A Good Man is Hard to Find, written by Flannery O’Connor decades ago, is among the Gothic short stories with a unique story line and other specific literary elements. For example, the first literary element, the setting, emphasizes the serene and simple beginning of the story. A family, about which everything was usual, was traveling to the south when “they stopped at The Tower for barbecued sandwiches” (O’Connor 4). The author accentuates an ordinary road trip of a married couple with children and the grandmother, not letting the reader anticipate anything negative from the start.
Another literary element, the main characters, shows the contrast between the protagonist group. For instance, on the one side, there was a family, including the grandmother, Bailey, the Mother, “a stocky child with glasses,” John Wesley, “the little girl,” June Star, and a baby (O’Connor 2). However, on the other side, there were criminals, such as the Misfit, Bobby Lee, and Hiram. By using such distinct groups of heroes, the author wishes to show the good and bad sides of humanity and how sometimes those who pretend to be good individuals are, in reality, evil.
Finally, the narration of the story is based on the third-person approach, illustrating the events from the grandmother’s perspective. From the first line, the reader learns about the grandmother since it is mentioned that “the grandmother didn’t want to go to Florida” (O’Connor 1). In this sense, the intention of the author is to show the development of the story and why this narration was based on the grandmother’s point of view, showing the true personality of this character. The author wants to show the real face of the character and her treatment of other characters.
Work Cited
O’Connor, Flannery. A Good Man is Hard to Find, and Other Stories. United Kingdom, Harcourt Brace, 1992.
Famous fantasy writer Bruce Coville in his book The Dragonslayers describes a wonderful, fantastic world with furious dragons, beautiful princesses, noble knights, and malicious witches. The setting of the novel takes place mainly in a fantastic kingdom, which is ruled by King Mildred, and partially in the Forest of Doom that is terrorized by a fierce dragon.
The main characters of the book are King Mildred, who rules his kingdom, his daughter Wilhelmina who has a desire to become a knight, and Squire Elizar with his pageboy Brian. The main negative character is malignant witch Grizelda.
The conflict begins when Squire Elizar and his pageboy Brian get underway in order to slayer the dragon. They are unsuspicious of the fact that King Mildreds daughter Princess Wilhelmina disguises herself in a mans dress, and in order to avoid her marriage rushes to kill the dragon herself.
The resolution of the conflict is the confrontment between the dragon and two groups of hunters represented by Squire Elizar with his pageboy Brian and Princess Wilhelmina with her talking bear. As a result, the dragon is bloodlessly conquered, Willie achieves knighthood that is her cherished dream, Elizar gets to know that Grizelda is his former lost wife.
This story has much in common with a fairytale. The general theme of the story is that, like in every fairytale, good always triumphs over evil.
The novel The Dragonslayers, written by Bruce Coville is considered to be a typical example of fantasy. Here we can see the typical plot and the specifications for this genre characters such as the dragon, who terrorizes the kingdom, the heroes who are trying to resist the evil, beautiful princesses, and speaking animals. At the same time, the specific sense of humor, which can be found on the pages of this book and the matchless language of the main characters, make this book unique in its own way. Apart from the typical peculiarities of fantasy, this book also has typical folkloric features such as the king, who proposes half of his kingdom and the hand of his daughter, or the speaking bear. In spite of the fact that the book is predetermined for children, it will also be useful for adults.
Graham Greene’s work, “the destructors” has on many occasions elicited debate on whether it is commercial or literary fiction. This is because the analysis of the whole story reveals that it’s more bent towards a commercial than literal fiction. This essay aims to analyze and arrive at a conclusion on whether this great story is commercial or literary fiction. This will be primarily achieved through the analysis of the story and structure.
Story and Structure
First, the story uses some of the basic formulas that are inherent in commercial fiction. The existence of a protagonist whose aims and goals do not go on smoothly as planned. There is the existence of various obstacles along the chain of events that hamper the processes aligned towards the achievement of the protagonist’s goals. The achievement of the goals is eventually realized after a long struggle. The main aim of the story is to illustrate that human beings can make decisions. In the whole story, this theme is reflected in the destructors by the decisions and the actions of the characters.
This is a clear projection of an entertaining piece of work that leaves the reader with the desire to discover what the Wormley gang is going to execute next in their plan. Set in post-WW II in England, Greene has effectively used a group of young boys who collectively refer to themselves as the common Wormley gang to entertain his readers. In addition to the above, the use of figurative language defines it as more of a commercial than literary fiction. This involves the use of several metaphors and paradoxes in the story. The use of paradox is presented by the gang’s leader – T – who intones that “Even the grown-up gangs who ran the betting at the all-in wrestling and the barrow-boys would hear with respect of how Old Misery’s house had been destroyed” (Greene, 37). The exact meaning of T’s words in this extract is a paradox as no right-thinking member of any society can gain respect from the other by acts of vandalism and destruction. T also admits that he doesn’t hate Mr. This demonstrates two important facts about the pre-teen boys who are members of the Wormley Common Gang. First, they are still innocent yet they are still unable to keep their selfish decisions and second, their motives are driven not by hate but by other reasons. This forms one of the major themes in Greene’s work. In the belief of the young boys, destruction is another form of creation.
The “abductors” fall under the subgenre of adventure. Figurative language that defines a commercially entertaining piece of literature has been widely used in this piece of Green’s work. “Streaks of light came in through the closed shutters where they worked with the seriousness of creators – and destruction after all is a form of creation” (Greene, 53). The coming down of the house symbolizes the permanent alienation from society as something it can never have. The house, therefore, symbolized the gang, and y coming down, the gang disintegrated.
Furthermore, Greene’s writing style that is encompassed by the suspense is a demonstration of an entertaining piece of work. The end of the gang is not fully illustrated thus leaving the reader wondering what ensued next. The ending of the story is indeterminate in that nothing is presented by the author on whether the end of Wormley led to the birth of another gang or the complete demise of the gang. Trevor believes that nothing can be built without the walls whereas the writer persuades the reader to believe that there is a possibility of rebuilding a new house without the walls. This is due to the loss of credibility in Trevor whose words lose their meaning after the fall of the gang. The aim of Greene is making use of such antics in the story is to elicit high levels of entertainment among the readers of this work.
Commercial fiction aims at primarily entertaining which is the specific aim of the destructors. The general character of T- the Wormley common gang’s leader is primarily an entertaining one. Both Blackie and Trevor are presented as entertaining characters whose aims are to influence the other characters in defining the plot of the story.
Conclusion
The next differentiating factor that makes it be defined as commercial fiction is the lack of plausibility. This is a presentation of ordinary people with the capacity to do both good and evil. The members of the gang in this story have been presented as ordinary pre-teen boys who are innocent enough to differentiate between love and hate. This illustrates their ability to do good things by making the right decisions. However, their judgments are overshadowed by selfish decisions in attempts to signal to the senior gang that they can inflict damage. This symbolizes the capacity to do evil. From the above discussions, it can be discerned that the “Destructors” by Greene qualify as commercial fiction.
Works Cited
Greene, Graham. The Destructors. New York: Creative Education. 1998.
Introduction The book is set in 2076. The earth’s lunar colony decides to rebel against the earth authority. The United Nations Lunar authority rules the lunar colony These people have been exiled from the earth and taken to the moon. They are mostly criminals or political exiles.
These people who have been exiled once they spend a few months on the moon certain changes start taking place. There are physiological changes that occur in these people which are irreversible. The changes occur as they live in a planet that has a different gravitational field. The people become trapped.
The area has a higher number of polyandrous marriages since the number of men is more than the women in a ratio of 10:1. There are wardens and guards on the moon. However the rules are few since the convicts cannot escape.
The hero in the novel, Mannie is reluctant. He wants change but is rather comfortable interacting with spending time with the super computer, Mike and interacting with his wives and co-husbands.
It is the beautiful Wyoming and Professor Wyoming who involve him in their affairs to rebel against the earth till he sees the chance of success. The exploitation of the moon by the earth is dangerous as the moon will only last for a few more years.
When Mannie is finally on board, he is passionate and does everything to ensure the loonies are successful. The three of them recruit groups and form cells. They want to influence the people on earth to see the importance of the lunar independence. They are intelligent and the Authority Security Chief is not able to penetrate the group. In May
after the soldiers rape a girl and murder two girls. The rebels fight the soldiers and win. Though they win, there is the fear of the earth reclaiming the colony. The trio is able to ensure that the religious people and the politicians are always engaged in endless arguments. Meanwhile they are laying down their plans to win the war.
