbreak, assessing the risks they identified hazards pose to those at risk, eliminating or managing the fire hazards and finally eliminating or managing the risks to people. Assessing the risk of fire calls for a thorough examination of the possible hazards and assessing the potentiality of each one turning into fire.

It is here that the possible consequences are examined as results of carelessness or being forgetful and finally examine the possibility of someone maliciously starting a fire with ease the latter calls for an examination of how fuels such as papers are available and stored. When assessing risk to people, judgment is made probably by using probabilistic manipulations to find out the likelihood of the risks to the identified people. It is in this section that how fire spreads from the place of origin is critically examined (Fahy, LeBlanc & Molis, 2011).

Additionally, escape route opt to be also critically evaluated as well as the time to evacuate individuals. In trying to eliminate or manage fire hazards there is a need to have a clear understanding of the conditions in which fire will prevail. For instance, removing or minimizing sources of ignition could play a major role. However having in mind that the majority of businesses will not operate without power, there is a need to have in place certain policies that will help eliminate certain sources such as matches and cigarettes (Fahy, LeBlanc & Molis, 2011). Similarly eliminating or tremendously reducing sources of fuel for instance reducing the potential of allowing combustibles, have special storage facilities for flammable liquids and gases. Lastly eliminating or reducing sources of oxygen by maintaining all fire doors as well as ensuring that doors and windows are closed when no one is in the office.

To eliminate or reduce risk to people there is a need to have in place well spell fire precautions, training staffs on issues relating to fire occurrence, having fire extinguishers, escape routes sprinklers, have areas of restrictions, fire safety signs, alarm systems among other possible measures aimed at reducing risk to a human being. The last step in the assessment of fire hazards and for that matter any hazard is to record the findings. Among the things recorded include the steps to be taken in situations where fire occurs, detailed information of relevant personnel with certain prescribed responsibilities, tasks and duties, the identified risks during the assessment, an explanation of escape routes, details on the fire alarms systems, the management steps the organization will take in order to reduce the identified risks and finally the information on fire fighting equipment as well as other safety equipment. It is worth noting that the whole process is not a one-time event and it will call for reviews from time to time.

Firefighter deaths and Injuries due to fires

Introduction to the potential for deaths and injury

It is no doubt that the entire process of fighting fire is surrounded by various dangerous events. This section will critically evaluate the major potential for death and injuries provide a statistical overview of injuries and death through confrontation accidents, the seriousness of the potential injuries as well as an overview of the potential hazards. It is acknowledged that the five major types/ categories of injuries during fire-fighting operation include fire incidence, fire ground, non-fire emergency, training and other on-duty activities. For the purposes of this paper, the two categories of focus are fire incidence and training. The reason for this rests on the fact that all potential hazards have been encountered by a firefighter during practical training.

Statistic of injuries and deaths

Historically firefighters have lost their lives and scores get either mild or very serious injuries. However, it is worth noting that the number of victims either dying or suffering from serious and life-threatening injuries has tremendously reduced thanks to the efforts being made from all relevant quotas (Rich, 2006). In the United States, for instance, the number of firefighters dying annually has been approximately 100 while on duty while several thousand suffer from all sorts of injuries. Strictly speaking, although there have been reduced death incidences; the number of firefighters fatalities per 100,000 incidents has gone up (Watts & Hall, 2002). The number of firefighters losing their lives as well as sustaining injuries while on duty brought about national attention leading to research as well as studies that have seen to it that PPE has been tremendously improved. Other issues such as engineering methods as well as administration efforts have since been beefed to help reverse the situation. The table below gives a summary of deaths as well as injuries sustained by firefighters from 1981 to 2010 in the United States.

Statistic of injuries and deaths

It is worth noting that the injuries sustained and the number of death includes those incidences such as road collision while on route to the calls. A substantial number of a firefighter has lost their lives when their tankers or another kind of motor vehicle collide with others. Most of these types of accidents result in explosions characterized by fires (Rasbash, et al., 2004).

Considering the nature of fatal injuries, it is evident from studies carried out since 1990-2000 that the leading fatal injury to firefighters is a heart attack; the second most is trauma as well as internal head injuries. On the same note, it has been shown that Asphyxia and burns come in third and more firefighters lose their lives due to trauma as compared to a lot of death as a result of asphyxia and burns combined (Watts &. Hall, 2002).

Analysis of those affected reveals shocking findings. Approximately 60.0% of those who die are slightly above 40 years while about 30.0% were above 50 years. Similarly, those who were under the age of 35 years had a likelihood of dying due to complications linked to trauma. Having in mind that there are full-time, part-time and volunteers when it comes to fire-fighting studies shows clearly that those at risk and indeed those who die in big numbers are volunteers.

When considering death and injuries related to fire in Australia domestic fire has been deemed the major cause of death. Averagely 98 deaths were recorded between the periods of 2007 to 2009. During the same period, close to 3,380 individuals with injuries were hospitalized. The number of genuine fires that were responded to totaled 112,035. It is important to note that the country has a total of 13,752 full-time firefighters (Fahy, LeBlanc & Molis, 2011).

From the discussion above the injuries are so serious that may leave one dead or live with certain harsh realities. For instance, there are some of the firefighters who have lost some of their body parts for good for example amputation of a limb. On the same note, others who were not well protected inhale toxic gases leaving them with damaged respiratory organs thus unable to normally breathe. Similarly due to burns survivors have to endure burnt skin; thankfully the advent of plastic surgery has seen to it that such a problem is addressed. However, research has shown that slightly over a half of injuries sustained by firefighters do not result in lost work time as such injuries are treated on sight accomplished by the provision of first aid or later treatment after the incident by a qualified doctor.

Close to 30.0% of injuries sustained by firefighters lead to lost work time. However those with serious injuries contribute to only 2.0% although such individuals are provided with first aid on-scene and later offered with proper medication, the majority either die due to complications or remain permanently deformed. Interestingly there are some of the firefighters who die during training. It is important to note here that the number has tremendously declined prior to 2004. About six percent of all deaths are associated with training. When broken down, physical exercise or fitness is the biggest contributor to those who die during training, the second contributor is PPE drills and the last one is live-fire exercise.

Potential hazards

The entire activity of bringing down fire is faced with a number of potential hazards that when they occur are indeed life-threatening. From hazard assessment, a list of potential hazards can be generated. In this case, examples of potential hazards include fire flames and radiation, falling objects, electric shock, sharp static objects, toxic gases, molten metals and harmful dust among others.

Sources and classification of injuries

One of the notable hazards is moving objects. Although one might think that in a burning build there will be no movement of objects, there are possibilities that in case people were inside, the commotion they cause might result in moving objects such as furniture and the likes. It has been noted also that there is potential movement especially when the burning structure has been weakened by the fire. There are cases where firefighters are fighting the fire from inside and are unaware of when a building is collapsing. When firefighters are trapped inside and the efforts to rescue them are not possible then such individuals in most cases lose their lives. In situations where they are signaled and try to escape when the timing is not correct, then they may escape with life-threatening injuries. When the building is not collapsing, certain structures are weakened and get detached whence they fall and hit firefighters may result in confusion or even collapse of the firefighter hence impeding movement this puts their lives in danger (Banauch & Alleyne, 2003).

During fire outbreaks, there are two obvious components, flames and radiations. The two have been deemed very destructive to the human body especially if personal protective clothing is not adequately worn. After ignition probably from an open flame, electric malfunction, cooking, cigarette or intentional activities to set fire, the severity of the same depends on the availability of fuel which now becomes the source of heat and radiation. For instance where an organization encourages the existence of a bigger amount of paperwork, print material, untreated furniture for fire resistance, careless or improper storage of explosive and flammable gases and liquids, then there are higher chances of sources of heat to be derived from these materials. It has been noted with concern that such kinds of fuels are responsible for the faster spread of fires not only in the building of origin but also to other neighboring buildings.

Concerning sources of exposure, fire firefighters more often than not are faced with exposure to toxic chemicals, harmful dust, vapors and gases as well as molten substances. With regards to molten substances, the heat generated usually changes the state of certain equipment and tools, for instance, plastic chairs or furniture and metals such as lead melts. When firefighters tackle the fire from inside the burning building and they are not well protected, they are vulnerable to dangers associated with such substances. During a fire incident, the paints used in a building, chemicals stored either complete or incomplete combustion of substances such as linen, cotton and wool results in harmful dust, vapor and toxic gases.

Among the notable gases released include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen cyanide, phosgene, chlorine, ammonia, nitrogen dioxide to mention but a few. The injuries associated with these sources are both internal and external. Gases that is toxic when they get into the respiratory tract cause instant death or serious long-term injuries to the body. On the same note, vapor, as well as harmful dust when they get in contact with human skin, causes abrasion destroying the skin.

When fire burns a building the power, especially from electricity or other sources, gets short-circuited resulting in electric shocks. In situations where water tanks link, then the problem is aggravated making the lives of firefighters in great danger if the personal protective clothing is not adequate in protection. To ensure that the environment is safe from such a hazard the general rule calls for ensuring that the place is powered off. On the same note, there are various sources of sharp objects which may include stored equipment and tools. Similarly, fires might expose metals used during the construction of a building making it potentially dangerous for firefighters.

Part of the body injured

It would be rational to bring to light the body parts that get injured during fire fighting. It has been shown that about 30.0% of firefighters’ injuries for instance in 2004 included both upper and lower extremities which included the torso, arms and hands as well as legs and feet. When considering the shoulder region and the head, injuries in these areas contributed to about 20.0% of all injuries. It is worth noting that all parts of a firefighter body are vulnerable to injuries. In 2004 for instance upper extremities, lower extremities, head areas, neck throat and shoulder, multiple body parts, thorax, internal, spine, abdomen, pelvis and hip area had the following percentages of injuries respectively, 16%, 15%, 12%, 8%, 6%, 5.6%, 5.5%, 3%, 2.7% and 2.3%. Among the causes of injuries include overextension or strain, exposure to hazards, contact with objects, slipping or tripping, falling, struck or assaulted by individual/animal or objects and finally jumping.

Occupational hazards and PPE for firefighter

Introduction to occupational hazards and PPE

This section will critically evaluate the various occupational hazards firefighters are exposed to. On the same note, the personal protective equipment used by firefighters in order to minimize the hazards will be evaluated. In addition, the specifications, as well as the standards for PPE for firefighters, are also be given a focus. However, this section will not discuss PPE for incidences of special nature. As noted in the previous section, the safety of firefighters is of the essence in ensuring that they are at their best to execute their duties. One major way to enhance their safety is with the use of PPE (Rasbash, et al., 2004). As if this was not enough it was deemed appropriate by the relevant authorities that certain standards and specifications be adhered to to ensure that the equipment manufactured is up to standard to shield firefighters from any potential harm. It is in this section that all relevant PPE for firefighters will be discussed in details-their components and standards.

Specification and standards of PPE for firefighters

Despite the fact that hazards vary from one workplace to another, there are certain agreed standards that guide the manufacture and choice of PPE. For a PPE to be considered complete it opts to provide protection to the human head, eyes, face, neck hands, arms, legs, feet as well as the entire body. For this reason, various standards have been developed to help guide how PPE for various body sections is developed. It is important to recall here that the whole idea of suppressing fire is usually characterized by a hostile environment causing potential injuries to firefighters. Similarly, although deaths related to fire as well as fire incidences have reduced over the past decade it is sad to note that injuries encountered by firefighters have remained constant. This is what forms the basis for coming up with specifications as well as standards to help reverse the trend. With the passage of time, it is evident that some specifications as well as standards used as benchmarks have lost the test of time and need to be replaced. It is important to acknowledge that developing a new set of standards is typically a daunting task; on the same note international acceptance of the same takes time (Rich, 2006).

In general terms, there are broadly three specifications that need to be made by manufacturers of PPE; manufacturing equipment that has three layers, outer shell, moisture barrier and thermal barrier. For the outer shell, the material to be used should be able to withstand high temperatures and for the hands and feet or leg, PPE be capable of not only preventing the mentioned parts from heat but also sharp objects. The middle layers opt to be made up of material capable of preventing water from soaking the wearer. Additionally, it should also help in ensuring that heat does not get to the wearer.

