Gender inequality indicators measure quantifiable aspects of biases against women or men in general. However different studies have revealed that it is women who suffer the most from gender discrimination (Adejugbe and Adejugbe 1). There are several indications showing womens continued struggle with inequality. Firstly, low pay for women workers in an occupation that requires a similar skill set as those of their male counterparts is an indicator of inequality in workplaces (Adejugbe and Adejugbe 7). For instance, it is more demeaning for a man employed in low-skilled production occupations to receive higher earnings than his wife who works in domestic service. Secondly, in many institutions, few women are in positions of influence and this leaves them out of decision-making in corporate organizations (Adejugbe and Adejugbe 10). The two examples are a replica of the inequalities that women are subjected to in all spheres of life.
Even with great achievements that have been made towards eradicating gender discrimination, womens rights remain a sensitive issue across all world nations. The following specific examples show womens inequality and how the disparity is manifested. Limited access to education is a good illustration of how some specific groups in some nations are opposed to educating a girl child. With no chance of learning, some women view motherhood as the only chance of survival (Collins 59). Secondly, discriminatory divorce rights place the burden of parenting on women. Divorced women face the challenge of coping with the incessant demands of their children (Collins 63). Unequal legal rights are also a particular example of how women can be susceptible to violence such as sexual harassment. A former domestic worker in the US recalls that her male master tried to forcefully kiss her and when her husband confronted the man, the master ends up slapping the husband and having him arrested (Collins 54). Undeniably, female rights are compromised because they lack substantive knowledge of their fundamental human rights.
Since women are constantly confronted with denial of their rights, there is a positive change in the general perspective of gender equality. The tragedy is that despite the recorded transformations toward establishing gender fairness, there are a lot of contradictions that can be witnessed. Foremost, regardless of the political scene experiencing an increased number of female leaders such as the UKs Thatcher, Libyas Johnson, Philippines Aroyo, and others, many women continue to oppose other women when it comes to leadership quests. Another intriguing contradiction is that women do not pursue gender equality as a collective responsibility yet they speak of wanting to achieve equality as a unified entity. To illustrate, seven women join Victorias Secret, a bra and lingerie company as a marketing team, yet the company has only a single position for a female board member (Maheshwari and Friedman, 2). Therefore, for women to realize their struggles toward gender equity, they must support one another.
The TV series Vampire Diaries is indeed a feminist show. In essence, the discussion of how the series elevates women to the same level as men is pegged on the behavior of the female lead character, Elena Gilbert. As a woman, she oscillates between her strengths and weaknesses yet is willing to sacrifice everything for the sake of her loved ones. The playwright was deconstructing the characteristic of strong will that is always associated with masculinity (Pyke and Johnson, 35). Again, the choice of a nineteen-year-old female who to some extent may appear broken and weak as a result of her parents death shows that the playwright wanted to show that masculinity was overrated (Pyke and Johnson, 35). The TV series also explores the struggles that Elena had to undergo, through falling in love with vampire Stefan and later on, Damon, who is Stefans brother. The kind of love triangle explained in the series through Elena, Stefan, and Damon depicts Elenas weaknesses as well. Most assuredly, the TV series propagates feminism in a clearer manner that makes Elena an endeared female character, who can wade through the challenges to reach her destiny.
A series such as Vampire Diaries is a play that has a lot of gendered messages that have great effects on both men and women. Through the TV series, men learn that women too can create a following that can instigate rebellion against an establishment such as a government. Lillian Salvatore, the mother of Damon and Stefan, rejects her biological sons and goes on to create a family on her own. Along with other non-conformists, they form a large army and take over Mystic Falls. In brief, the playwright is depicting women as revolutionary, a character that is too often associated with men. Furthermore, the movie imparts to men the knowledge that women are traditionally dependent on men despite the weaknesses that the latter may exhibit. At first, Elena starts as an independent character but later on, she is consumed by her lust and love for Damon. Moreover, erotic love between men and women is shown to thrive irrespective of either genders character. Vampire Diaries is a TV show that refines the perspectives of both genders towards each other.
Works Cited
Adejugbe, Adeyinka, and Adedolapo Adejugbe. Women and Disparity in the Place of Work: A Nigerian Slant. SSRN African Law E-Journal, 2018, pp.1-31. Web.
Collins, Patricia. Work, Family, and Black Womens Oppression. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment, Routledge, 2009, pp.51-75.
Maheshwari, Sapna, and Vanessa Friedman. Victorias Secret Swaps Angels for What Women Want. Will They Buy It? The New York Times, 2021, pp. 1-7.
Feminist theory in sociology shifts the emphasis from men to women and from social structure to the lived experiences of individuals. Feminist philosophy provides insight into issues frequently overlooked within the prism of modern society. It advocates for equality and justice by analyzing society and revealing the social mechanisms that perpetuate discrimination and injustice. Focusing on historically disadvantaged female interactions and societal experiences, this school of thought aims to include the global population in discussions of social forces, relations, and challenges (Duran, 2018). This approach has established a novel and inclusive social theory that focuses on womens experiences in place of the traditional assumption that social actors are always males. It is progressive and inclusive because it considers the connections between oppression and injustice.
Feminist studies showed that gender inequality is fundamental to the institution of the family. Several of these academics were hesitant to talk about the family since they recognize that the perspectives of men and women may vary greatly. Feminists demonstrated that if the home arena is the starting point for developing gendered differences, then it is where those gender roles are formed unequally, with males in the dominating position (Cohen, 2015). The family is simply one location of gender inequality, but its dynamics are crucial for understanding how gender plays out in other institutional arenas.