Mannie and Professor travel in a grain shipping container from the moon to the earth. They go to plead the case for the independence of the moon that has just been declared. They go on a world tour speaking of the benefits of a free Lunar kingdom. Mannie says it will be great for commerce and industry.
He encourages various countries that will organize for the building of a catapult to transport vital materials to the moon. The earth should transport water and trace elements to the moon in exchange for grain. The delegation’s proposals are however rejected when they go to the federation headquarters.
In fact more troops will be sent to the moon to secure it and ensure it is a tightly controlled police state. It is not a total failure however since the people on the earth are no longer united on the activities going on in the lunar colony. Some actually want it to be free.
On the moon however, people are more united. In the last part of the book, the federation warships come to the moon. The attacks between the moon and the earth intensify with many people dying. However, the Loonies are victorious and the lunar nation is finally recognized. The professor, Bernado is the leader of the nation for a
while then he collapses and dies. Mannie takes over. After a while though he steps aside and lets another person to rule. At the end of the novel, Mike is severely affected and only responds and functions like a normal computer. It could be due to physical damage or the whole experience of fighting was a draining process.
Pain, Cyber Punk and Science Fiction in the Moon is a Harsh Mistress
There are several aspects of science fiction, pain, cyber punk and science fiction addressed in the book. There is a lot of pain expressed in the novel. First of all the people living in the moon undergo mental and psychological anxieties. There is pain and misery as the people can die at any time from the vacuum.
The people in order to survive in the area have to behave well towards each other. The second issue in this society is the family unit. There is an acute shortage of women in the moon causing the society to adopt polyandry relationships. The women are few as most of the criminals are usually men (Lerner, 1985, pg 65)
This must have been hard to adjust to since the people were coming from a monogamous kind of society. The women in the society are very powerful. If a man offends a woman, the other men are likely to get annoyed and attack the individual. This is a society that the men find it hard to adjust to.
The society has learned to cope with the way they live. The people are peaceful and live by certain rules such as payment of debts and looking after one’s own body.
As the loonies fought the war, strong bonds were formed between the three main fighters, the professor, Wyoming and Mannie. The war has been won but Mannie feels disoriented.
Mike was severely affected by the fighting. He is back to being a computer. Mannie feels lost, missing the companionship that Mike offered before and during the war. He misses the way he could answer very difficult questions. Mannie is in disbelief and keeps asking Mike questions which he does not answer.
The computer was repaired so he expected things to go back to normal. Since nothing changes, he actually starts thinking that maybe the computer was affected psychologically. He reasons, “Can a machine be so frightened and hurt that it will go into catatonia and refuse to respond?
While ego crouches inside, aware but never willing to risk it? No, can’t be that; Mike was unafraid—as gaily unafraid as Prof ”(Heinlen, 1966 pg 232).
The war has been won however Mike has lost a great firend and his loss will always be felt. The victory over the earth though goes to give him great memories of how Mike helped win the war. He was a great asset and help in the rebellion.
Cyberpunk is a combination of cybernetics and punk. In books where Cyber Punk is the theme, the story usually takes place in the future but not so far away. The setting of the cyber punk story is usually a place of great misery. The genre shows great advances in information technology.
There may also be great developments in the internet and artificial intelligence. The other common theme in cyberpunk is the societal control theme. They may be aggressive heroes from the beginning of the story or reluctant
heroes that take time to pick up but at the end all of them save the people and the story ends well.
All these characteristics of the Cyber Punk theme is true in the novel the Moon is a Harsh Mistress. The setting of the book is in the new future that is 2076. The environment on the moon is harsh, even as the people suffer physiological changes which are irreversible.
There is despair and lack of hope in the people who are trapped. They cannot leave the moon. There is also the theme of societal or government control. This is evident in the book as the people on the moon are being controlled by the governments of the earth.
The book explores politics and the society. The professor is for self-regulation and not state or government control. He says that every person is responsible for his own actions.
The protagonists have to do something to set the people free. In the novel, Marnie, the professor and Mike are heroes who do everything to set the people on the moon free. There is a terrible fighting with Mike bombing the earth’s space defense command centre at Cheyenne Mountain.
Civilians die in the process as they go to these locations despite the warnings of the press. The earth’s military on the other hand attacks the moon, destroying the catapult for transporting grain to the earth.
Step by step as Mannie throws the rocks, the earth’s counties recede and surrender recognizing the moon as a new nation. After a while all of the earth recognizes that the colony is no longer theirs. The loonies are set free at last.
Science fiction is a genre of fiction where the main themes are science and technology. This genre of literary fiction tells the story in an environment where they have been progressive innovations in science. The innovations are mostly imagined and have not taken place yet.
The novel usually discusses or shows the impact of those scientific innovations. Take the situation where men have created highly intelligent machines to assist them take care of the earth and their businesses.
However, a danger occurs where the machines become so highly intelligent that they start a revolution to take over the earth. A war occurs between the machines and the human beings.
The science fiction novels are not limited in the events that can occur in the earth. It shows other possibilities that can occur on the earth. The scientific fiction differs from the fantasy genre though because the events in the science fiction novel can actually occur due to the laws of nature or other laws of science.
It concentrates on the operations of some of the laws of science. While reading a science fiction novel, the reader has to practice a degree of suspension of disbelief.
If the writer can capture the reader’s interest and use some aspect of the truth then the reader may overlook the incredulous and impossible events of the book. The writer seeks to explain the events in the book through the scientific laws.
Another critical aspect of science fiction novels is the aspect of time or time travel. The story is usually set in the future. The science fiction may also have events happening even in the past however they do not match what has actually happened in the past.
The explanation in the novel given may be that the characters are able to influence the past events in order to create a certain future. The story can even have characters travelling in between time zones, going forward and backward in time.
The story usually involves aliens or humans in other planets. It is all about the outer space or another universe. Most of the science fiction stories show wars that occur in space, different worlds or even a different universe.
The wars are usually between the humans and the aliens. The aliens could be planning a total mass invasion of the earth. It could be subtle like aliens coming to the earth and changing body form into humans in order to infiltrate the society.
The moon is a harsh mistress fulfils most of the characteristics of the science fiction genre. It has artificial intelligence, space travel and atomic drives. First of all in the Moon is a Harsh Mistress, there are people who have been transported to live in the moon.
There are no people who can survive or live in the moon. This has been proved by scientific experts. Secondly, there is also the aspect of advanced artificial intelligence. A quality in most science fictions where it is believed the artificial intelligence of the computers will be high.
Machines and robots will be in force on the earth and may actually take over. Computers that exist in the earth and moon at that time have a higher artificial intelligence level. Take Holmes IV, known as Mike as an example. He has become self aware. A machine that is almost human. It has come to understand
human emotions and feelings. Mike even has a sense of humor. To most people, the computers in the future will be smaller and advanced. However Mike is a huge mainframe. It is a main computer that controls all the facilities on the moon.
In the rebellion, the supercomputer Mike provides a lot of insight. It actually acts like Adam Selene who is the leader of the group. The computer is able to make complex calculations. It can store 90 minutes of conversation in ten minutes.
He can animate the human face, something that he also learns in a few minutes. He reads over a 1000 books and every fact that he reads he can connect it with everything else that he knows, something he also does in minutes.
The professor Bernado tells them that the moon has to soon cease transporting wheat to the earth and its resources may dry up. At this point Mike is able to calculate that there will be food riots in seven years. Additionally, there will be cannibalism on the Moon after nine years.
These projections of the Moon’s gloomy future work to motivate the professor and Mannie more on the decision to revolt. Mike is even able to calculate the chances of success of the rebellion. He says it is a 1:7 win situation. As the story progresses, Mike keeps calculating and revising the chances of failure and success of the revolt.
The people on the moon though have a gambling culture and as long the chances of being successful is not 0, then it is okay to proceed. Mannie suspects Mike of rigging the elections when he is elected to the congress together with the Professor and Wyoh.
The novel is also set in the future. The people in the moon have a distinct syntax in their language showing the way the earth’s language will develop and change in the future. The author lays the idea that in the future there is the possibility of a different version of English or other languages being spoken on the earth.
It is a war that takes place in the universe between the people on the moon and the earth. The equipment involved in the war is advanced. The earth uses advanced war ships. The federation warships arrive for war at the moon however the revolutionaries are able to destroy them. The revolutionaries are even able to destroy the ships while in the air, before landing on the moon.