The purpose of the third layer is to exclusively protect the wearer from radiation and flames from the fire. From these points, it is apparent that four major requirements have been brought forth with the aim of covering heat transfer through radiation or flames and resistance to water passage as well as resistance to water vapor. Thinking in the same line the construction of PPE concepts are; to offer wearers thermal insulation via layering of prescribed material, providing firefighters with equipment that are resistant to the flame by using synthetic materials and finally provide wearers with protection from the impact of falling as well as other objects via the use of materials that are synthetic.

To ensure that organizations comply with the PPE there are standards that require employees to provide their workers with PPE which includes respiratory equipment. It is a requirement for each and every employee who must use PPE to be provided with a set of the same. Ideally, the PPE include; an impact-resistant helmet having an inbuilt visor a torch and safety goggles, a pair of the flash hood that are flame and heat resistant, a pair of tunic and over trousers also flame and heat resistant, gloves that are resistant to flames and heat as well as puncture usually lined with Kevlar and finally boots having steel toe caps and sole plates. The boots are either made of rubber or leather. Failure of an employee to avail of this equipment is usually considered a violation of laid down rules.

It is has been noted that providing workers with all the necessary PPE is not sufficient. This thus called for a standard that required employers to have in place mechanisms or strategies to train employees on how to use and maintain the equipment to enhance their safety. Additionally, standards require that workers are adequately trained on issues relating to fire hazards. Among the various choices provided for in training, employees include instituting a training program, imposing a compliance duty that governs each worker. Failure to do this is seen as a violation of the standard.

Other standards call for proper maintenance of the PPE; ideally, organizations are advised to strictly adhere to the recommendations of the manufacturers especially with regards to keeping the equipment clean ready for use when they are needed. On the same note, any organization is responsible for ensuring that the PPE is durable, fits wearers snugly and does not interfere with the wearer’s movement. Additionally PPE deemed defective should at no time be used. Similarly, the equipment needs to be stored in the most desirable place usually cool and dry free from dust. In the event that a worker provides his/her own PPE, it is the responsibility of the organization or company to ensure that the same adequately meets the set standards and can offer desired protection from workplace hazards.

According to Rich, 2006 the new standard EN 469:2005 covers the following sections; levels of performance, sizing, practice performance testing, sampling and pre-treatment, visibility and whole garment testing. With regards to performance levels, there are two levels of performance with prescribed test methods for clauses relating to heat transfer flame and radiation, resistance to water penetration as well as water vapor resistance.

PPE components and standards

From the definition of personal protective equipment, it is evident that the term constitutes various components. It would be wise for all these components to be mentioned, they include; helmet, hand-light, SCBA, hearing protection, eye protection, protective coats, protective hood, protective trousers, fire-fighting boots, extrication gloves and fire-fighting gloves.

Head hazards

In situations where firefighters are in confrontation with fire, their heads are potentially at risk from fire flames and radiation. Similarly, there are possibilities that falling objects, as well as sharp objects, might injure them. It is worth noting that a head injury can make an employee be permanently impaired or even lose his/her life. Therefore wearing a safety helmet has been deemed to be one of the steps to enhance head safety. This plays a major role in ensuring that burn hazards, as well as electric shocks, do not affect the wearer. It is obvious that firefighters in the line with their duties will experience at least one or a combination of objects falling from above them, possibilities of bumping their heads into fixed static objects and accidental contact of their heads with electric shocks.

It is a requirement that the helmet is resistant to penetration of objects, be able to effectively absorb shocks from blows, be able to resist moisture, have a higher ability to tolerate very high temperatures and finally bear succinct instructions that explain how one can adjust as well as replace suspensions and headbands. In the strictest sense helmets opt to have as an outer shell that is very hard worth a shock-absorbing lining made up of headband and straps suspending the shell from 1 to 1.25 inches from the head. Such a design was to facilitate shock absorption as well as enhance ventilation. “Protective headgear must meet ANSI Standard Z89.1-1986 (Protective Headgear for Industrial Workers) or provide an equivalent level of protection” (Fahy, LeBlanc & Molis, 2011; p. 165)

The three major classes of helmets are class A, B and C. according to OSHA standards, there is a need to ensure that the size of the helmet is appropriate. In addition to protecting the head, the equipment comes with earmuffs, glasses, face shields as well as mounted light and optimal brims all playing a role in trying to protect not only the head but also the face. As suggested by Fahy, LeBlanc & Molis, 2011 there is a need to carry out periodic cleaning and inspection to ensure the longevity of the equipment. Faulty helmets should at no time be used and no modification whatsoever should be done on the equipment for instance drilling holes painting as well as applying labels.

Eye and face hazards

Human eyes and face are significant especially when carrying out such activities as fire-fighting; when normal functioning is affected then judgments might be wrong. Concerning the various hazards to the human face and eyes, heat flames and radiations pose the greatest dangers. Smoke which is part of fire may irritate the eye or even make firefighters unable to clearly see. There is also a possibility that when some substances are burnt they fall and produce dust that may result in problems in visualization as well as respiration. Additionally, the face and the eye may be affected by electric shocks. Lastly, falling objects may get in contact with the eye leading to serious injuries.

For that reason, there are two major protective equipment for the face and the eyes; a protective hood and goggles. The flash hood is worn to help protect the face and the neck of the wearer from radiation and flames from the fire. It is usually supplied in a one-fit size and it is a soft durable put-on together with other fire protection kits. The material used to manufacture hoods should have the ability to resist radiation. OSHA standards are clear on how to store the equipment after use and after cleaning. Defective ones should at no time be worn. Eye protection equipment comes in various forms for instances safety goggles and glasses, helmet shields among others. It is worth noting that the latter is only secondary eye protection equipment. The equipment opts to meet the ANSI specifications, be clean and have no scratches and should be always carried by firefighters (Watts & Hall, 2002).

Hand hazard

In situations where engineering methods have failed to ensure removal or elimination of hazards to workers there use of PPE is strongly advised. Among the possible hazards to firefighters include exposure to harmful chemicals and gases that can be absorbed, chemical or thermal burns, electrical shocks, bruises, abrasion, fractures as well as punctures from either static or falling objects. The most appropriate PPE for the hand and arms include gloves, finger guard as well as elbow-length gloves. The PPE should be able to withstand high temperatures, resistant to penetration of radiations, ability to protect the hand from dust. Additionally, leather canvas or metal mesh gloves should be able to provide the wearers with resistance to abrasion as well as punctures. Apart from all these attributes, the gloves opt to allow the wearer to freely move his/her hands while carrying out his/her tasks.

It has been recommended that there should be a thorough inspection of gloves before they are used. Ensuring that the equipment is not torn or is ineffective will help enhance the principle of safety in the workplace. Inspection will help the authorities to establish whether gloves have cuts or are torn. Those that have lost their color opt not to be reused. When contemplating whether or not to reuse such equipment the thoughts ought to be guided by the duration of exposure, the temperatures among other attributes (Norman, 2005).

Feet and legs hazards

During fire incidences, firefighters’ legs and feet face various hazards; among them include electrical shocks, fire flames and radiations, injuries from falling objects, hitting static objects, penetration of sharp objects, liquid dust and chemicals. Ideally, foot and leg protective equipment are worn in situations where electrical hazards are well pronounced, there is the possibility of molten metals that might splash to firefighters’ legs, there are possibilities of rolling objects and finally the presence of sharp objects is inevitable. Generally, footwear should protect the feet as well as the legs from flames, heat radiation, electric shocks, moisture, shock from rolling objects as well as protection from abrasion and prick from sharp objects.

Boots should be able to meet the minimum standards of compression as well as impact performance as provided in ANSI-Z41-1991. The two major types of fire boots are leather and rubber. The former is made up of leather in the upper part and has a synthetic sole as well as a heel. In addition, it has steel toecaps which help in protecting against drop hazards and a steel midsole that offers protection against sharp objects (Rich, 2006). The rubber one has a similar function, however, it provides further protection since its heel and sole are retardant to flame, heat and oil. There is a need to closely examine the equipment before use. This will help determine those that are defective thus safeguarding the safety of the wearers.

Respiratory hazard and protection

Considering the work done by firefighters it is not enough to provide them with all other protective clothing without adequately considering the respiratory bit of their protection. In situations where fire breaks out it is apparent that there are several hazards that will negatively impact the firefighter’s ability to breathe comfortably vital for the normal functioning of the body. Smoke is one of the potential hazards faced by firefighters (Rasbash, et al., 2004). Most smoke contains suspended particles of carbon, tar as well as dust. In addition, smoke offers a location for condensation of gases, when inhaled smoke and their constituent are very irritating and when it contains poisonous gases it might lead to death.

There is also the possibility of the firefighters to filter in through the nasal hair and mucus membrane larger particles of smoke. Additionally higher temperatures cause rapid inhalation causing hypotension, the possibility of pneumonia, edema in the lungs as well as asphyxiation. It is also noted that they also face hazards from toxic chemicals. Most of the toxic gases enter directly into the lungs, may pass through the bloodstream impairing the ability of the body to transport oxygen to body cells, tissues and organs.

It is important to note that the hazard usually depends on how severe the combustion is the rate of heating and oxygen concentration. Among the signs or symptoms of deficiency of oxygen are faster breathing, muscular impairment, dizziness, unconsciousness and ultimately death. The major types of toxic gases when fighting fire include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen cyanide, phosgene, chlorine, ammonia, nitrogen dioxide among others.

In order to address the various issues/hazards related to respiration when fighting the fire, relevant authorities have come up with various tools to curb the problem. The various types of this equipment include open-circuit self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), open circuit supplied air breathing apparatus (SABA), closed-circuit breathing apparatus (re-breathers). However of interest here is the first one, SCBA which is the most common type of respiratory protection used together with an air hose. With this equipment, the wearer is provided with compressed breathing air usually from a cylinder that is carried on the back. The exhaled air is released into the atmosphere. With the advent of technology, there have been efforts in ensuring that the cylinder is not bulky. It has also been possible to have in place mechanisms whereby in case a firefighter is motionless or running out of compressed air, then the same information is conveyed to the relevant authority for further action (Fahy, LeBlanc & Molis, 2011).

Full body hazards and protection

Generally speaking, all the fore mentioned hazards for instance dust, smoke, chemicals, gases, molten metals, electric shocks, radiation and flames from a fire, falling or rolling objects to mention but a few are hazardous to the body of firefighters. For that matter protection of the human body in situations where all engineering methods failed to eliminate or minimize hazards then calls for the full wearing of PPE to help firefighters be safer while actively accomplishing their mandate.

It is worth mentioning here that it is the responsibility of the employers to provide firefighters with PPE to be worn on the specific body parts vulnerable to injuries. Among the common hazards that firefighters face generally falls in three main categories; extreme temperatures, electric shocks and injuries from objects either static or in motion (Lee & Meyer, 2000).

For firefighters, the major examples of protective clothing that help shield the entire body include full body suits, coveralls, vests, jackets and aprons. It is worth noting that all these PPE are manufactured with certain standards to help protect the body against certain harms. Examples of the material used to make these clothing result to the following types of protective clothing; paper-like fiber mainly made to protect the human body from splashes as well as dust which is evident in fighting fires, treated wool and cotton made to withstand high temperatures hence protecting human body from flames and radiations, it is comfortable protecting the body from dust, abrasion, as well as rough irritating areas, similarly firefighter at certain times, are needed to handle rough, heavy and sharp objects that can potentially cause cuts and abrasion a duck which is woven cotton accomplish human protection against such hazards (Lee & Meyer, 2000).

Additionally, leather materials especially jackets and aprons protect firefighters against fire flames and radiation, lastly, rubber or neoprene, as well as plastic material, protect the body of firefighters against certain chemicals and gases from entering the human body (Rasbash, et al., 2004).