Fourthly, there is the operation of the laws of science. The moon sends wheat to the earth using an electromagnetic catapult. In the war between the moon and the earth, in the universe, Mike throws rocks travelling at 11km per second that are like atomic bombs.
They release the same amount of energy. During the war in the universe, many people in one location become asphyxiated due to loss of air pressure.
The science fiction novels usually speak of events and happenings that do not occur in this world. On the earth, monogamy is practiced in most countries. In some countries, polygamy is traditionally practiced. Very few countries or cultures practice polyandry.
However in the Moon is a Harsh Mistress, the population of the women is much higher than the men population. In order for the people to continue the family unit, they adopt a polyandry kind of society (Bryan, 1998, pg 1357).
The state of marriage at that time in the future is illegal however in the earth. When Mannie travels to the earth to lay the argument for the moon’s independence, he is arrested for bigamy and polygamy.
Conclusion
The Moon is a Harsh Mistress incorporates all the themes of pain, cyber punk and science fiction in a great way. The computer, Mike is given human elements that cause the reader to feel Mike’s pain when at the end they can no longer communicate they way they used.
One is left angry at the costs of war. Things are never the same between the two after the war. Though Mike is able to use the computer to perform certain functions, it is not to the high degree that was there before and during the war.
The reader is also made to identify with the suffering people on the moon and root for their deliverance. Though one starts wondering of how it must be like to live in a society with polyandry marriages. The society is a reversal of the present state of affairs. The men are so weak. The women have totally taken over the society. It is not a man’s world in the moon.
The adjustment to live on the moon for the convicts is hard. The feeling of being trapped in a place is hard to deal with. After only a few months there is no way of escape.
The earth’s inhabitants on the other hand are selfishly taking grain from the earth not thinking of the impact it has or will have on the moon in the future. If such transportation of the grain to the earth continues, the people on the moon will surely perish. It is with this mindset of the future that Mannie and his friends plead the case for the lunar independence and recognition as a state.
Works Cited
Heinlein, Robert. The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress. New York: Tom Doherty Associates,1997. Print.
Lerner, Fredrick. Modern Science Fiction and the American Literary Community. United States: Scarecrow press, 1985. Print.
Ryan, Bryan. Major 20th Century Writers: A Selection of Sketches of Contemporary Authors, Volume 2. United States: Gale group.1998, Print.
Science fiction is the literature of change. What happens to a fictitious scientist who discovers an entirely new automobile technology? He or she should be able to predict the likely repercussions of this new technology. Science is governed by certain laws, which are proven to hold under certain conditions, which are testable.
How do these laws happen? Somebody somewhere must have enormously dreamed about such likelihood of such natural relationships. This presents science as the result of science fiction despite the fact that science fiction is also dependent on certain established laws of science.
Going by the words of Hopkins “science of fiction is a genre of fiction in which the stories often tell about science and technology of the future- these stories involve partially true-partially fictions laws or theories of science” (2005, p.13). Perhaps more critical is that the endeavor of science is to provide an explanation for the nature of the world as it appears.
On the other hand, its corollaries aim at deploying these established explanations to create technologies that aid in the improvement of the human condition.
Therefore, when people fantasize about technologies of future through science fiction, they merely do not infer for the improvement of science. Rather, they tend to deploy the existing knowledge in science to predict certain future discoveries that would take the human condition concerns to even greater heights.
The plot development of science fiction takes a different route recounting both the past and present. The genre also incorporates various elements related to the human condition in future because of exploitation of the science related technologies among them the effects of latest discoveries, science developments and happenings.
As Ramachandran Reckons, “science fiction texts are often set in the future, in space, in a different world, or in a different universe or dimension” (2006, p.51). In this context, it has little interest in the development of future actual scientific laws but rather focus on impacts of imagined or even actual present science on individual or even the wider society. Arguably, this focus is more ardently inclined on the human condition.
Human condition here refers to fostering the maintenance of the well being of mankind states of “being as moderately smart, moderately conscious, moderately creative, physically weak, emotional, social, and mortal animals participating in an ongoing evolutionary process absent any grand purpose or design” (Hopkins 2005, p.13). This way, the consequential purposes of man creation are needed be enhanced by science without curtailing any of the purpose.
People have different things that they need to accomplish when alive. Science, therefore, needs to help man realize all this without their impairment. In Hopkins’ terms, these things are reflected by reason that “We are born to live, eat, excrete, think, feel, create, emote, organize, rank, compete, cooperate, and die” (2005, p.13).
When science fiction genres recount certain scientific failures, are they not attempting to give a standoff of evident scenarios behind the curtailing and or interfering with the reasons of why humankind is born? Critics of science fiction argue and pose questions seeking responses as to why proponents of the fiction genre need to write things that are “unpublishable”.
They claim, “more harm has been done in science by those who make a fetish of skepticism, aborting ideas before they are born than by those who gullibly accept untested theories” (Ramachandran 2006, p.48).
Perhaps with this skepticism, a clear distinction between the endeavors of science and fiction science comes out, further amplifying the fact that Science fiction has less to do with science and more to do with an endless reworking of the human condition.
When a culture undergoes transformations because of scientific developments coupled with new technological innovations, perhaps people also need to undergo more even advanced sophistication. In fact, this is the basis of science fiction.
Many people would tend to contend with this argument since it is crucial for people to manage such technologies in an attempt to reserve the noble role of humankind: to control the world or even have an ample understanding of it. Now, it is may be crucial to Deviate from the highly defended branch of human knowledge: Science.
Arguably, inclusions of the human elements in the Science fiction perhaps also adds weight to the argument that science fiction has little to do with science but rather on the continuous endeavor to improve the human condition. Take for instance some of the post holocaust tales. Consistent with Ramachandran argument, these tales “portray cultures that understand and control less of the world than we do; the scientific element consists of our understanding of their world, and of how it arose out of our world” (2006 p. 49).
Fantasizing a world of the holocaust in future entails crediting ample time at present to ‘hallucinate’ about a more worse holocaust world of the future to take prerequisite measures to avoid the re-occurrence of such a scenario. The chief purpose for this is not the generation of facts, as science would demand, but rather in an effort to protect and improve the human condition in the future.
This means that the main chore in the science fiction is prevent things from getting out of hand; always ensuring some way of monitoring and controlling science discoveries and technologies by provoking man to think more than the technologies or even the discoveries or rather making him or her remain superior to the former two.
The world fantasized by George Orwell’s in the Nineteen Eighty Four is dystopia tantamount to the world that he lived in 1948. In this world, instances of both passive and active forces of coercion and oppressive control systems are dominant.
People abuse or rather misuse technology with almost everybody having incapacities to take control of the technology, which advances more rapidly than the rate of people’s evolution in terms of their mental knowhow. This state is analogous to the police force body existing in a nation of citizens who overpowers it.
In this context, George Orwell’s perhaps well illustrates that the goal of science fiction is far isolated from being concerned with science but more to do with an endless reworking of the human condition. In George Orwell’s essence, the best human condition is fostered when people hail in utopia world. In Nineteen Eighty Four, perhaps similar to conditions of technology outdoing human capacity “children organize themselves with intents of spying their parents (Orwell 2003, p.195).
This creates a feeling of a world that is harsh to motherhood. Looking at less famous novels done by George Orwell’s among them Catalonia and homage, his opposition to the totalitarian regimes is evident: something extended to Nineteen Eighty Four. “The ministry of truth” (Orwell 2003, p.87), reframes stories to suit the continued existence of Doublethink: who are a menace to the life of humankind condition.
From the supporting evidence explored by consideration of instances where the various branches of science existing knowledge overpowers the human capacity or realism, The Physics of Star Trek places questions on the interrelationships of science fiction and science.
While biological science attempts to explain earth inhabited by living organisms by scrutinizing their differences through moving from general to particular, such particulars are found to pose threats to the human condition in the fiction science which tends to overlook beyond the current scientific approaches. In The Physics of Star Trek, some technological innovations are impractical even to the most sophisticated civilizations.
For instance, Krauss (2007) claim that “dematerializing” a person for transport would require about as much energy as is released by a 100-megaton hydrogen bomb” (p.67). The challenge is how to contain such technologies to suit human conditions: this being the main concern of fiction science.
Thinking of it differently, The Physics of Star Trek takes us to the concerns of technology overtaking human capacity. As a way of example, bringing Newton’s laws into perspectives, their relation is acceptable in science. They bind any physical object in motion. This is science knowledge based on what people already know.
Though fiction science will employ such knowledge, it extends into the future to question how technologies through deploying these laws would affect human conditions. For instance, it is common for people to clear off roads when they see an automobile approaching. In science, it is perhaps possible to calculate the rate of deceleration to avoid hitting a pedestrian who fails to clear the road.
On the other hand, in fiction science, we think of super speed automobile that perhaps travels at a speed of light that people have invented because of technology and science advancements. Most likely, humankind would not have evolved to the extent of managing to respond to stimuli in such a quick speed to initiate the process of decelerating the automobile before hitting the pedestrian. This is where technology exceeds human capacity.
Arguably, consequently, science fiction has less to do with science but more to do with to do with an endless reworking of the human condition. Putting a factor of advancement in technology perhaps to increase the rate of may be typing speed due to the advancement in technology and science puts human capacity in paradox.
However, science can permit it as evidenced by microchip production technology. The question is whether advancement in future technology will suit humanity in terms of bettering his or her condition. This is the concern of science fiction!
Think of science fiction genre scholars such as George Orwell’s in his ‘classic tale of a future world gone horribly wrong’ or simply’ Nineteen Eighty Four. When he fantasizes of the future world in 1948, he perhaps attempts not to criticize science and its failures he claims among them the demise of the patient with advanced Parkinson state or even the 1928 St Francis dam break (Orwell 2003, p.47).
Rather he dreams of a future world free from communism, totalitarian leadership such the one practiced by big brother, political authority and with characters like Hitler buried deep never to rise again.
From a different perspective point of view, science fiction makes use of quite new terminologies, perhaps indicative of imaginary visions, as opposed to already existent state of scientific knowhow, which has well defined terminologies. George Orwell’s provides ample examples of this line of thought in the selection of terminologies such as Ocenia, Eurasia, Eastasia amongst others.
References
Hopkins, P., 2005. Transcending the Animal: How Transhumanism and Religion Are and Are Not Alike. Journal of Evolution and Technology, 14(2), pp. 13-29.
Krauss, L., 2007. The Physics of Star Trek. New York: Basic books.
Orwell, G., 2003. Nineteen Eighty-Four. New York: Plume publishers.
Ramachandran, V., 2006. Creativity versus Skepticism within Science. Skeptical Inquirer, 30(6), pp. 48-51.
According to Theodore Strugeon, “a science fiction story is a story built around human beings, with a human problem and a human solution, which would not have happened at all without its scientific content.” Since the publication of Darwin’s science of evolution, mankind has been attempting to solve one of the major problems of our age – where will this sort of evolution lead the human race and what implications does this have regarding the significance of our ideas and essential humanity.
The ideas and questions this science introduced thus helped give rise to the literary genre of science fiction, in which answers to these questions were sought. As the introduction of science brings about new capabilities for extended human understanding, both H.G. Wells and Arthur C. Clarke explore the darker side of evolutionary thought and where humans are heading both in terms of human society as well as in individual development.
In both stories, human society is presumed to have developed to a relatively utopian state at some point. This is only speculated upon in Wells’ story as the Time Traveler wanders through the green countryside of the future. Deducing what must have happened in the intervening years of his time travel jump from the evidence in front of him, the traveler describes how things must have been: “The ideal of preventative medicine was attained. Diseases had been stamped out … I saw mankind housed in splendid shelters, gloriously clothed, and as yet I had found them engaged in no toil. There were no signs of struggle” (Wells 49).
The society that develops following the interference of the Overlords in Clarke’s story help to establish something very similar to the society described by Wells’ traveler at an earlier point in its development: “Production had become largely automatic: the robot factories poured forth consumer goods in such unending streams that all the ordinary necessities of life were virtually free. Men worked for the sake of luxuries they desired: or they did not work at all” (Clarke 73). In both cases, the developments brought about as a result of science enabled mankind to turn his attentions to the fulfillment of desire.
Although utopia had been reached in both tales, this did not usher in the sort of explosion of ideas and culture that characterized the Renaissance period of earlier times. Instead, it led to the destruction of these elements of human existence. In Wells’ story, this is epitomized in the relatively bestial qualities of the inhabitants of his future world, the Eloi and the Morlocks. The traveler includes these ideas in his ruminations of what had led the human population to such a mindless state of existence.
“Hardship and freedom: conditions under which the active, strong and subtle survive and the weaker go to the wall; conditions under which the active, strong and subtle survive and the weaker go to the wall … Under the new conditions of perfect comfort and security, that restless energy, that with us is strength, would become weakness” (Wells 49-50). Art and culture have completely disappeared as the last ditch efforts of active minds to find meaning in a world now engineered for the perfect and effortless sustenance for future generations. This is exactly the case found in Clarke’s story as well, although found at an earlier stage.
As George and Jean Greggson consider moving to a specific isolated colony, the director explains the reason for its establishment: “The world’s now placid, featureless and culturally dead: nothing really new has been created since the Overlords came. The reason’s obvious. There’s nothing left to struggle for, and there are too many distractions and entertainments” (Clarke 149-150). With the destruction of any need for creative thought and competitive energy, the purpose of civilization takes a fundamental turn.
The two authors take a dramatically different although equally distressing approach to the end of mankind. This is reflected in a complete loss of individuality within the societies discovered by the ‘time travelers’ of both stories. Wells’ character discovers that the Eloi are nearly completely mindless in their blissful daytime activities while the Morlocks are equally mindless in their voracious appetite and only slightly more clever thinking. “After all, they were less human and more remote than our cannibal ancestors of three or four thousand years ago. And the intelligence that would have made this state of things a torment had gone. Why should I trouble myself? These Eloi were mere fatted cattle, which the ant-like Morlocks preserved and preyed upon – probably saw to the breeding of” (Wells 74-75).
The future humans of both stories transition into something no longer recognizably human, having lost the quality of mind that we consider makes us unique among the animals, but the humans of Clarke’s story are moving on to something too unknown to be judged. As Jan describes the last moments of Earth, he tells the Overlords through radio transmission that the mindless-seeming children of the last human generation have made an evolutionary jump beyond the bounds of matter to become a part of something larger than even the Overlords: “they’re on their way at last, to become part of the Overmind. Their probation is ended: they’re leaving the last remnants of matter behind” (Clarke 227).
Through both stories, it is only through the intervention of science that these fundamental questions regarding the human condition become answerable questions within these stories. By circumnavigating the time element, either through a time machine or through the elaborate end game of Jan Rodricks, science is able to give mankind an idea of what life would be like should mechanics manage to remove all elements of strife to introduce utopia.
Rather than leading to the type of Golden Age often anticipated, both stories illustrate how this final Golden Age was something more in the nature of a final death throe. While Wells indicates this inevitable decline and loss of everything human is irrefutable and irrevocable, Clarke offers hope in the possibility of the existence of an entirely different sort of existence. This existence is, admittedly, no more concerned with the concept of a once-human race or their various developments on Earth than is the obliterated planet of Wells’ creation, but there is a hope of the human race having contributed something lasting to the universal order.
Works Cited
Clarke, Arthur C. Childhood’s End. New York: Ballantine Books, 1953.
Wells, H. G. The Time Machine: The War of the Worlds. Greenwich, CT: Fawcett Publications, 1968.
The 20th century American literature is marked with self-reversal, in other words, writers created works in order to explore their inner world and themselves. Many authors turned to genre of fiction with helped them discuss and explain what was happening to the world and society in which they lived.
This new direction in literature is known as modernism. Modernist writers focused on themes of individualism, social and cultural issues, such as racism, freedom, violence of life, etc. The ideas and themes of modernist literature remained drawn from the late 19th century and authors presented their own perspectives on the same themes, but in the context of contemporary social problems.
The movements that influenced the modernist literature are 19th century realism and naturalism and their representation of the American society and people’s lives after the Civil War and World War I. The aim of the modernist writers was not only depiction of life “as it is”, but search of solutions to dilemmas and problems of the society of the 20th century.
The best example of influence of realism and naturalism is the 20th century American fiction which brought new themes and characters into literature and these themes and characters are still explored in works of the 21st century writers. In this paper, we are going to define the influence of the 19th century realism and naturalism on the American fiction of the 20th century through analysis of works by Ernest Hemingway and Mark Twain.