Problems and difficulties with PPE

The benefits of wearing PPE by firefighters are numerous for instance they help protect the wearers from fire, smoke, electric shocks, punctures from sharp objects, molten metals as well as providing the security of visibility as well as the accessibility of various tools. For instance, some of the clothing has several pockets where extra tools might be kept for example extra gloves, radio, flashlights among others. However, it has been shown that using PPE does not offer the ultimate desired protection and might lead to serious injuries or provide less protection. For that matter, it is rational to have such points in mind (Delmar, 2004).

Problems related to PPE

The major problems related to PPE include the incorrect fit of the equipment. This is a very serious issue; when the equipment is either too big or too small for the wearer there are a number of problems that might arise. One the wearer will be uncomfortable in such equipment and might take time in adjusting the same losing concentration while dealing with a fire-out break. This will definitely lead to serious injuries or even death having in mind that time is of the essence when fighting the fire. Their movement might also be negatively affected by incorrect fitting PPE. On the same line of thinking problems associated with the use of wrong PPE, damaged ones, poorly maintained ones, as well as the use of inconsistent PPE, have the same consequences as those previously mentioned. In addition, the same will not provide the wearers with the desired protection as intended by the manufacturers (Carl & Murnane, 2008).

Another serious problem with PPE when it comes to comfort is with regards to temperatures extremes. With this, there are several associated hazards for instance the wearer will suffer from heat, physical as well as psychological stress. It is no doubt that the protective clothing is heavy and will not allow firefighters to feel free air circulating over their bodies. The problem is that the use of structural personal protective clothing and equipment for fire suppression work increases the potential for physiological stress and heat-related injuries to the firefighter (Austin & Wang, 2001).

Additionally, the majority, when firefighters are trained on proper use as well as maintenance of PPE, whenever they put them on a greater proportion, get the false impression that they are fully protected from the various fire-related hazards. For that matter, they usually go to the extreme in trying to execute their duties. There have been several incidences where firefighters gained confidence and went ahead to fight the fire and save lives as well as properties in the most daring scenarios. Although there are other explanations of increased firefighter deaths and injuries I bet this explains it very well.

Similarly, in situations where the equipment is not well cleaned and stored, there are higher chances of such equipment when used by a different firefighter to contact some health complication. For instance when an individual who used a certain PPE had skin disease or other types of contagious illnesses, when the same is not adequately cleaned then a second wearer of such equipment will suffer from such illnesses (Norman, 2005). This has been raised severally by employees. It is also worth remembering that PPE only protects those who have fully worn the same. There are instances where some employees might not be able to wear certain PPE on medical grounds. Whenever in such a situation and there are no alternatives of the equipment in question, then such an employee is vulnerable to the various risks posed in the event of a fire outbreak (Rich, 2006).

On the same note, despite the fact that efforts have been put in place to help manufacturers develop PPE that is light and less cumbersome, there are reported cases that employees are uncomfortable with the whole set of equipment. For instance, when using water to fight the fire, the inner middle layer that protects the body from moisture usually absorbs water making the clothing heavier. The results of such an event include impeding movement as well as a maneuver of the wearer is trying to successfully accomplish their duties. In extreme conditions such weight coupled with those of other tools in pants’ as well as coats pocket and the SCBA bag may lead to the wearer getting serious injuries or even death when trapped since he/she can get out of a dangerous area Austin & Wang, 2001).

It is common knowledge that there are cases where the technology may fail; the results of any technical hiccup are usually far from human imagination. Although it has not been reported, imagine a situation where the alarm system is installed on SCBA to help alert the team outside the affected area that a firefighter is either running out of the compressed air or is motionless, at the end fatalities may be recorded. Similarly, some of the equipment putting the wearers in danger has also raised concern (Fahy, LeBlanc & Molis, 2011). For instance, when the rescue belts and other suspending equipment are not well stuck in their correct position, they might trigger an object to fall and depending on its weight may seriously injure or even kill the wearer. On the same line of thinking there are cases where firefighters got trapped in a fire thanks to such equipment (Delmar, 2004).

Lastly, it has been shown that the breathing apparatus, the SCBA do have some serious issues. For instance, although it has been made to be in line with the shape of the wearers back, it brings with it the issue of obstruction when trying to move within a region that is small. Apparently, this contributes to the issue of being trapped in hazardous regions when fighting fires. This has a significant negative effect on maximum work capacity.

Similarly, it has been shown that there is some SCBA equipment that allows passage of particles during inhalation, this enters the human lungs causing the serious respiratory problem either instantly or later in life. Additionally, all the SCBA have a certain limit of compressed air it can contain. Typically the container can sustain a firefighter for about 30 minutes, what this means is that in case the fire is so fierce that the time to be spent while fighting it exceeds 30 minutes then the life of a firefighter is in danger if the alarm system fails to respond adequately.

PPE and training

Introduction to PPE and training

It is no doubt that information is power. Having in mind that the whole profession of bringing down huge fires and saving lives as well as property is extremely a dangerous affair it would be rational to provide firefighters with enough knowledge on all aspects surrounding fires. The benefits accrued from such efforts can only be seen in the end; fewer deaths for firefighters as well as reduced personal injuries (Carl & Murnane, 2008). In general, the relevant department opts to try their best in trying to reduce known hazards and risks, the skills and knowledge from such training are of paramount importance in enhancing personal safety, there is a need for a firefighter to regularly and continuously seek to update their skills and knowledge with regards to their profession and finally, adherence to manufactures instructions on how operations of all PPE is important.

It is a requirement that employers should use whatever means at their disposal to ensure that their workers are trained on at least these areas; types of hazards, when PPE is necessary, what kind of PPE to use in the event a certain hazard occurs, putting on, taking off, adjusting as well as wearing of PPE, the limitation of PPE and more importantly how to take proper care, maintenance, storage as well as disposing of those that can no longer be reused (Rich, 2006). To appreciate the training, employers through the relevant authorities for instance site managers opt to be sure that employees are in a position to demonstrate that they have understood the training as well as show that they can properly use PPE. Considering the fact that there is always new technology with the passage of time, the addition of new hazards and that it is human nature to forget things, organizations are reminded to have in place strategies to retrain their employees on various issues related to PPE. Usually, training is done prior to the use of PPE.

Training requirements

According to Carl & Murnane, 2008; p.28 “firefighters who are required to wear PPE shall receive training in the proper use, fit and care of Personal protective equipment” This training shall occur before the use of PPE. This training shall include, but not necessarily be limited to, the following areas:

Hazards that the chosen PPE can help protect against
Proper selection of PPE considering the fact of time, type and when to use
How to properly put on, adjust and put off
Limitations of the PPE
How to properly dispose PPE in case it is not possible to reuse
Proper maintenance of PPE
The length of the useful life of the PPE
Proper use of PPE
How to thoroughly inspect PPE so that defective or those damaged are removed and not used till repaired if they are serviceable.
When to replace worn-out PPE

After accomplishing all these, it is very important that all the activities covered in training, as well as retraining, are documented. It should be put in writing that each and every employee at risk of certain hazards has undergone and understood the training offered. In the document, the attributed captures include names of the employees, dates of training and subjects of training. In a situation where the federal government carries out an unannounced compliance check, an organization that has successfully done this will be at peace and thus be in good books with the government and probably the general public, employees as well as their customers Maine Municipal Association Risk Management Services, (2005).

PPE and responsibilities

Introduction to PPE responsibility

OSHA has made it very clear that in situations where engineering methods failed to eliminate or reduce workplace hazards, employees should be provided with effective PPE. Ideally, the provision of PPE has been deemed as the final step in trying to defend workers from workplace hazards (Lee & Meyer, 2000). With the quest of trying to ensure that firefighters are safeguarded from workplace hazards, each and every one of the following stakeholders has certain responsibilities; employees, supervisors, department of fire or safety and finally environmental health and safety (Banauch & Alleyne, 2003).

Responsibilities of supervisors

Supervisors’ are the immediate bosses to employees. One major duty they have to perform is to carry out workplace hazard assessments that might be faced by firefighters. The supervisor is to establish when it is appropriate to carry out such an assessment for instance when there is a change in employees’ work environment. Other sets of their responsibilities include:

Carrying out a reassessment of hazards whenever deemed fit
Properly maintaining hazard assessment as well as analysis records in good shape
Offer workers with appropriate PPE as spelled by the hazard assessment
Ensuring that workers are putting on PPE when on duty
Ensuring that workers have completed all required medical examinations before using PPE
Be responsible for making sure that all PPE is clean, reliable and in good shape before being allocated to employees

Responsibilities of safety department/unit

It is this unit that is bestowed with the responsibility of developing as well as administration of PPE program. Similarly, through the employers, it is this unit that provides workers with PPE at no cost. Asides from buying the equipment, the department is to carry out fit testing, medical examination, meet the cost of training as well as materials to be used in training and servicing and maintain the equipment (Delmar, 2004). Additionally, the unit is bestowed with the responsibility of keeping records with regards to their compliance to the standards among other issues. Another set of responsibilities the department should perform include:

Offering technical assistance to supervisors when carrying out hazard assessment, training as well fostering proper use, care,maintenance as well as storage of PPE
Provide supervisors with guidance during selection as well as purchasing of PPE
Review, update as well as evaluate how successful and effective the organization PPE program(s) are

Responsibilities of Environmental Health and Safety

The body is responsible for providing organizations with assistance with regards to PPE only on request. Their assistance might be in assessing or performing hazard assessment, reviewing hazard assessment together with the company’s supervisors as well as offering guidance in choosing the right PPE for employees. Additionally, the body will help supervisors in training on PPE as well as evaluate and monitor compliance with the set standards of PPE. Any other kind of assistance sort after by an organization will be addressed by Environmental Health and Safety Unit.

Employees’ (firefighters) responsibilities

Since they are the ones who will use the equipment in carrying out their duties and tasks, they are responsible for the following:

Wear PPE when on duty
Avail themselves in any training event
Offer proper care, cleaning, maintenance as well as storage of PPE
Make their supervisors aware of the desire to repair or replace defective PPE
Report to supervisors any health problem when using PPE
Carry out a thorough inspection of PPE before using

Inspection and storage of PPE

Introduction to PPE and responsibility

It has been noted that firefighter has a major role in trying to enhance a safer working environment. For that matter, they are to inspect all the PPE they are provided with before use. As previously noted various standards call upon rejection of defective equipment and the same options to be replaced with immediate effect while those that can be repaired the same should be done on time. Similarly to ensure the longevity of the equipment, there is a need to store (Banauch & Alleyne, 2003)

Inspection

The most important part in trying to ensure that the workers are using the PPE in a correct manner and that the same are kept in accordance with the standards as well as recommendations of the manufacturers calls for thorough inspection from the relevant stakeholders. From the lowest level, the firefighters or wearers of PPE are the first group of individuals to closely examine whether the equipment they are provided with is up to standard and will provide them adequate protection. Strictly speaking, after carrying out fire hazard assessment it is the responsibility of the organization in conjunction with relevant bodies to purchase PPE for their workers (Carl & Murnane, 2008).

Once this is accomplished there is a need to regularly check if all the equipment bought is in-store and in good condition. Whenever defective ones are found necessary steps need to be taken for instance replacing them with new ones. Similarly for the federal government to ensure that organizations are in compliance with provisions guiding employees’ protection while in their place of work, they need to carry out regular inspections to not only ensure that the organization has proper PPE but the same is in good conditions.

Maintenance

It is no doubt that proper maintenance of personal protective equipment plays a major role in ensuring that their integrity is not compromised and that they can last longer. To accomplish this, PPE shall be checked before each use and shall be regularly cleaned, maintained, repaired (unless disposable) and replaced in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. In addition at no time should any modification be done on PPE for instance painting, labeling or drilling holes.

According to various standards especially from OSHA and manufacturers of PPE repairs on such equipment need to be carried out with individuals certified by such bodies. When cleaning the equipment there is a need to adhere to the set standards of doing the same, for instance, when cleaning eye protection equipment wiping them with a paper towel they will be scratched rendering them useless. This not only makes the whole activity of offering employees PPE expensive but also puts them at risk if such equipment is used (Lee & Meyer, 2000).