The realistic movement of the 19th century was focused on true depiction of life and current problems of the society. The writers tried to create realistic pictures of modern classes and manners of the American life while describing details that derived from their observation of events and personal experience.
They attempted to show social process and compare them to general truth of existence. The development of realism as literary movement was a result of historical and cultural events in the American society. Fast rise of economy, immigration and cultural diversity greatly changed people’s life and attitude to the better world. Realism was focusing on criticism of those changes through comparison of evolving new American society and culture with changes that occurred in other countries.
In their works, the realist writers focused on different values of people and different view on life in America; they also tried to explore all dimensions of motivation that encouraged people of different classes accomplish particular actions. Thus, the writers of the realism movement created the actual portray of the American society through factual description of what they saw and while adding their personal criticism in attempt to encourage people change their lives for better.
Naturalism has the same premise as realism, however, as opposed to realist writers who merely described the world, naturalist writers focused on ugly side of social norms. Naturalist writers examined life as scientists examine nature; at the same time, their approach to life was pessimistic, they often depicted the process of destruction or degradation of society and human nature. In addition, they often used nature as a projection of social development, through symbolic depiction of nature phenomenon; they tried (as well as naturalists) inspire society for positive changes.
Literature has always been one of the major means to express thought and believes; thus, it is no wonder that it changes together with history and social development. After American Civil War, American literature took a new turn. The 20th century writers used literature to define changes that occurred within the nation.
Major themes of the 20th century modernist literature revolved around crucial problems of the modern society: struggle for human rights and freedom from social prejudices, the influence of industrialization and evolving new technology, the consequences of the World War I and its effect on people’s lives; later, the authors began focusing on population, race and gender, they analyzed the individual using such genre as fiction and different forms of writing. In particular, modernist writers used the concept of form as a major means to discover theme.
As a result, many works by modernist writers are hard to read and understand, they can be overburden with academic vocabulary, or used a technique called stream of consciousness to convey the meaning of the literary work.
The modernist literature evolved as result of naturalism and realism and reflected changes that occurred in the society. The writers were aimed at documenting those changes and problems that bothered society. The works of the 29th century American fiction criticize the society that was formed after the Civil and World War I; this criticism can be seen in works of Ernest Hemingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald.
New discoveries in science also played a great role in the formation of the American fiction writing. New discoveries (such as works by Albert Einstein) overthrown the vision of the world and made many people feel unprotected and isolated. The writers experimented with styles and forms which, they believed, were as important as content of the writing and were crucial achieve desirable effect in fiction writing. There are many connections between naturalism, realism and fiction literature.
First of all, as well realist and naturalist writers, fiction writers made use of symbolism in order to express their ideas and judge about modern American society, cultural and political processes in the country. As well as naturalists, modernist writers adopted naturalistic method to examine problems they faced and explore the place of the individual in the society. Fiction writers also wrote formally, but through the formality of their writing, they managed to “attack” moral issues of the modern society.
Furthermore, as well as naturalists and realists, modern fiction writers strived to create a comprehensive picture of modern life. Thus, we can say that writers of all three movements had the same goals and used the same methods to implement their ideas. They focused on the role of the individual in the society, and tied to “examine” this individual in the context of virtues and evils of life. Thus, they created a detailed “description” of the character and put it in opposition to the social norms and values.
Details are the main characteristic features of the three movements. Details were present in everything: clothes, description of places, characters and problems. Details had a great importance, they helped create the realistic pictures, as well as had symbolic meaning. For example in The Invisible Man, Ralph Ellison describes the apartment of the protagonist as “whole is warm and full of light. Yes, full of light. I doubt if there is a brighter spot in all New York than this hole of mine, and I do not exclude Broadway.” (Ellison 6).
The author mentions the exact number of lights 1,369, and this detail is important and symbolic. The three groups of writers focused on the same themes (good and bad sides of the changes that occurred in the American society. They used the same techniques to convey the meanings of their works.
However, there are also features that separate three movements. Realist and naturalist literature had an entertaining character, and the literature of the modernist writers can be described with expression “writing for the sake of writing”, which means that they referred to form in order to influence the audience. However, the major difference between the movements is not a different concept of the literature, or different themes, the differences were dictated by social and cultural changes which defined themes and ideas of the 20th century American fiction.
Fiction works by two modernist writers demonstrate how realism and naturalism influenced 20th century American fiction. The first one is Mark Twain who is considered to be the father of American fiction. His work about Huckleberry Finn is a model of the fiction writing. I
t explores one of the most important themes of the modernist literature: problem of racism in the American, as well as raised such important issues as friendship, childhood and freedom from social norms. The work is typical for modernist fiction literature.
Twain describes it as, “persons attempting to find a motive in this narrative will be prosecuted; persons attempting to find a moral in it will be banished; persons attempting to find a plot in it will be shot”. (Twain 7) Also, author focuses on description of the modern American society which was typical for realism and naturalism, he says about it:
“The pitifulest thing out is a mob; that’s what an army is–a mob; they don’t fight with courage that’s born in them, but with courage that’s borrowed from their mass, and from their officers. But a mob without any MAN at the head of it is BENEATH pitifulness”. (Twain 191).
The next writer is Ernest Hemingway whose works of fiction provide an in-depth insight into the human life and death. Hemingway described life as a constant struggle in which the individual should affirm his/her right for freedom and free choice. According to the writer, the individual should resist the evils of the society and not loose one’s talent which brings satisfaction and self-realization, the author writes in the “The Snows of Kilimanjaro”:
“He had destroyed his talent by not using it, by betrayals of himself and what he believed in, by drinking so much that he blunted the edge of his perceptions, by laziness, by sloth, and by snobbery, by pride and by prejudice, by hook and by crook” (Hemingway 11).
In such way, the author describes how negative the influence of society can be and how one should struggle to overcome it. Hemingway is a master of description and this is one more feature that was adopted by modernist movement, and fiction writers in particular” from realism and naturalism.
Thus, the 20th century American fiction was influenced by the realistic and naturalistic movements on the late 19th century. Themes, techniques and ideas were common for these movements, the only things that separated them were time and society. Both movements focused on goods and evils of the developing American society, and both explored the role of the individual in this society in the context of political, social and cultural transformations.
Works Cited
Ellison, Ralph. Invisible Man. New York: Vintage International, 1995.
Hemingway, Ernest. The Snows of Kilimanjaro and Other Stories. New York: Scribner Paperback Fiction, 1995.
Twain, Mark. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. London: Electric Book Company, 2005.
The Malleus Maleficarum is a historical book that was written in the middle age. The term Malleus Maleficarum means ‘The witch hammer’. The book guided investigators as they eradicated witchcraft in the society. The effect of this historical book is intensive in the modern society despite the time that has elapsed since it was first published.
The essay will discuss women’s victimization and affirmation in relation to witchcraft. Moreover, the relationship between witches and demons will be outlined. Historical ideologies based on witchcraft as discussed in the Malleus Maleficarum and how such ideas can be transformed by fiction will be scrutinized.
Background
Christianity doctrines failed to accept the existence of witchcraft and dismissed the ideology of Malleus Maleficarum as mere superstitions.
Witchcraft victimized women to a great extent as sentence of witches was fatal. The historical book solved the problem of uncertainty, as witches would only be branded if they fitted the description. In fact, approximately 9 million women were hanged or burnt alive after they were regarded as witches.
Before the guidelines, witches were branded based on mere suspicion or failure to comply with Catholic doctrines. The Malleus Maleficarum intensified the works of investigators and was regarded as a book that was soaked in blood. The witch hunting exercise took place for a period of 250 years and realized good results (Kieckhefer 24).
Witchcraft Fiction Transformation
Witch hunting was meant to eradicate evilness that was associated with witchcraft in the society. Emphasis was on witches and not wizards since women engaged in witchcraft more than men did. The investigators’ court judged both witches and those that were accused of sacrilege.
The Catholic doctrines did not agree with ideology of existence of witches who could transform nature permanently. According to Christians, belief in magic powers of witches was regarded as blasphemy. The devil and witches could not cause permanent transformation on human beings, according to Christian doctrines.
For example, the suffering that was inflicted on Job involved natural factors like diseases, which are manipulated by God. Christians argue that if witches and demons had power to transform nature, then there would be a lot of disorganization in the world (Ankarloo and Clark 11).
The Malleus Maleficarum argues that the power that is influenced by physical factors, like that of a witch cannot exceed natural phenomena (Broedel and Hans 9).
The devil has power to study the stars and witches call on his intervention in their evil acts by observing certain star patterns. It should be noted that, the devil and witches cannot manipulate the pattern of stars; nature cannot be transformed by demons or witches. The craft that is used by the devil, like in the instance of studying the stars, can never be adequate to transformation nature permanently. Permanent situations like disease or cure can only exist by other power and not that of devils and witches (Ankarloo and Clark 16).
Power influence among the witch, devil and God has been scrutinized in the Malleus Maleficarum. Permanent transformation can only occur when the superior power influences the weaker powers. For example, the devil could cause permanent transformation of nature only when permission is granted by God.
There are those scholars who postulate that witchcraft and magic do not exist. Others argue that there is witchcraft although its influence and effect on nature exists in the mind. In addition, there are postulations that although magic may be imaginary the cooperation between the witch and devil is real (Kieckhefer 20).
The three postulations have been nullified in the Malleus Maleficarum as none of them adequately explains the effects of the devil and witches. According to Thomas S., witchcraft exists and it is a sacrilege to argue that there are no witches. However, transformation of nature by demons and witches is only possible if permission is granted by God. Notably, it is wrong to postulate that effects of witches are imaginary.
Devils have power over men and can transform them if God permits. According to Malleus Maleficarum, angels who fell from heaven became devils and were more powerful than human beings. Witches are defined as women who try to behave like these devils and win more people to their religion (Kieckhefer 12).
The belief that the effects of witchcraft can only be presented mentally was also misplaced and its application led to false persecution of people. For example, there are women who were branded as witches simply because they confessed having a strange illusion. According to the Canon law, witches were supposed to be killed as stated in the Holy Scriptures.
Malleus Maleficarum has been associated with death and suffering of many people based on social structure. The book encouraged hunting of witches and in the process innocent people were killed. It should, however, be noted that Malleus Maleficarum also had positive impact especially on women.
Witch branding was more specific and there were more investigations than judgments after Malleus Maleficarum was introduced. There are arguments that the historical book was discriminative as women were the only victims. Moreover, the method used to suspect and brand witches was not fair. Witch hunting was the only way to cleanse the society off evil and prevent spread of crime to male gender (Ankarloo and Clark 17).
The scientific field was regarded as being sacrilegious in the middle age. The historical book used the information that was well known to enable people cope and understand nature. Malleus Maleficarum tried to unite people by eradicating witchcraft in the society in the best way possible.
Although Christians differed with the analogy of witchcraft, the effect of Malleus Maleficarum was intensive and penetrated all levels. It should be noted that, before the Bible, Malleus Maleficarum guidelines were universally used to save people from evil (Broedel 16).
Women Victimization and Affirmation
There are different approaches that have been used to comprehend the nature of witchcraft. The female gender has been associated with a higher incidence of witchcraft as compared to the male gender. The Malleus Maleficarum compares a woman, tongue and Ecclesiastes as they commonly reach extremity.
When a woman is holy and righteous she is known for the best virtue and when she becomes evil her wickedness is extreme. A woman is described as evil that can never be avoided by the society. Women are portrayed as being naive and are easily tricked by the devil into witchcraft.
Moreover, women are easily influenced by spirits than men thus are easily converted into witchcraft and superstitions (Kieckhefer 18). In addition, women are portrayed as gossipers and, therefore, spread evil to fellow women at a higher rate than male gender. There are postulations that the subordinate role assigned to female gender renders women vulnerable to witchcraft and superstitions. Society victimizes women and they shield themselves with witchcraft.
There are perceptions that women are less intellectual than men are and are thus likely to fall into witchcraft. For example, according to Malleus Maleficarum, only one woman could comprehend philosophy. Furthermore, the first woman was formed from a bent rib, which shows that women are imperfect and cunning. Women are described as being weak in faith and easy trusting, traits that are required in witchcraft (Ankarloo and Clark 11).
There are allegations that the women who were weak and intellectually challenged by men saw witchcraft as the only means of vengeance. Women are associated with poor memory and most married men said that their wives were the cause of their sorrow. Women who practiced witchcraft had their love converted to hatred and by all means sought vengeance.
The voice of a woman is said to be deceitful, as she does not mean what she says. Most of kingdoms have suffered due to women wickedness. For example, wicked Jezebel was cursed due to her wickedness and led to destruction of Jews. Women are also known to go to extremity to get what they desire.
For example, women dress and adorn themselves to capture the attention of men. According to Malleus Maleficarum unsatisfied sexual desires that are more pronounced among women are the root causes for witchcraft and superstitions. It should be noted that witches are more likely to be infidel, ambitious and sexually unsatisfied. Since women were most likely to be involved in witchcraft as compared to men, Malleus Maleficarum aimed to reduce the majority (Broedel 27).
Despite the wickedness that is associated with women, there are instances where they are praised in the Malleus Maleficarum. When the naive nature of a woman is not corrupted by witchcraft, then she will be holy and righteous. For example, God appointed Mary to be the mother of Jesus Christ because she was righteous.
Women innocence is greatly valued as virgins are seen as being pure and not evil. Sex was sacred and adultery was punished by death. Women accused of having sexual relations with the devil were branded as witches and killed (Kieckhefer 22). On the other hand, those who valued their purity were greatly rewarded.
Women, Satan and God
According to varied arguments, witches work in conjunction with devil and it is impossible for them to cause harm on human beings without cooperation. The Malleus Maleficarum uses various approaches to determine whether harm can be a sole responsibility. The analogy of Job in the Bible has been used to show how devil inflicted suffering on him in absence of a witch but with permission of God (Ankarloo and Clark 21).
The superior power of the devil must not consult the inferior power of the witch before any action. Consequently, inferior power only consults superior power when the task is beyond its ability. Christians dismiss the idea of existence of any power that can transform nature permanently. The Malleus Maleficarum states that permanent transformation can only be done in accordance to the will of God.
The devil does not need the witches to complete his mission but rather uses them and in the end destroys them. According to this perception, witches are used involuntarily by the devil and should not be punished for actions that are beyond their control. On the contrary, there are arguments that evil is voluntary and should not be seen as a responsibility. For example, a person rapes for pleasure and not obedience to some power. Witches should be punished because they find pleasure in evil deeds (Stewart 8).
Since the devil is in a spirit form, he requires witches to get in contact with humans. It is impossible for the devil to cause harm or cause permanent transformation without any intervention by witches. There are arguments that transformation can be realized by power of imagination and not necessarily by body contact. For example, a person is not likely to sit on a broken chair simply because he imagines the possibility of falling.
Transformation in this case is not caused by body contact but by invisible power of imagination. Malleus Maleficarum argues that magic should not be associated with evil powers simply because we are not aware of how the effect of transformation is realized (Broedel and Hans 23).
Conclusion
Malleus Maleficarum played a great role in eradication of witchcraft in the middle age. Women have been prejudiced and affirmed in this literature. Scholars and psychologists have different perceptions in regard to Malleus Maleficarum. There are those who criticize the book for being responsible for deaths of many innocent people in the middle age while others appreciate its efforts.
Historians should appreciate the efforts of Malleus Maleficarum in eradicating witchcraft. The guidelines could not be perfect to ensure that no innocent soul was lost during the witch hunting exercise. The approach was directed to women because they were the majority, and this should not be seen as discrimination.
Works Cited
Ankarloo, Bernard, and Stuart Clark. Witchcraft and Magic in Europe in the Middle Ages. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 2002. Print.
Broedel, Peter. The Malleus Maleficarum and the Construction of Witchcraft: Theology and Popular Belief. Manchester: Manchester University. Press. 2004. Print.
Kieckhefer, Richard. Magic in the Middle Ages. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 2000. Print.
Stewart, Maxwell. Witchcraft in Europe and the New World. New York: Palgrave publishers. 2001. Print.
For most of us, time is an organizing principle that comes into play in our daily lives. Time can be measured by standard intervals such as seconds, minutes, and hours (Reichenbach 24). In the past, present, and the future, events are noted or remembered based on the time of their occurrence. For centuries, scholars have been studying the aspects of time with the aim of incorporating its notion into respective measuring systems. In history, questions related to time have been thorny issues for most scientists and scholars. Ancient Greek studies reveal that Greek primeval philosophers focused a lot of their time analyzing the concepts of eternity, religion and time. At one time, Angelus Silesius, a Greek philosopher, believed that time could be suspended with the help of mental powers. This paper focuses on the perspectives of time in the following books Cat’s Eye by Margaret Atwood, Mrs Dalloway by Virginia Woolf, The Time and the Conways by JB Priestley, and The Dragon by Ray Bradbury.