Storage

Another important issue when it comes to the proper maintenance of PPE is proper storage. Usually, instructions on how to store given personal protective equipment are fully provided by the manufacturers. There are cases whereby specific storage receptacles for PPE not in use may be required to prevent contamination and keep PPE clean. Generally speaking manufacturers especially those who make PPE used by firefighter recommend that such equipment be stored in cool places free from moisture, direct sunlight, dust, chemicals as well as physical objects, for instance, sharp items. On the same note “eye protection, respirators, and hearing protection require clean dust-tight containers” (Watts & Hall, 2002; pp.126)

Conclusion and recommendations

From the review of the role of PPE, a number of issues come to light. It is evident that the entire profession of fire-fighting is dangerous. Considering this, efforts have been made to help reduce the number of death and injuries. There has been a tremendous and steady effort by manufacturers to come up with PPE that is advanced and fits the scenario surrounding fire fighting. The research paper tackled issues relating to characteristics of fire, hazard assessment for firefighters, firefighters death and injuries of Australia compared to that of the US, occupational hazards and PPE for firefighters, problems and difficulties associated with PPE, PPPE training and responsibilities and finally inspection and storage of PPE (Kipp & Loflin, 2001).

The workplace hazard assessment should be used as a starting point for the selection of the PPE required for any given hazardous situation and an aid to the minimization of risk. Final selections should be based on a specific review of the work task, the duration of the task, the risk of injury during the task, the consequences of any exposure to an injurious, any related hazards material safety data sheet, and any relevant regulatory or national consensus standard exposure limits (Jin, 2006).

Additionally:

There is a need for regular medical examination as well as physical fitness for firefighters
The organization also need to adopt and implement an incident management system
Employers should have in place training programs that are regularly evaluated to test if they are effective which will be used to gauge if retraining is necessary
Employers are obliged to provide workers with PPE and ensure that they are capable of putting them on properly, adjusting and taking off.

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Leigh B.; Holden, A. & Alistair M. (2006). Remote sensing techniques to assess active fire characteristics and post-fire effects. International Journal of Wildland Fire, 3(15):319-345.

MacCollum, D. (2006). Construction Safety Engineering Principles: Designing and Managing Safer Job Sites. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional.

Maine Municipal Association Risk Management Services, (2005). Best Practices Guide. New York: Springer.

Norman, J. (2005). Fire Officer’s Handbook of Tactics. New York: Fire Engineering Books & Videos

Quincy, M. (2006). SFPE Engineering Guide to Performance-Based Fire Protection, National Fire Protection Association.

Rasbash, D. Ramachandran, B., Kandola, J., Watts, Jr. & Law, M. (2004). Evaluation of Fire Safety for Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). London: John Wiley.

Rich, I. (2006). EN 469:2005; The new PPE standard and what it means for firefighters. Web.

Tomecek, D. & Smeaton, B. (2004). Improving Fire Prevention through Fire Hazards Analysis. Web.

Watts, J. &. Hall, J. (2002). Introduction to Fire Risk Assessment, Section 5, Chapter 1, SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering. NFPA, Quincy MA.

Watts, J. (2003). Assessing Life Safety in Buildings, Section 13, Chapter 1, Fire Protection Handbook. NFPA, Quincy MA.

The University City Fire and Rescue Department Organisation

Posted on December 4, 2024 | by Laureen

Table of Contents

Introduction
Organization and Structure
Aspects
References

Introduction

The University City Fire and Rescue Department (UCFR) is a number of administrative, educational, training, and other bodies and units intended for the organization of fire prevention and other rescue activities. The corresponding members of the department are to ensure the security of citizens, property, give first aid to victims of fires and other natural disasters, and, in general, carry out the primary rescue operations related to firefighting activities.

The department is organized to provide a platform for fire-technical, educational, and technical institutions. The work of the department includes processing the information about an accident, space exploration, rescue work, deployment of forces and resources, and the elimination of the dangerous incident, specialized works, and work for the security of the community.

Organization and Structure

The department has a well-aligned structure (please see the Organizational Chart attached). When performing the activities for neutralizing dangerous occurrences, the necessary proceedings include steps to ensure the safety of people, the creation of conditions for preventing the development of fires, and ensuring their elimination. In addition, the department makes use of means of communication, transport equipment; it is empowered to limit or restrict access to the dangerous locations as well as to restrict traffic and pedestrian access to the adjacent territories, and evacuate people.

The Chief of the fire suppression team is responsible for performing activities for the security of the personnel of the fire brigade involved in the implementation of actions for firefighting or elimination of a dangerous manifestation. The captain sets the boundaries of the territory in which the brigade performs fire-extinguishing activities. If necessary, the head of the fire extinguishing team takes other decisions, including restricting the rights of officials and citizens in the affected territory.

According to the department vision, it “is largely dependent upon the ability to attract, develop, and retain highly-skilled, talented, and motivated members” (University City fire & rescue department, n.d., p. 5). It strives for furnishing the best service for the community. The organization keeps its focus on social values while simultaneously relying on its own values and organizational culture. In addition, the disclosure of the principle of leadership and a distinct policy is crucial in department vision. The mission of the department is to react to “fires, medical emergencies, disasters, and other calls for service” (University City fire & rescue department, n.d., p. 5).

Further, it operates to secure the lives and property of all the people in the corresponding area. The goals of the organization include supporting the legislation on all the levels and attracting a qualified workforce. It aims at promoting and achieving diversity, which is integral in the department’s philosophy. Apart from that, one of the UCFR’s goals is to provide the workers with the potential for development on every level.

The streamline of the department’s objectives is the focus on social values, understanding of key competencies, and autonomy. Department culture is a form of existence of the organization and its behavior in the environment as well as in relation to the aspects of the internal environment. It combines beliefs, behaviors, attitudes, and values that define the ways the department, its structural units, and members shall perform. One of the most crucial aspects of the department culture is a diversity statement (University City fire & rescue department, n.d.). It implies that the organization facilitates diversity in all its aspects and encourages its members and associates to support the differences in people regarding their background and so on. The support for diversity is evidenced by different department initiatives on the management and organizational scale.

Aspects

Credentialing is intended to help to improve fire control activities, recruitment, professional development, and placement of specialists on fire supervision determining their compliance with the qualification requirements and position (University City fire & rescue department, n.d.).

Credentialing defines the qualification requirements for the employees performing functions for the implementation of fire control that is also applied to officials of the management bodies and units that are endowed with the rights to implement the fire inspection. It also involves the basic provisions that allow for the optimal specialization of employees. It reflects the basic requirements for the employees regarding their expertise and knowledge of laws and regulations, instructions, and other issues in terms of the safety requirements.

Apart from the direct duties, the department is responsible for the execution of emergency management. Incident Action Plans and Incident Management System contribute to the effective organization of UCFR as it facilitates hierarchy within the department (University City fire & rescue department, n.d.). They also allow establishing common response, control, and adjustment to the emergencies. Plans and Systems facilitate comprehensive resource management and unified structure.

In general, emergency management includes a set of works in the emergency area that involves saving and helping people, localization, and suppression of the centers of the damaging effects, preventing the occurrence of secondary damaging factors, the protection, and rescue of material and cultural values. Emergency and other urgent work are related to the salvation of people and victim assistance, locating accidents and damage repair, impeding rescue operations, creating conditions for subsequent reconstruction.

The role of the department is to develop and implement organizational and practical measures aimed at ensuring security. In addition, it is engaged in the organization and implementation of fire control as well as the observance and fulfillment of fire safety requirements established by the current legislation, standards, rules and regulations, and regulatory legal acts in the field of fire safety (16 firefighter life safety initiatives, n.d.).

Providing training and interaction with the authorities and entities responsible for the safety of facilities and areas are also functions of the department. It should be noted that the strategic planning process of the UCFR is aimed at improving both external and internal communications. It is community-driven and implies community education and employment support to achieve the best of outcomes. It is concerned with connecting all the stakeholders by implementing the mission, vision, goals, and objectives of the organization to achieve consistency.

The department executes leadership from the point of view of the life safety initiatives by determining the necessity for cultural changes within the community, boosting accountability for safety, and placing emphasis on incident management; thus, achieving more effective emergency management and consistency in service provision.

Organizational Chart (University City Fire & Rescue Department, n.d.)

Initiatives:

The following 16 life safety initiatives shall be listed (16 firefighter life safety initiatives, n.d.):

Determine the necessity of cultural changes within the community.
Boost accountability for safety.
Place emphasis on incident management.
Firefighters shall be delegated authority to halt unsafe behavior.
Set and apply the unified requirements for the level of expertise for all firefighters.
Set the unified standards related to physical fitness for all firefighters.
Develop state-level agenda and information gathering in terms of the initiatives implementation.
Make use of the technology to enhance safety.
Conduct a research regarding all cases of firefighter fatalities and traumas.
Grant programs need to aid in the application of the activity as admissibility request.
State-level standards shall be established regarding emergency reaction.
State-level protocols shall be developed.
All the firefighters, as well as their family members, shall have an opportunity to get psychological aid.
More resources shall be allocated to the education.
Propaganda shall be reinforced regarding sprinkler installation.
Safeness must be the leading reason when constructing apparatus.

References

16 firefighter life safety initiatives. (n.d.). Web.

University City fire & rescue department. (n.d.). Web.

Buda Fire Department: Budget Administration

Posted on December 4, 2024 | by Laureen

Table of Contents

Introduction
Fire Department Overview and Community Needs
The Budget Process
Applicable Life Safety Initiatives
Conclusion
References

Introduction

In order to maximize the efficiency of fire department operations, it is important to consider the role of budgetary process in the optimization of organizational operations. Inadequate budget planning is likely to result in serious monetary shortfalls. Budget planning should consider the needs of the community and maximize the use of limited resources to enhance the quality and accessibility of fire departments’ services. In this paper, budgetary process is discussed in relation to Buda Fire Department operations and its ability to meet the needs of the community.

Fire Department Overview and Community Needs

Buda Fire Department is a relatively small fire department located 15 miles south of Austin, Texas, which provides fire extinguishing and emergency services to a 75 square mile area (History. Heritage. Trust., n.d., par. 1). Currently, the department consists of three fire stations: the first station houses administration, while the second and third stations are staffed 24 hours a day with career firefighters operating fire engines and ambulances. The department is planning to open new stations in the area. There are 41 people working at Buda Fire Department, 5 of which are in the administrative positions (Our People, Our Pride, n.d.). The department is challenged with the task to meet the diverse needs of the area with the following safety concerns:

large hay fields;
jet fuel plant near city limits;
several large-scale factories with explosives on site.

The area is also susceptible to regular natural disasters, such as flooding. In order to meet the needs of the community, the department has to focus on the following areas of responsibility: fiscal management, personnel management, and productivity management (Cote, 2003, p. 113). Fiscal management is mainly occupied with the budget process, or managing financial systems in order to improve the allocation and usage of limited financial resources (Fiscal Management, n.d., par. 1). It should be noted that fire department management involvement into fiscal management depends on the local government, which can provide its own instructions regarding budget planning (Cote, 2003, p. 114).

The Budget Process

The budget process typically starts at the beginning of a calendar year with the budget formulation. The budget is generally created for one fiscal year. The budget process should begin with the evaluation of current budget in the light of the new strategic objectives. A strategic plan should outline these objectives and the way it is going to achieve its mission. Buda Fire Department is planning to expand the number of stations under operations, which means that the budget has to be adjusted according to the projections of expenses associated with the expansion. The budget consists of fixed and variable costs.

Fixed costs are costs associated with personnel and facility expenses and other costs that do not change over the year (Lotich, 2014, par. 5). The major part of fire department fixed costs is the personnel costs, which typically account for between 85 and 90% of the entire budget (Cote, 2003, p. 113). As such, it can be estimated that adding one new station will almost double the budget requirements by increasing fixed. Variable costs are changing costs such as overtime pay and fire apparatus costs (Lotich, 2014, par. 6).

These costs will also increase in line with fixed costs if the department is expanded. During the budget process, it is important to consider apparatus replacement costs. In addition to the yearly budget, a long-term projection should be developed to estimate “capital replacement costs for items such as staff vehicles, fire apparatus […] and other major pieces of equipment” (Cote, 2003, p. 114).

With the projections at hand, once the current budget is reviewed a draft budget is to be compiled for the following year and submitted by a specified time to a finance committee (Cote, 2003, p. 114). Once the draft is finished and reviewed by the budget office, the authority having the jurisdiction, the department head is asked to specify specific items. The department’s chief can motivate the decision to expand to open new stations using the following Firefighter Life Safety Initiatives:

Applicable Life Safety Initiatives

“Enhance the personal and organizational accountability for health and safety throughout the fire service” (16 Firefighter Life Safety Initiatives, n.d.). The department is operating in a hazardous area with several threats to population health and safety. The expansion is justified due to the fact that the department has to provide fire sustaining and emergency medical services across a large area with several threats. In addition, certain threats, such as jet fuel plant and large-scale factories with explosives, pose unique operational challenges.

“Utilize available technology wherever it can produce higher levels of health and safety” (16 Firefighter Life Safety Initiatives, n.d.). Fire detection and suppression equipment should be repaired and replaced constantly to ensure smooth operations.

Once the budget is reviewed by the budget office, it is approved by the city administration and is enacted at the beginning of the new fiscal year (Cote, 2003, p. 114).

Conclusion

The main cause of monetary shortfalls is the improper management of available resources. Fire department administration should use budgetary process to realistically estimate expenditures and improve the efficiency of fire department operations.

References

16 Firefighter Life Safety Initiatives. (n.d.). Web.

Cote, A. (2003). Organizing for Fire and Rescue Services. Burlington: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

History. Heritage. Trust. (n.d.). Web.

Lotich, P. (2014). 10 Steps to Developing and Managing a Budget. Web.

Our People, Our Pride. (n.d.). Web.

Public Administration: Fire Department in America

Posted on December 4, 2024 | by Laureen

Table of Contents

Fire Department’s History in America
Fire Department’s Members, Ranks, Squads, and Teams
Fire Department’s Responsibilities
Fire Department’s Apparatus, Equipment, and Tools
Fire Department’s Plans (Incident Command)
Fire Department’s Trucks and Engines
Works Cited

Fire Department’s History in America

In the past 400 years, fires have caused a lot of havoc in America. Even though firefighting efforts could be traced to the 2nd century, firefighting in America traces to the 16th and 17th centuries (AFP 1). State-funded firefighting departments were nonexistent then. The only tangible firefighting efforts were either organized through volunteer efforts or private practice.

Privately-Run firefighting companies were very common because there was a financial incentive to make profits through insurance firms that paid firefighting companies. Privately-run firefighting companies, therefore, battled to outwit one another because the insurance companies only paid firefighting companies that arrived at the scene first, and extinguished the fire (AFP 1).

This system forced many firefighting companies to recruit employees who were not necessarily skilled in fighting fires, but strong enough to fight other firefighting personnel (from other companies) and protect their employer’s equipment (dogs were also used to protect firefighting equipment) (AFP 1).

The first real attempts of organized firefighting trace to 1630, in Boston, when fire departments hired skilled firefighting inspectors (AFP 4). The skilled firefighters provided a change to the management of fire departments, which ordinarily depended on unskilled labor (AFP 5). The inspectors patrolled the city at night to ensure that the citizenry respected firefighting laws. Any person found to have contravened the law received a fine from the fire inspectors.

The fire inspectors were also supposed to look out for any fires and organize a bucket brigade to fight the fire if there was any. Among the most notable rules introduced by the fire inspectors was the legal provision that “no man shall build his chimney with wood, or cover his house with thatch” (AFP 5).

The government intended these laws to serve as a policing tool that would reduce the incidence of fires. However, because most of the equipment for fighting the fires were ineffective and archaic, firefighting was not as effective as expected by the citizens.

Later, about 1736, Benjamin Franklin started urging people to establish professional firefighting departments (AFP 7). The development of the fire engine marked the need for a professional firefighting department. Even though many fire-fighting companies were reluctant to accept the fire engine, citizens forced these companies to use them.

For example, in Cincinnati, Ohio, the citizens forced the fire department to adopt the firefighting engine (AFP 7). Consequently, many firefighting types of equipment modernized and were distributed throughout most cities.

For example, a doctor, William Channing, developed the first fireboxes after the telegraph technology became prominent (the firefighting boxes were used to sound fire alarms) (AFP 8). In 1832, hoses were also used to pull fire engines (AFP 8).

Through the modernization of fire-fighting equipment and the emerging need to have state-funded firefighting departments, Boston emerged as the first city in America to have a state-funded firefighting department. The need for state-funded firefighting departments increased after privately-funded companies let uninsured buildings to burn to the ground, but saved the insured buildings (AFP 8).

This inequality led to increased pressures from the public to have state-funded fire departments as a public service to its citizens. Most municipalities in America after that established firefighting departments as a public service (AFP 10). The firefighting departments provided several services to its citizens, including emergency firefighting services and rescue services (today, the operations of most firefighting departments span within a municipality or county) (AFP 10).

Fire Department’s Members, Ranks, Squads, and Teams

The organizational structures for fire-fighting departments do not differ much from the structure of the military or the police. For example, firefighting officers are sworn in as police officers or military personnel. Also, similar to the police, firefighting teams have the authority to enforce laws in an emergency (AFP 8).

Different countries have different roles and responsibilities of fighting officers. In America, the ranks of firefighters always span across the positions of a lieutenant to fire chief. Interestingly, firefighting officers symbolize their ranks using the color of their helmets. For example, the white helmet is symbolic of the lieutenant rank, while red helmets symbolize fire chiefs (fire chiefs may also be known as company officers) (Kemah Fire Department 8).

However, it is important to understand that the design or color of these helmets normally varies across different jurisdictions in America. Despite the above categorization of firefighting ranks, traditional ranking systems still apply in some jurisdictions. The traditional ranking structure was categorized into three positions – firefighter, sergeant (technician), the lieutenant, captain, battalion chief, division chief, deputy chief, and chief commissioner.

Since every ranking in the firefighting department respects the number of speaking trumpets associated with the rank (bugles), each of the three ranking structure is accorded a special number of bugles. The firefighter position has no bugles, but the lieutenant position has a bugle. Instead of the bugle, the sergeant position has got three chevrons (an alternative speaking trumpet).

The captain and battalion chiefs have got three bugles, while the battalion chief has got three bugles. The deputy and chief commissioners have got four and five bugles, respectively.

The nature of the fire department ranking structure often determines whether the firefighting department will be headed by a lieutenant or captain. The head of the team often presides over the firefighting department (usually known as a “company”).

The lieutenant, or the captain, often represents the most junior position in most firefighting departments in America, but because there are few state and federal company structures for defining the roles and responsibilities of every firefighting department, most fire departments in America pride in having a special departmental structure that resonates with their local needs (Kemah Fire Department 9).

Different units in firefighting departments are often known as squads. Even though many fire-fighting departments may have a squad in their departments, the roles of these squads often vary. For example, in some American jurisdictions, the “squad” and the “rescue squad” mean the same thing; however, in other jurisdictions, a squad and a rescue squad denote different responsibilities.

This is the case in New York because its firefighting department operates about seven squads, which undertake specialized functions in the department (such as managing hazardous materials). Still, in the New York Fire Department, the “rescue squads” (different from “squads”) are called when there are specialized and complicated rescue situations.

The “rescue squad” and the “squad” both operate under the wing of the Specialty Operations Command Unit. In many fire-fighting departments, the squad does not have the same type of responsibility as outlined in the New York Firefighting Department; instead, squads are merely emergency medical units that have members within the firefighting department, with a medical background. Los Angeles is one jurisdiction that outlines the activities of squads in this manner.

Fire department teams normally comprise these squads. Therefore every squad has a specific number of teams that work with them. Again, every fire department has a special structure for outlining the role of every team in the squad. Comprehensively, the effective coordination of the teams and squads (through the various ranks) outlines the effective coordination of the department.

Fire Department’s Responsibilities

Traditionally, the responsibilities of fire departments mainly comprised of firefighting duties. However, in the recent past, many fire-fighting departments have expanded their roles to include “emergency medical service (EMS), emergency management, homeland security management, hazardous materials response, and other emergency and non-emergency calls” (Flynn 3).

Besides ensuring that they meet their basic responsibilities or public service to the community, firefighting departments also perform inspection services (for example, to ensure buildings comply with fire safety standards), review plans and integrate the contribution of interested parties (third parties) in firefighting activities (Flynn 3).

Flynn identifies four main responsibilities of firefighting departments – “fire incident calls, emergency medical services (EMS), HazMat calls, and other calls such as service calls, or false alarms” (4). However, it is important to mention that the core responsibilities of firefighting departments vary across different jurisdictions. For example, some departments do not offer emergency medical services. Flynn (4) estimates that about 56% of America’s firefighting departments do not offer this service.

Since most firefighting departments have expanded their roles and responsibilities, some of their roles overlap with the roles of the police. For example, this paper already shows that firefighting departments, sometimes, have structural similarities with the police. Therefore, some firefighting roles, such as investigating arson attacks, may overlap with similar roles of law enforcement officers.

Besides, suppressing fires, offering emergency medical services, and investigating arson attacks, firefighting departments also provide an important service of educating the public about fire safety. This duty stems from the role of firefighting departments in relief liaisons.

Indeed, firefighting departments have a special responsibility of imparting knowledge to the community, regarding fire safety. For example, through the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), different fire departments in the US have participated in fire safety programs. Such programs have existed for a long time.

The participation of fire departments in such a program is also historical. For example, the New York fire department has participated in this program since 1905 (National Fire Protection Association 3). Through such programs, fire departments strive to reduce the burden of fires in the community by being pro-active. Visiting children in schools and teaching them about fire safety is among the most common activity that fire departments, in different jurisdictions, participate in.

Firefighting departments also have exclusive powers that allow them access to undertake their duties in most types of emergencies. For example, when a terrorist attack occurs, firefighters have a legal authority to intervene in the situation and respond to any type of emergency that may have occurred because of the terrorist attack. Also, firefighters enjoy the legal authority to intervene in most situations that may pose a danger to human safety or the protection of property.

These immense powers rank firefighters among the few professionals who can gain access to the property without any legal consequences. These powers, therefore, mean that it may be a criminal offense to prevent firefighters from gaining access to premises when there is an emergency. Comprehensively, the roles of firefighting departments have significantly expanded in scope and the traditional role of controlling, extinguishing, or suppressing fires only outline part of the job that firefighting departments do.

Fire Department’s Apparatus, Equipment, and Tools

Since fire departments often face different challenging situations in their work environments, they have different apparatus for work. Broadly, these apparatuses include aerial apparatus, rescue apparatus, wild-land fire apparatus, hazardous material apparatus, logistical support apparatus, water and foam-carrying apparatus, fireboats, fire trains, airport crash tenders, aircraft, and motorcycles (the list of apparatus may, however, expand beyond these examples).

Aerial apparatus may include turntable ladders, tower ladders, tiller ladders, hydraulic platforms, and aerial ladder platforms (Fairmount 3). The rescue apparatus may include heavy rescue vehicles, and “rescue engines.” Lastly, water and foam-carrying apparatus may include tanker trucks, hose layers, and foam tenders.

The choice of apparatus normally depends on a budget of the fire departments, their geographical locations, and the nature of the risks they face. However, almost all fire departments in America have a fire engine truck that mainly transports firefighters to the scene of the fire.

These fire engines also carry fire-fighting equipment like ladders, axes, and pike poles. The fire engine trucks, therefore, serve several purposes, including pumping water to quell fires, transporting firefighters to the scene of the fire, rescue services, and carrying fire-fighting equipment. Depending on the geographical location of the fire departments and the topography of the area, some fire departments may also use firefighting boats, airplanes, and fire trains.