At approximately 3500 B.C., it is alleged that the Sumerians had developed calendars. Historians believe that the Sumerians were the first human beings to develop calendars. Sumerian calendars consisted of twelve months. Each of these months comprised of thirty days. By 2600 B.C., the Egyptians had developed solar-based calendars (Wells & Patrick 12). Egyptians calendar comprised of 365 days. According to this calendar, a year commenced with the appearance of the Sirius star in the sky. The appearance of this star coincided with the flooding of River Nile. It should be noted that during the ancient time each society developed their own calendar based on their own understanding of the universe. As such, the number of days making up a week varied from one society to another and from one region to the other. The current 7-day week was adopted during the A.D. 200.
Perspective of time from the book Cat’s Eye by Margaret Atwood
In her book Cat’s Eye, Atwood describes time as a dimension rather than a line (Atwood 1). From relativity theory, human beings can travel forth and back in time with the help of time machines. Using this concept, in his book, Atman personifies a character by the name Elaine. Elaine returns to her native city after 50 years. When she returns, the author notes, “In the city, she was impressed by the changes that had taken place since she was away” (Atwood 23). By taking the readers back in time through the character’s events and thoughts, Atwood was invoking the features of time that can be exploited by human beings through time travelling machines. Based on this, it is apparent that the author believes in the relativity theory.
In the book, the author portrayed a terrifying scenario where time is noted by demonstration of paper pumpkins and tulips (Atwood 34). From the scenario, the future was marked by feminine mysteries. Through this scenario, the author was illustrating the evolution of knowledge of time in the human history. During the ancient times, our ancestors relied on physical natural features such as the stars, sun, and the moon for their daily time keeping (Wells & Patrick 2). During these eras, the position of the heavenly bodies could be interpreted to tell the time of the day or year. For instance, our ancestors knew that it was daytime when the sun was directly positioned over their heads. On the other hand, they knew that it was nigh time when the sun disappeared in the west. Equally, our ancestors determined seasonal time by noting the moon cycles and the positions of the sun in the sky. As time passed by, our ancestors were capable to forecast time and seasons with accuracy. Over time, knowledge of time evolved leading to the development of the current calendars and the current time measuring tools.
Equally, Atwood suggests that if human beings can curve space they can also curve time. From the theory of relativity, he postulates that if humanity had super genius brains they could develop time machines that could enable them to travel faster than the speed of light. According to Atwood, these machines can enable us to travel forth and back in time. Through this concept, we can be able to exist in more than two places at a time. In the book, Atwood suggests that his brother who always wore a maroon sweater and spent a lot of time standing on his head inspired his thoughts about time. When Atwood inquired him for the reasons behind his behaviour, his brother informed him that his acts were meant to trigger a lot of blood into his brain for nourishment. Through this inquiry, his brother movement away from the vagueness of words inspired him.
In the book, Atwood describes time as possessing shape. To him, time was like an object he could visualize. He describes this object as a series of liquid transparencies lying on top of each other. Through this description, he postulated that an individual could not look back the length of water but rather down through it (Atwood 2). Based on the experiences covered in this book, it is apparent that Atwood perceived time to be an important facet in our lives. By taking the readers back and forth in time the lives of the characters in his book, he managed to illustrate the fictional thought of travelling in time postulated by most fictional writers and scientist during the 20th century.
Perspective of time from Mrs Dalloway by Virginia Woolf
In this book, Woolf exposes the viewpoint on time that every individual should portray in his or her lives. According to her, if human beings could learn to live in their present lives and acknowledge it, we could be able to improve our present and the future lives. This implies that human beings have control over their present and their future time. In her book, Woolf acknowledges, “Human beings from ancient time have been fascinated by the facets of time” (Woolf & Francine 7). As such, she points out that earlier scholars of ancient Greek and Hebrew have been attempting to answer how human beings can adapt to survive longer than their usual lifetime. Through this, we learn that even our ancestors acknowledged that human being’s lifetime was short-lived, and that when compared with objects moving faster than the speed of light in the universe our lifetime is a flicker.
Through this book, we learn that human beings are consumers of time. For instance, time allows us to plan and guide our lives. In this regard, human activities are always bound by periods. For example, when a child is born, time will dictate when he or she will attend kindergarten school, primary school, high school, and higher learning institutions. Through this concept, we can deduce that human beings have the capabilities to be aware of the aspects of time. By analyzing the author’s writing style in this book, one will realize that she has most often used clocks to express her philosophical thoughts about time. Through her unique writing style, Woolf introduces the readers about the existence of mental time. The author believes that there exist two types of times. These types are the formal time and the mental time. The formal time is the usual time that we perceive from the positions of the sun and other heavenly bodies. On the other hand, mental time exists in our brains. Through the mental time, human beings can travel forth and back in time. The author through several illustrations emphasized that through dreams and thoughts people can go forth or back in time. Through the life of a persona named Clarissa, the author illustrates lifetime experiences of a person in a single day. This was possible by illustrating Clarissa’s events who through her mental time illustrated for the readers her past, present, and the future in a single day.
Throughout her book, Woolf emphasizes that time exists in distinct forms. These forms are time representation in the external world and time representation in the mental world. Her illustrations on loud and rushing civilization implies that our hopes to advance have made humans to continuously strive to progress in their daily activities. According to the author, the desire to progress has made us forget to appreciate the present moment. Just like Atwood, Virginia upholds time as a special facet of human life.
Perspective of time from the book The Time and the Conways by Priestley
J.W. Priestley wrote this play in the year 1937. In the play, Priestley focuses on the theory of time highlighting on its several concepts (Priestley 1). Throughout this play are several dramatic representations of the precariousness of the present, past and the future moments. All these aspects of time have been embodied through the characters employed by the authors in the play. During the year 1919, In the Conway Family house, Kay’s birthday was being celebrated. Her celebration came soon after the World War I ended. At the beginning of the play, the family is looking forward for a brighter future. However, in a twist of events the author introduces the readers into the glimpse of the family’s future. As such, the family’s future has not played out as expected by everyone in the family. For instance, all the families hope for a prosperous future turns sour in a twist of time. Through this episode, the author illustrated the contemporary aspects of time. Usually, human beings hope and dream of a prosperous future. However, these dreams are not always fulfilled as the time unfolds. Therefore, through this episode, we learn a very crucial aspect of time. We learn that the events of the future are often undetermined. From this episode, the author emphasizes on the need for human beings to appreciate their present time and stop worrying about the uncertainties of the future, as we have little control over their outputs.
Towards the end of this play, Priestley extraordinarily manipulates time by subverting the narrative. Through these stylistic devices, the author manages to take the audience and the readers back in time when the Conway Family planted seeds for a prosperous future. In the play, readers and audience should realize that the author employed the Dunne’s theories of time in his writings. As illustrated in the play, all aspects of time can take place at one instance. For instance, the author claims, “Human beings have the capability to traverse all the restrictions set by time” (Priestley 15). This can be achieved through pre-cognitive dreams. In general, Priestley believes that human beings can exist in two parallel states. To uncover these states, human beings have to rethink and reengineer their perspectives on time.
Perspective of time from the book The Dragon by Ray Bradbury
According to the author, the play revolves around individuals who set out on a journey to kill a dragon. The dragon described in the play is a huge terrifying animal with one eye. During their expedition, these individuals charged at the dragon and failed to kill it. Later readers and the audience learn that all the individuals on the failed mission died.
In the play, readers will realize that the terrifying dragon being referred to in this play is the train. Through this fictional story, the author illustrates that changes in time could have enormous repercussions in the future. For instance, technological changes, which occurred in the past have influenced and shaped our lives. During the late 19th century and the early 20th century, advancements in technologies created unique modes of perceiving time and space. Technological inventions such as telephones, wireless telegraph, and X-ray set up the foundation theory of relativity, cubism, and fictional time travelling novels. In science, Isaac Newton and Einstein are considered as the most prominent scholars who contributed to the science of time. Newton postulated how motion changes with time using mathematical equations. On the other hand, Einstein developed the theory of relativity. With the theory of relativity, Einstein proved to the world that time varies with motion. The two inventors’ contributions have influenced our current lives in a greater way.