Modern fire-fighting apparatus uses highly pressurized water that often creates a vaporous mist that has a more effective record for preventing the spread of fire. This technology has also been integrated into fire-fighting apparatus, such that the vaporous mist mixes with the normal water that is pumped through the hoses.

Besides the equipment and apparatus used in stopping the spread of fire, firefighters also need reliable firefighting tools to help them do their job more effectively.

Some of these tools are basic, and they include water resistant fire lights, fire helmets, fire gloves, fire resistant clothing, fire extinguishers, wild-land hand tools, structural hand tools, weather instruments, compasses, vehicle tools, knives, reforestation tools, and replacement parts (National Fire Fighter Corp 1).

Again, the choices of firefighting tools depend on the nature of risks that the fire departments face. For example, firefighters that work in areas that are prone to forest fires would prefer stocking a lot of reforestation tools, such as hoe parts and tree bags.

Fire Department’s Plans (Incident Command)

The incident command system is very important for the effective coordination of firefighting activities and the increase of firefighting safety. The incident command structure normally works by integrating the fire department’s command structure with organizational dynamics to improve the effectiveness of emergency responses (Fire Scope California 2).

The incident command structure comprises of several components, including the systematic development of the functional organization, multiagency adoption (across state and federal levels), applicability across all fire incidents, preservation of jurisdictional authority, the respect of a central command management structure, and the expansion and contraction of the command structure within organizational limits (Fire Scope California 2).

Regarding the command structure of the incident command system, it is important to understand that a simple incident may often outstretch the fire department if there is no strong command structure to manage such incidents.

Indeed, Fire Scope California says “The incident commander can be quickly overwhelmed and overloaded with information management, assigning companies, filling out and updating the tactical worksheets, planning, forecasting, requesting additional resources, talking to the radio and fulfilling all the other functions of command” (p. 18).

The purpose of maintaining the incident command structure is to support the activities of the fire department. For example, before additional ranking officers come to a scene of the fire, the incident commander may establish a command structure that coordinates all activities before the specialized team arrives. The incident command structure, therefore, defines who has the authority to undertake different tasks within the department (Fire Scope California 18).

However, the presence of this command structure does not exclusively outline the structure of authority within the department (the transfer of information may not be restricted within the chain of command). For example, a low ranking officer may receive instructions from a superior, but the officer may still share the findings with another officer in a different unit (Fire Scope California (18).

Most of the positions within incident command structures are dormant until there is a strong need to create them. For example, the incident command structure may be created only when there is an insufficient initial response to an emergency. When the incident command structure is created, qualified or specialized personnel are therefore dispatched to manage the emergency.

The transition from the initial response to a specialized response is often evolutionary. Different positions/tasks within incident command structures are only filled when there is a need to do so (Fire Scope California 18). In managing initial responses, Fire Scope California (18) says that the incident commander normally undertakes four functions – operations, logistics, planning, and administration.

During initial responses, different sections are filled on an evolutionary basis. The operations section is, however, an important initial response unit because it outlines the pillar of all other organizational activities that may occur in subsequent rescue operations (Fire Scope California 19). From the operations section, other levels of strategic planning are created.

In detail, the operations management level comes directly below the incident commander level. Under the operational level, there may be up to five branches of coordination. Up to 25 division groups support the branches, but task forces, strike teams, and single units (resources) support the divisions (Fire Scope California 18). Most of the operational plans for fire departments adhere to this structure.

Fire Department’s Trucks and Engines

Over time, the meaning of the term “truck” has evolved to mean specialized vehicles that are used by fire departments to undertake their duties. The term “engine” was specifically used to refer to the machine that pumped water from the trucks to the fire. Today, fire departments have integrated the terms, “fire” and “engine” (fire engine) to mean specialized vehicles that pump water in emergencies (Fairmount 1). Fire trucks, therefore, only symbolize vehicles that carry ladders and other firefighting equipment during emergencies.

Fire engines have got three main components, including water, a hose, and a pump. Unlike old water pipes that were rigid, modern pipes are easy to pull and store, because they are made of rubber. The deployment of such equipment is often eased by the presence of ladders that support easy access to such materials. However, the ladders are usually characteristic of the fire truck (not the fire engine) (Fairmount 1).

Occasionally, the entire body of the truck may be one giant coiled ladder. The ladder would then elevate the firefighter to a position that he can rescue a person. Depending on the design of the truck, the tip of the ladder may, or may not, have a nozzle.

The hoses may be one, or two, so that they create a master stream of water for quelling fires, especially at the top of high rise buildings. The importance of fire trucks, and their ladders, especially manifest in rescue services. Since some of these ladders may be very long and destabilizing to the truck, firefighters use outriggers to offer support to the truck (Fairmount 3).

Generally, the main difference between the fire truck and the fire engine is the fact that the fire truck does not have water reservoirs as fire engines do. Also, unlike fire engines, fire trucks have got extra equipment that the firefighters may find useful when managing big fires. For example, fire trucks have huge saws for cutting through ventilation pathways (in rescue operations).

The trucks may also have large gas pipes (for smoke injection), important rescue tools, and fire ground support tools (Fairmount 3). Regardless of the distinctions and the importance of the fire trucks and fire engines, their roles may overlap, especially in big fires.

Works Cited

AFP 2012, History of Firefighting. Web.

Fairmount 2013, Truck vs. Engine. Web.

Fire Scope California 1994, Incident Command System. Web.

Flynn, Jennifer 2009, Fire Service Performance Measures. Web.

Kemah Fire Department 2013, Fire Department Traditions. Web.

National Fire Fighter Corp 2012, Fire Equipment, Firefighting Tools. Web.

National Fire Protection Association 1995, History Of The NFPA Codes and Standards-Making System. Web.

Ricci vs. DeStefano New Haven Firefighters Lawsuit

Posted on December 3, 2024 | by Laureen

Table of Contents

New Haven Firefighters Lawsuit; Ricci vs. DeStefano
Sutton v. United Airlines
References

New Haven Firefighters Lawsuit; Ricci vs. DeStefano

This was a case about racial discrimination employment practices in the United States. The decision by the Supreme Court was received with a lot of contention. The suit was filed by seventeen White and one Hispanic firefighter against the New Haven Connecticut’s fire department (Sulzberger, 2009). The plaintiff in the case relied on the Title VII of the Civil Rights Act to sue the company. In the case, they argued that they had passed the promotion test, but were denied promotions. The respondent argued that since none of the black firefighters had passed the test, it was only fair to cancel the result to avoid a possible suit from the blacks. The blacks are a protected minority in the US Civil Rights Law. The court ruled in favor of the plaintiff citing lack of strong evidence.

Was there any discrimination?

There was no discrimination in the ruling by the Supreme Court. New Haven had established its own policies on employee promotion. These policies are a clear indicator that promotions are strictly on merit. This is in accordance with the company’s objectives of service delivery. Also, all employees are informed that promotions are on the basis of passing the promotion test. Under the same conditions, with the same exam, the test is the best assessment of the employees. Additionally, the company has allowed all its workers from all races to attempt the test. It follows therefore that the results of the test have catered for discrimination based on race. The best way the company would have approached the issue is to motivate the black firefighters so that they pass the test.

Secondly, an act of discrimination does not occur because New Haven cites the failure of the protected minority to justify its actions. Racial discrimination is defined as denying a qualified individual from obtaining something based on his race. In Ricci vs. DeStefano case, the black firefighters have not been denied promotions on the grounds of their race, but because they failed. This is compounded by the fact that all employees understand the requirements for promotions. In reality, their argument is based on a race-based verdict. In fact, it would be discrimination based on race if the White and Hispanic workers lost the suit. The condition for a promotion according to the city is to sit for the exam and obtain the set cutoff mark. There is no point where the requirement mentions the individual’s race. Since the employees passed the test, it is only right and fair to give them what they deserve.

How would you have ruled if you were the judge?

In the position as a judge I would rule in favor of the plaintiff. The city based its decision on Title VII of the Civil Rights act. However, the act states that no individual should face workplace discrimination based on race (Sulzberger, 2009). Therefore, denying any person a chance to be promoted violates the provisions of the act. The reason I support the promotion of the employees is that the test was designed by the city. In the design, measures were placed to ensure an inclusive participation by workers from all races. At this point the company has passed the provisions of the act. What remains is for the test to select the best among the employees. It would amount to discrimination if the successful workers were denied the promotion. This would ignore the company’s policy and hard work by the workers.

Sutton v. United Airlines

This was a suit to the US Supreme Court filed by twin sisters. The respondent in the suit was the United Airlines. The plaintiff raised the issue after they were denied the position as the airlines pilots. The two twin sisters were qualified pilots, but suffered from severe myopia. The airline required that people with a myopic disability to have an uncorrected vision of at least 20/100 (Hamilton, 2003). In the case of the twin sisters, they had an uncorrected vision greater than the set limit. The case was filed based on the Americans with Disabilities Act. In the act, any acts amounts to discrimination if that person is denied a chance based on the person’s condition when that person uses corrective measures. On the contrary, the twin sisters had a clear vision when they wore glasses. The court ruled that the twin sisters were not protected by the Americans with Disability because they had a clear vision when using the glasses. The court argued that an outcome of a corrective measure has a bearing to determine whether a person is protected by the ADA (Hamilton, 2003).

Was there any discrimination?

The decision by the Supreme Court was discriminatory. The Americans with Disability Act states that a person should not be discriminated if his disability is not severe when using a corrective measure. In the case of the twin sisters, they had a clear vision when using glasses. Since they were denied a chance to be employed as pilots then the provisions of the Act were violated. The argument by the plaintiff is within the provisions of the act because both had a clear perception when using glasses. Additionally, the Supreme Court based its ruling on the effects of the correction measures. This is discrimination. The twin sisters had a clear vision when using glasses, at this point they are not classified as people with disability. However, they would perform their duties while wearing glasses. As such, they would deliver a correct anticipation in their calculation because they had a clear perception. Therefore, a real analysis of the situation shows that they were discriminated if the effects of the corrective measure were to be taken into account.

Secondly, people respond differently to medications. The occurrence of side-effects after a medication is a generalization that is not constant. It varies from one individual to another. In the case of the twin sisters, the side-effects were positive. Alternatively, the effects of a medication are either positive or negative. Both outcomes should be treated in the same manner. In the case, they were disqualified because the effects were positive. This is discrimination.

How would you have ruled if you were the judge?

In the position as the judge I would rule that the twin sisters are covered by the Americans with Disability Act. The first reason is that the plaintiff had clear visualization if they used glasses. At this point they qualify for the ADA because of the condition of the corrective measure. Secondly, the side-effect of the corrective measure is positive. Therefore, their work as pilots would not be comprised because they have a clear vision when using glasses. Finally, the uncorrected vision had no basis in the case. The two sisters had a clear vision when using glasses. This is much better than the requirement of at least 20/100 (Hamilton, 2003)

References

Hamilton, K. (2003).Backlash Against the ADA: Reinterpreting Disability Rights. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Web.

Sulzberger, A. (2009). Bias Suit a Test of Resolve for Hispanic Man. The New York Times, p. 21. Web.

Dubai Civil Defense Approved Firefighter Training

Posted on December 3, 2024 | by Laureen

Table of Contents

Introduction
Comparison of Dubai Civil Defense with Other Civil Defenses
Importance of Training for Civil Defense Officers
List of Special Advance Training for Officers
Benchmarks
Outcome Benefit for Officers
Conclusion
References

Introduction

Recently, the National Emergence Crisis and Disasters Management Authority (NCEMA) launched a website and a magazine that would provide information regarding crisis management in the country. The chairperson of Emergency and Crisis board promised that the board would do everything to strengthen the civil defense charged with the responsibility of ensuring that fire disasters are handled adequately. The chairperson observed that training of the civil defense is paramount in case firefighting services are to be effective. To enhance the services of civil defense, the board would provide information to the public regarding the role, facilities, and capabilities of the civil defense. The major aim of the civil defense is to put out fires, as well as preventing fire outbreaks (Legeros 19). This demands that the civil defense be taken through suitable training programs in order to equip workers with modern skills. In Dubai, fire outbreaks are usually small and the damages caused are small. This means that adequate training would prevent the occurrence of small fires. In August this year, the civil defense carried out an awareness program that would sensitize the public on the importance of observing firefighting regulations. The agency in charge of civil defense collaborates with other fire fighting agencies, such as the Saudi Factory for Fire Equipment (SFFECO) to administer fire fighting instructions and training. The deputy manager of SFFECO observes that there are generally five types of fires, each needing a specialized form of training. Solids, chemicals, gases, and electric matters might cause the fires.