The two knights described in the book embody our ancient human beings who existed before the industrial revolution. During their time, people used to depend on horses for their land transport. Similarly, these individuals used to believe in the existence of dragons. Therefore, the author through the concept of travelling back and forth in time has introduced train to medieval-time people. These people perceived train to be a huge one-eyed dragon and plan an expedition to kill it. To them the train was living deity. The two knights note, “He eats men travelling alone from our town to the next” (Bradbury 4). In the process of wrestling with the train, the two knights were killed. Through this story, the author introduces one of the most heated debates in metaphysics of travelling back in time. According to metaphysics, Bradbury’s concept of travelling forth and back in time is only possible if human beings could develop a way of curving and looping time. Similarly, through this book Bradbury invoked a controversial theory that asserts that if people travel back in time they can change or influence the occurrence of the present events.
Nature of time and causality in physics
In physics, the conceptual definition and understanding of time play major roles. According to Newtonian physics, time flows at a constant rate. On the other hand, relativity theory opposes Newtonian physics by asserting that time flow at different rates depending on the observer’s point of view (Kaku 12). As compared to Newtonian concepts, relativity theory provides scientists with crucial quantitative elucidations of fundamental aspects of time. Through the understanding of this theory, time has come to be intimately associated with space giving rise to a new analysis in science referred to as space-time studies. Presently, advancements in science have disapproved myths and fictions associated with time. Scientists have come up with concrete evidences that prove that time travel is possible. For instance, if an object travels with a speed higher than the speed of light it speeds ages.
Currently, scientists argue that time and space cannot be separated (Kaku 123). Based on these arguments, time can be incorporated into the fabric of space-time. By doing so, the theories of causality are violated through the generation of time like curves. In scientific studies, the causal theories have been the basis of developing physical theories. Therefore, if human beings are to develop time machines and other related paradoxes they should consider the issues of causality and relativity with caution.
Conclusion
Based on the above analysis, it is apparent that time has been reflected and assessed in history more than any other aspect of life. Over time, most people have ignored time disregarding it as a force or dimension in their lives (Greene 26). The above literatures assert that time is longer for the bored and brief for the most busy. This implies that our perspectives of time vary from one individual to the other. Therefore, if we have to comprehend it we must learn to appreciate the present. Currently, human beings are preoccupied with the need to progress in their lives. Out of this, we have never had time to reflect and appreciate the times of our lives. For instance, out of our hurries we take some of the wonders of the world for granted. We fail to acknowledge the rising of the sun, the changing seasons, the flowing of the rivers, and other physical occurrence in our lives that deserve our inner appreciations. Equally, through the above analysis on time, it should be noted that time has no intrinsic power other than to provide chances for other forces to come into play. Therefore, time can be described as a chronological structure in which things unfold. As such, time happens in the present, past and in the future. Hours, days, weeks, and years are just but instants arriving from the future and fading into the pasts. Unless we appreciate the aspects of time in our lives, time will always deny us the realities of our present lives (Greene 45). To some, time accelerates and to some it decelerates. However, in reality time has always moved at a constant rate.
In conclusion, human should acknowledge and treat time as a very important aspect of their lives. They should learn to accept the fact that their existence is short-lived. Through this, they should appreciate time in its present form. Given the fact that time influences our thoughts and actions, we should put every effort to be aware of these effects in our lives.
Works Cited
Atwood, Margaret. Cat’s eye. New York: Doubleday, 1988. Print.
Bradbury, Ray. The dragon. Special limited ed. Round Top, N.Y.: B. Munster, 1988. Print.
Greene, B.. The fabric of the cosmos: space, time, and the texture of reality. New York: A.A. Knopf, 2004. Print.
Kaku, Michio. Physics of the impossible: a scientific exploration into the world of phasers , force fields, teleportation, and time travel. New York: Doubleday, 2008. Print.
Priestley, J. B.. Time and the Conways and other plays. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, Eng.: Penguin Books, 2001. Print.
Reichenbach, Hans. The philosophy of space & time. New York: Dover Publications, 2004. Print.
Wells, H. G., and Patrick Parrinder. The time machine. London, England: Penguin Books, 2005. Print.
Woolf, Virginia, and Francine Prose. The Mrs. Dalloway reader. Orlando: Harcourt, 2003. Print.
Suzanne Rahn, in her article “An Evolving Past: The Story of Historical Fiction and Nonfiction for Children” of 1991, described how the historical fantasy novels proved to be so essential in the historical years. Despite the success experienced by the fiction writers in historical years before World War II, Rahn in her article explored the failures of English writers regarding the fiction novel. However, due to high demand of the fiction books by children, current English writers have embarked in fiction writing with reference to the historical fiction novel.
Main Body
In her article, Rahn portrayed the efforts inputted in reconstructing the past. For instance, she explained on how Scott attracted the attention of young children by writing historical fiction novels. In addition, according to Rahn, Scott ensured that he had advocated historical aspects by writing non-fiction novels such as “Kidnapped” with the goal of presenting the real people, real events, and consequences that young children experienced in the past while struggling for their rights.
Rahn in her article also outlined the role of women in regenerating the past. She expressed on how women crossbred the past and the present through feeding young individuals with stories. According to Rahn, through the stories told to the young children by the old women, the children ended up intermingling the past cultures and forces with the current cultures of the world.
Rahn also used symbolism to express her views about the historical novels. For instance, in the novel “The Time Machine” by Well, the travelling of the children to the past according to Rahn symbolized the quest for civilization anticipated by the writer through the children to overcome experienced cruelty and oppressions. However, Rahn in her article warned young children against the spirit of adventure. She related the death of many young children to the quest of adventure during historical world.
According to Rahn, “Grandfather’s Chair” a title for Hawthorne’s novel was also symbolic. Rahn argued that through the topic “Grandfather’s Chair”, Hawthorne succeeded in making young children develop a sense of belonging and desire for heritage. At the same time, Rahn argued that the Hawthorne, in writing his novel, fixed fiction and non-fiction with the aim of attracting the attention of young children into loving his piece of writing.
According to Rahn, some of the historical novels expressed some vital roles played by young children. For instance, she outlined the theme of survival in her study of Harriet’s novel. She supported her point by explaining the responsive roles played by young children left as orphans.
Rahn also viewed the past historical stories used as baits in involving children into participating in some community responsibilities. For instance, she explained on how young girls participated in revolution wars in the past.
To capture the attention of young children, Rahn argued that most of the historical writers such as Yonge and Scott wrote romantic stories, which they knew to be loved by young children. According to Rahn, the audiences of most historical writers were young children, and historical writers could do anything to capture their attention.
Some of the historic novels also aimed at recruiting young children into army indirectly. For instance, Rahn argued that Henty wrote a historical novel with the intention of acquainting young boys with military personality. She later explained on how Henty became jovial after succeeding in coaxing young children into military.
Rahn argues that some of the historical writers chose to reflect most of their writing to children with the intention of correcting the past through introducing some values of the past through their writing to young children. Most of the writers also used pictures to help children create imaginations of the past to revise instead of rejecting it.
2. Kidnapped is a historic fiction novel written by a Scottish writer, Stevenson. Just as Rahn reflected in her article, it was written in 18th century to young boys with the aim of passing information about the historical and political situation of Scotland. The novel is all about a young boy, a stylistic device used by the author to capture the attention of young children. The novel reflects on how helpless David at the age of 13 managed to escape and came into contact with Alan in the ship, showing the children responsibility in rescuing themselves from the past, theme portrayed by Rahn in her article as demand for civilization.
The novel supports Rahn’s views on how children undergo troubling situation in fighting for their lives. The novel further reflects on how David ended his captivity on the ship by stumbling together with Alan into new adventures, supporting the views of Rahn about the orphans’ problems in the historic times. Surprisingly, David was running away from the police because of the accusation of murder by his uncle.
Conclusion
On the other hand, many of the escapades that David encountered were well caused by his naivety and too much confidence. For instance, David walks into his uncle’s home with the courage that he can handle him only to end up in a trap, a situation explained by Rahn as quest for adventure of children in intermingling the past and the present. In the sea, David also risked his life; he shipwrecked almost losing his life.
Works cited
Girouard, Mark. The Return to Camelot: Chivalry and the English Gentleman. New Haven: Yale UP, 1981. Print.
Marryat, Frederick. The Settlers in Canada. 1844 rpt. London: J.M Dent, 1909. Print.