In this regard, the civil defense should be made to understand that fire fighting is a complex process that needs adequate training. On the other hand, residents should know that having a safety plan at home is very important, as well as having an evacuation route. It is the role of civil defense to enlighten the public on the importance of developing a safety plan at home. Therefore, they should be equipped with adequate skills. Fire disasters are very dangerous implying that those in charge of putting off the fires should be shift in their actions. The deputy director notes that it takes seconds to think and minutes to act (Peige 98). Fire fighting is not like other disasters that can wait for other people to come from other places. This paper aims at comparing the effectiveness of Dubai civil defense with the civil defense of other countries, including Singapore civil defense, the US civil defense, the Australian, civil defense, the UK civil defense, and the Canadian civil defense. The paper will go a notch higher to provide a list of special advance training for officers in the civil defense, including the price range of programs. In the fourth section, the paper talks about the benchmarks and statistics of firefighting programs and training in Dubai. In the fifth section, the paper discusses some of the outcomes of training programs and training modules. Lastly, the paper concludes by assessing the position of Dubai in terms of providing firefighting programs and training.

Comparison of Dubai Civil Defense with Other Civil Defenses

The Dubai Civil Defense is an agency charged with the responsibility of ensuring that emergencies emanating from fires are handled appropriately. The vision of the agency is to protect human life, property, and the environment. To do this effectively, the institution must come up with efficient training programs. In other words, the agency needs to offer professional services through efficient investment of human and material resources. The agency is head by a Brigadier, who is assisted by the heads of various departments. For purposes of internal monitoring, the agency has a deputy director general whose main role is to monitor the achievements of the organization. The deputy director ensures that the staff is well equipped with knowledge, facilities in order to deal with any fire occurrence. Moreover, the deputy director ensures that the organization comes up with a sound corporate strategy through which performance of employees would be enhanced. In other words, the deputy director should contribute in designing policies that would guarantee training of employees in the organization. To enhance administration, the organization employs a director in charge of administration, whose major role is to ensure services are delivered in the best way possible. The director in charge of administration is directly responsible for the training needs of employees. He or she ensures that funds are allocated for training and coaching of staff. Without funds, the organization would not achieve the training needs of employees. The forms of training offered to employees in the modern firefighter training programs rely on technology. The director in charge of administration ensures that employees are provided quality-training programs that are supported by modern technologies (Sharkey and Davis 38).

The director in charge of safety, protection, and training is an important person as far as the training needs of civil defense officers are concerned in Dubai. The safety and training section is divided into three major departments, including civil protection division, precautionary safety department, and training unit. The civil protection section has the major role to play because it ensures that firefighting information is availed to the public. There is a consensus that fire-fighting personnel might not be in a position to handle the fire in case those close to it do not tackle it in advance. The civil protection department ensures that the public is equipped with adequate information regarding the ways of putting off the fire before it escalates into a serious inferno. In this regard, the civil defense personnel are given specific information, which would be relayed to the members of the public. The information in this case is not meant for them, but they are simply used as instructors to convey the information to members of the public. Preventive safety department is a unit expected to deal with fire whenever it arises (Smith 75). The department is relied upon by the city and rural dwellers. The form of training offered to preventive safety personnel is complex and all-inclusive. The training and department ensures that civil defense staff is equipped with updated firefighting techniques and tactics. In the traditional society, fire was caused by solids, but in the modern society, there are various causes of fires, including chemicals, electricity, gases, and liquids. The training department conducts an extensive research to establish the causes of fires. Once the cause of the fire is identified, the department goes ahead to formulate the techniques that would help in containing the crazy fires. The department organizes training programs to tackle the new challenges among fire fighters.

In comparison to the Dubai civil defense, the Singaporean civil defense is more developed and organized. Unlike the Dubai civil defense, the Singaporean civil defense staff is trained to offer services during both peacetime and disaster. This means that the Singaporean civil defense is a professional agency that engages in other safety related activities other than fire fighting. This implies that the civil defense training curriculum is detailed as compared to the Dubai civil defense curriculum. The Dubai civil defense is related to Singaporean civil defense in the sense that they are both uniformed organizations operating under the ministries of home affairs. This signifies that the minister in charge of homeland security controls them both. In other parts of the world, the civil defense is controlled by the military. The civil defense in Singapore has an extensive role implying that the training needs are also extensive. For instance, the civil defense unit offers ambulance services, environmental protection services and rescue services. Even though the Dubai civil defense offers similar services, it does not indulge in environmental conservation. Workers should be taken through integrative training in order to conserve the environment (Snook and Buckman 47).

In terms of organizational structure, the Dubai civil defense differs with the Singapore civil defense because the later has six operational departments. The Singaporean civil defense has an established training program because it has two major training academies. The Civil Defense Academy and the National Service Training Institute are the two institutions offering training programs to the staff of Singapore civil defense. They are fully-fledged institutions with accredited certification to operate independently. Unlike other units, which have limited mandates, the two training institutions do not have specific mandates implying that they have the authority to alter the courses offered to suit the training needs of staff. During the times of emergencies, the two units are charged with the responsibility of ensuring that proper fire handling equipments are acquired. Moreover, the units must ensure that the staff is acquainted to the new fire handling equipments. The civil defense academy (CDA) offers training courses for craft persons and specializations. The individuals covered include firefighters, medics, and tutors. The college takes its students to other countries to explore the new techniques and methods of handling fire. This practice is different from the practices of Dubai fire fighter agency because it rarely equips its staff with adequate training. Instead, Dubai civil defense prefers to employ qualified individuals, with adequate knowledge. The national service training institute in Singapore offers training to new recruits. Recruits graduating from NSTI are qualified to apply for positions in the civil defense academy. In other words, this means that Singapore has an elaborate training program for fire fighters as opposed to the Dubai civil defense. The civil defense in Singapore has a training program that is graded into various levels.

In the US, the civil defense used to be part of the military before the end of the Cold War. Civil defense was a non-military organization that urged people to join hands to fight the common enemy. In the current society, the civil defense performs humanitarian activities such as rescuing people during fire outbreak and floods. Unlike the Dubai civil defense, the American civil defense is a dependent unit. It operates under other agencies in charge of homeland security. In terms of training, the civil defense personnel have a powerful training obtained from institutions of high learning and the military. This means that a number of colleges and universities in the US offer specialized fire-fighting training. Those working in the agency have adequate knowledge and skills regarding the handling of disasters, including fire disasters. The agency operates as a minor department in the office of the president because the country has advanced systems of fighting fire disasters. In the UK, the civil defense was an organization made up of volunteers. It was referred to as the civil defense corps. However, the organization was replaced with other effective fire fighting organizations. In the states that support NATO, civil defense was an organization that was intended to help individuals affected by the nuclear. It was believed that the tension and conflicts in the international system would result to disasters. Therefore, the UK formed the civil defense corps to help victims. After the Cold War, the organization was disbanded because its members did not have any form of training to handle disasters resulting from fires. Just like the UK civil defense, the American civil defense was merged with the federal civil defense administration. The merging was aimed at facilitating effectiveness. The civil defense of the US and the UK were forced on an ad hoc basis meaning that the staff did not have adequate skills and knowledge. During the ICBM threat, the Canadian authorities came up with structure referred to as Diefenbunkers, which were to be used in protection. The personnel of the agency had little training implying that they were ill prepared to tackle fire outbreaks. Unlike Dubai, fire fighting in the US and Canada are handled by individual states and local authorities. The Australian civil defense is very different from the civil defense of Dubai because it is made up of volunteers. Volunteers are absorbed from various organizations without minding their training backgrounds. This affects the effectiveness and efficiency of the agency because the personnel know little as far as putting off fire is concerned. The civil defense of Dubai is a governmental organization that employs qualified personnel from all over the world. However, Australia has an elaborate system of fire fighting, which is controlled by the local authorities.

Importance of Training for Civil Defense Officers

Before proceeding to discuss the importance of fire fighting training, it should be understood that physical health and the techniques are very important in fire fighting. Through the training, officers are able to contain the fire swiftly. As earlier mentioned, fire disasters are very dangerous meaning that they should be handled quickly as possible. Training offers civil defense staff with a decisive and flexible decision-making process. This helps them in offering quality services to clients. Fire fighting is a very challenging undertaking that calls for adequate skills and knowledge. Moreover, the equipments used in handling fire are very complex implying that suitable training should be provided to the users. Officers working in a challenging environment, such as that of Dubai should be offered allowed enough training for them to cope with the many challenges. The fire fighting directives utilized in Dubai originated from Germany. The standards applied are known to improve the efficiency of civil defense personnel. The personnel would be able to operate under safe conditions. Through this, the civil defense would be able to rescue a good number of those affected.

Fire fighting courses are designed to align the skills of personnel to the tools and equipments used in the modern world. The tools are designed to alleviate the disasters in the easiest way possible. However, the tools would be of no help in case the civil defense officers do not know how to use them. Training ensures that the personnel are able to respond to fire disasters at any time using the most sophisticated instruments. In some cases, fire fighters have failed to respond swiftly leading to loss of life and property. However, training would ensure that fire fighters respond adequately to disasters in the town. In case the Dubai civil defense agency adopts the German firefighter-training manual, the city will stand to benefit from strong fire fighting services. The manual is considered one of the best because it ensures continuity of training and education process. In the training manual, the training levels are graded into two major levels. A number of rules contained in sections one, three, seven, and ten guides the levels. The rules spell out the role of the firefighter. Firstly, the firefighter is expected to undergo basic learning and training for specialized firefighters. The major aim of the basic training program is to attain adequate up-to-date skills and knowledge that would help in resolving crises. The trainee is supposed to master the usage of various fire-fighting facilities, as well as carry out all activities expected of a fire fighter whenever a fire breaks up. In all these, the trainee is taken through a process that would equip him or her with knowledge on how to wear self-contained breathing gears, substance protection costumes, and other private defensive equipments.

In the modern society, a number of challenges face fire fighters. In this regard, fire fighters must be equipped with adequate knowledge that would help them cope with the challenges. In fact, most of the fire fighters officers were recruited without talking them through relevant training. Most of the recruitment exercises were voluntary. It is not surprising to find many of those working in the fire fighter organizations lacking sufficient skills and knowledge on how to handle modern equipments. Training is very important to upgrade the skills and techniques of fire fighters in the civil defense (Stern and Newlove 58). In the US, it was made mandatory that all workers in the fire fighting companies be taken through training in order to meet the standards set by the National Volunteer Fire Council. Training enables the civil defense workers to carry out their functions safely and effectively. Over the past few years, the roles of the civil defense have developed into something complex. In this case, it is very important to develop training programs to reflect the new changes. In the previous years, fire fighters were expected to conduct their activities within a very limited locality. In the modern society, fire fighters can be exported to foreign countries to help in putting off the fires. Since a number of fire fighting companies depend on volunteers, they no longer attract new members. Therefore, offering training would be appropriate in case the volunteer companies are to attract new members. Studies in the US suggest that people lack time to undertake safety training because of the increasing responsibilities at the work place. Therefore, civil defense should come up with training programs that are less time consuming and effective. Furthermore, the methods of delivery should be diversified to encourage many people to undertake the fire fighting courses (Kolomay andHoff 65).

In Dubai, the local fire fighting organizations lack adequate funding and staff. Poverty rates are high among rural communities implying that local communities would not manage to come up with training programs that would address fire disasters effectively. Since civil defense has the capacity to train workers, it should undertake the role of training all fire fighters in various parts of the country. This would resolve issues related to shortages of fire fighters. The equipments used by the fire fighters in the 20^th century are still in use. However, civil defense and other fire fighting companies are acquiring new equipments and technologies. As they acquire these new equipments, it is very important to come up with training programs that would help officers deliver services using modern technologies. However, the training programs designed should be free because many people would not be willing to pay for services that would be rendered voluntarily. When fire fighting was established as an agency of government, people recruited were trained informally. Some of individuals who received informal training view modern training as unnecessary since it does not touch on the real issues of safety. It is very important to recruit the services of experienced individuals when designing the training manuals. Training is an essential aspect that should be embrace in case civil defense is to convene its objectives and goals. Fire fighting in the modern society is more than suppressing the inferno. Fire is attacked using modern equipments and apparatus. Some of equipments and apparatus are uncommon to the officers of civil defense. Before introducing new apparatus, it is very important to train people on how to handle them. The new instruments, apparatus, techniques, equipments, and tools can be hazardous to the officers of civil defense in case they are not shown how to use them. In the US, it is estimated that individuals engaging in putting off the fire without training is very high. This explains why people trying to put off the fire end up being the casualties. National Fire Protection Association estimates that over 233,000 fire fighters in the US are untrained. Some of individuals attending to the injured during fire disasters are untrained. They simply try to help but in the wrong way. This leads to casualties because the affected person might die owing to wrong prescription or handling. Training of civil defense officers is very important because it reduces the number of casualties during disasters. The trained personnel would know the correct medication for every patient. Through training, the civil defense officers would perfect the techniques and practices employed during fire fighting process. Moreover, training enables officers to make correct decisions when dealing with fires. A trained officer would handle the disaster in a more professional way as compared to a partially trained officer. Training improves operations and creates a positive public image (Grimwood 23). Moreover, it enhances the morale of officers dealing with fire.

Application of traditional fire fighting techniques hampers the economy of the country. In other words, training improves the economy because it prevents loses that could have been caused by fire. In case the civil defense fails to handle fire that is perceived to be less serious, the aggrieved parties can sue the agency. Members of the public can easily conclude that the agency acted out of negligence yet members of the agency had poor training. In a case involving City of Canton v. Harris, the court ruled in favor of Harris, claiming that the city had failed to equip its officers with adequate knowledge and skills. The city was forced to pay the lost property because it was supposed to protect it. In this case, the city made a simple mistake of not training its fire fighters adequately. In Canada, the province of Quebec was held responsible for not training its officers adequately to put off the fire that destroyed property worth millions of dollars. Therefore, it is very important to provide training to civil defense officers because it would prevent legal suits. In case an employee of the civil defense is injured due to poor training, the organization is held liable. The department would be forced to compensate the injured person because he or she was fighting on behalf of the organization. This would be a financial burden to the organization. The organization would be involved in endless court processes, which end up wasting organizational time and resources. Moreover, the organization would be forced to pay high premiums in order to cover its employees. In the US, TriData Corporation found out through research that over 2.8 to 7.8 billion dollars are wasted yearly on treating the injured. Offering sufficient training would reduce the hospital costs. Studies show that the fire fighting population is aging meaning that a new workforce should be developed through training. Fire fighting is a complex process that needs experienced individuals. However, the civil defense agency can reduce this gap by offering effective fire fighting courses to young employees (Diamantes 32).

List of Special Advance Training for Officers

Radiation awareness training is one of the courses offered by Ion Active Consulting firm in Dubai. The UK firm in collaboration with RNA Safety International offers the course. The course has been proven effective in the UK and other parts of the world. The main aim of the course is to empower officers working in various fire fighting companies, including the civil defense agency. For instance, the course is designed for police officers, fire rescue team, and organizations offering ambulance services. The tenets of the course entail radiation safety. The trainees are introduced to safety principles, such as how to handle x-ray systems. At the introduction stage, the trainees are taken through simple concepts touching on radioactivity. Towards the end, the trainees are equipped with adequate skills on how to cope with challenges posed by radioactive emissions. The instructors draw examples from ionizing radiation sources available in the UK and Dubai. The course would prove very improve to civil defense officers specializing in operating x-ray equipments, attending to victims of disasters, and those dealing with radioactive theft. An expert trained in the UK, with vast experience in the field, delivers the course. The mode of delivery is supported by modern technology whereby the course is presented in form of PowerPoint. Trainees are encouraged to ask questions and discuss major issues in class. Upon the completion of the course, students are examined and certificates awarded based on merit. The course costs an approximated 308 dollars per day. This means that it is an expensive course, which might discourage many people from taking it. However, civil defense officers are expected to be sponsored by the government (Cordell and Nutter 54).

Petroleum safety course is a half-day course tailored made to meet the needs of civil defense officers in various regions in the country. Petroleum products are highly flammable meaning that officers handling fires resulting from petroleum products must be prepared adequately. The main cause of petroleum fires is the LP-gas, which is highly flammable. Therefore, trainees are equipped with knowledge on how to handle fire extinguishers, and incineration. Moreover, the course is aimed at enabling the fire fighters to understand the fire dynamics, fire fighting equipments, and petroleum laws. Each trainee is expected to pay at least 76 dollars. At the end of the course, the trainee is awarded a certificate.

Benchmarks

The civil defense is an organization faced with several challenges related to fire fighting. However, the organization has ensured that its staff is equipped with adequate knowledge and skills. The agency acquired an alarm system recently, which would be used to monitor fire outbreaks in the city. The fire alarm is in operation after the director of the civil defense commissioned it. In January this year, the organization announced that sleek bikes would replace fire trucks because they are considered quick and effective. This means that the organization is growing in terms of training. Previously, fighting fires in the narrow alleys was very difficult because the trucks could not penetrate easily. The motorcycle has the capacity to penetrate the concentrated areas and deal with fire as fast as possible. The fire express motorcycle was produced in Denmark, with the capacity to deal with any form of fire. Some places in the city are inaccessible due to congestion. The acquisition of modern equipments that can access all regions shows the organization’s commitment to deal with any fire outbreak. In this regard, the organization should have conducted extensive training and research to arrive at the conclusion of acquiring motorcycles. To win public trust and strengthen its image, the agency organized for a trip to various homes and companies to raise awareness. The team visited a number of homes to raise awareness on how to handle various forms of fires. The main aim was to present the preventive measures to the locals (David 36).

Recently, the director Dubai civil defense was installed as the head of IAEM council. The conference held in Singapore appreciated the efforts of Dubai civil defense by installing its leader as the president of worldwide union in charge of fire fighting. In an attempt to strengthen the activities of the agency, the officials of the ministry took some staff members to undertake a course in Europe. The training was aimed at equipping the staff with the most current fire fighting techniques. Through the training, the civil defense of Dubai came up with ways through which they would collaborate with other agencies offering fire-fighting services. In the global world, disasters are considered a common enemy because they affect all people, irrespective of age, race, ethnicity, and language. Therefore, fire fighters are supposed to be equipped with knowledge to enable them deal with any form of disaster. In particular, the issue of language barriers affects the operations of rescue teams. In Dubai, fire fighters have trouble when dealing with victims who are non-Arabs. Moreover, Dubai fire fighters cannot be deployed to other countries because of language barrier. The training in Europe would help the civil defense personnel to cope with language challenges. Recently, the civil defense came up with a plan that would enable it deal with fires at the sea effectively. This is a milestone because fires have destroyed properties worth billions of dollars at the sea. Through the new plan, the Dubai civil defense will ensure that the coastal beaches are safe for everybody (Ciottone 76).

In an attempt to bring fire services to people, the agency opened three new fire-fighting stations. The director promised that more would be opened before the end of the year to enhance service delivery. Moreover, the agency has embarked to alliance formation in order to strengthen its organs. The agency signed an agreement with the government of Germany, which would provide efficient training to the staff, as well as provide modern equipments. Formation of alliances is a show of commitment and seriousness. To develop its image internationally, the agency joined the elite fire-fighting group controlled by the United Nations. The elite group is made up of over eighty countries, under the auspices of the United Nations. The agency stands to benefit from improved training programs and financing (Sturtevant 13). In the Middle East region, countries have been accused of not incorporating women into important organizations, such as fire-fighting organizations. Recently, the vice-president and the prime minister witnessed the opening of the female branch in the capital city. This was a breakthrough because women play a critical role in handling disasters. Female victims feel comfortable when attended by female personnel. In disaster management, caregivers face a major challenge, which is related to information sharing. Female victims would not share critical information regarding their health with male caregivers. The establishment of the female section of the civil defense will enhance the effectiveness of the organization.

The government of the United States Emirates came to the realization that fire is a common disaster among the regional players. Therefore, the government instructed the civil defense agency to come up with ways through which it could form a regional fire-fighter agency. The Arab world has always relied on the west for disaster management, something that degrades the status of Arab states. This is a major achievement because the regional fire-fighting agency would enable the countries to address the disasters regionally. The achievements of the Dubai civil defense agency are enormous because the racing care is to be used in putting off fires in the roads. The racing car has the capability of overcoming traffic and responding to disasters swiftly. Moreover, the civil defense introduced a new program that would help it deal with hazardous materials. These materials include chemicals and radio materials. Laws have been enacted to enable the civil defense to deal with the fire effectively. Motorists are expected to pave way for the trucks (Carter 36).

In this section, it can be concluded that the agency is doing everything to ensure that losses encountered because of fire outbreaks are reduced. The agency has ensured that modern equipments are acquired to enable fire fighters to engage the fire without fear. Moreover, the agency has come up with training programs aimed at aligning the skills of officers with the new techniques of fighting fires. In the legal perspective, the agency has ensured that laws aiming at speeding up fire-fighting are passed. However, the organization has a long way to go because the staff lacks sufficient training.

Outcome Benefit for Officers

Special training programs are of benefit to the civil defense officers in a number of ways. As earlier noted, the special fire-fighting training programs equip the officers with adequate knowledge and skills. The officers are empowered to offer professional services since they will have learned professional methods of fire fighting. The most important benefit is that officers will be in a position to control fire accidents resulting from various materials. The management of fire is not an easy task for officers. Training enables officers to share information freely with other stakeholders. Moreover, training presents opportunities to fire fighters in the civil defense agency. To begin with, having the skills and knowledge on how to handle the fire is of benefit to the organization, the community, and the individual fire fighter (Thomson 40). A skilled fire fighter has the capacity to salvage the situation before it becomes worse. In other words, the skilled officer can save property and lives. To the organization, skilled and knowledgeable officer improves the image of the organization. Moreover, cases of negligence and inefficiency would not haunt the organization because the officer would be able to handle the situation. As earlier noted, the organization can lose millions in legal suits because of its inability to handle the fire. To the individual, the officer can safely put off the fire without casualties. Unskilled officers can end up causing damages instead of saving properties and lives (Brennan 16).

Professional methods gained through training are of great importance to the organization, as well as the civil defense officer. In case an officer is able to handle the fire, the organization can be contracted by foreign firms to offer professional fire fighting services locally and internationally. Recently, the Dubai civil defense was recruited into the international fire fighting organization. This was facilitated by the professional methods possessed by the officers of the organization. Officers are able to share information and compare their techniques through training. Information sharing is very important because it empowers the civil defense officers. Information sharing allows officers to exercise caution when dealing with various sources of fires. Training provides future opportunities to the fire fighters. Through training, fire fighters would be able to win contracts abroad. The agency operates in an environment with some opportunities, which can make it experience massive growth in its market share. Civil defense has exploited a vacuum that existed in many parts of the country, especially in the rural areas.

Conclusion

It is apparent that there is no competition for this firm in the local market and this agency is able to make enough profits. The agency is providing the market with a completely new service that is not comparable to any other in the market. The agency would find it easy to embrace change, which comes about because of the changing technologies. This is accelerated by its size, unlike other organizations, which might not adopt change due to their large sizes. Technological advancements will also enable the agency to conduct trade easily due to improved means of communication and transport.

References

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