The feminist philosophy offers an analytical framework for thinking about the conditions in which women find themselves. Cultural feminists say that men and women have different worldviews because of gender norms connected with femininity and masculinity (Duran, 2018). Some theorists believe that the sex gap may be better explained by the historical and cultural division of labor between the sexes than by any inherent biological distinctions. Those who adhere to existential and phenomenological perspectives assert that women are undervalued and labeled as other in patriarchal societies. Theorists contend that there is a dynamic interplay between how girls and boys are socialized into notions of masculinity and femininity.
Some feminists believe that women are treated unfairly because their social experiences and roles are inherently different from those of men. Women are as capable as males of moral thinking and agency, according to liberal feminists. Nevertheless, patriarchy, particularly the gendered division of labor, has always prevented women from putting this logic into effect (Honig, 2021). Women are discouraged from running for office because of these factors. Liberal feminists argue for the difficulty of women within the spectrum of marriage as they are covering the most essential roles in the family setting while men abstain from sharing such responsibility (McCann et al., 2021). Additionally, some investigations argue that married women endure greater stress levels than unmarried women and married males (McCann et al., 2021). In order to achieve marriage equality for women, conventional gender norms must be modified in both the public and private spheres.
Those who adhere to the notion of gender oppression tend to believe that women are not just treated unfairly by men but are actively oppressed by them. The topic of gender and diversity is irrelevant here. Whether one subscribes to psychoanalytic feminism or radical feminism, the concept of power as a central component in ender oppression is central to both (Duran, 2018). Honig (2021), in his research, suggests that psychoanalytic feminists reformulate Sigmund Freuds theories of psychology to explain the differences in authority between men and women. They contend that the origins and maintenance of patriarchy are mysteries that cannot be reduced to logic and reason. A fundamental tenet of radical feminism is that a patriarchal societys intrinsic bias against women obscures the inherent goodness of being a woman. People of the female sex may defeat patriarchy if they recognize their inherent value and power. Collaboration in the form of sisterhoods of trust critically questions oppression and organizes in ways that prioritize womens independence.
Patriarchy, capitalism, and racism are said to be to blame for the subjugation and unequal treatment of women, according to structural oppression theories. The working class is exploited under capitalism, and socialist feminists agree with Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels on this point. However, they want to broaden the scope of their exploitation to demonstrate the interconnectedness of class and gender (McCann et al., 2021). Intersectionality theories suggest that oppression and inequality may be segmented along socioeconomic status, gender, race, ethnicity, location, and age (McCann et al., 2021). Women of color and other oppressed groups are also targets of similar discrimination. Women are subjected to systematic oppression in which they are paid less than men for doing the same work. Intersectional analysis shows that women of color and men of color face significant economic disadvantages compared to white men.
Many contemporary societal conventions, feminism argues, are harmful to women because they are skewed toward men. So, they aim to alter adverse generalizations about females. Feminism encompasses any efforts to eradicate gender inequality and male dominance in society. In popular culture, women are often relegated to subordinate and non-social positions like housekeepers, shoppers, and care providers. This is where women generally face discrimination and lower pay compared to other traditionally male-dominated industries. Once a woman joins the workforce, she may discover that her contributions are not recognized or compensated. It is unfair that women have to do more of the heavy lifting alone to reach the top of their field or in politics. Redistributing power is crucial today, and no one will argue otherwise. Mens perspectives mostly shape beliefs on the value of full-time work, and it is widely held that males are more competent than women in particular occupations and public life.
The gender gap is not limited to male-dominated mining and urban labor; it also exists in the female-dominated fields of garment manufacturing and primary education. It is vital to highlight that gender roles and relationships are not hardwired but rather the product of historical and ongoing social construction. As a result of these shifts, girls aspirations may have broadened. Since completing college and being successful in a career are now seen as more attainable objectives, young women may be more motivated to study. For instance, discriminating against employees because of their gender is illegal according to the Sex Discrimination Act of 1975.
In conclusion, feminist theories demonstrated various points of differentiation of gender roles in sociology. This could be seen in the gendered nature of home environments, working institutions, social roles, and perception of reality. The theory allows one to comprehend and expand upon existing schools of thought, such as Marxs theory of power distribution which could be further developed via gender perspective. As a result, numerous approaches should be followed in the legislative and educational settings that may contribute to the equality of society on all levels.
References
Cohen, P. N. (2015) The family: Diversity, inequality and social change. Norton & Co.
Nowadays, it is often suggested that Artemisia Gentileschi (1593- 1656) should be deemed the actual forerunner of feminism in the West and there is indeed much rationale behind such a point of view. After all, Gentileschi was the first female artist/painter who succeeded in attaining a cult-status in Europe for the first time in history. Also, there is the undeniable motif of womens liberation (although achieved through violence) in many of her artistic works. However, there is also a certain ambiguity as to what accounts for the visual representations of this motif in Gentileschis paintings, as well as to what caused her to become an integral part of the modern discourse of feminism. My paper aims to fill the discursive gap, in this respect.
Analysis
Biographical Sketch
Artemisia Gentileschi was born in Rome to the family of the well-established artist Orazio Gentileschi, who at the time was considered the most talented disciple of Michelangelo da Caravaggio the founder of the realist tradition in visual art. Throughout her young years, Gentileschi used to help Orazio in his studio while learning different painting techniques/skills and coming to the point of being recognized by her father as a thoroughly competent artist of its own.
Consequently, this prompted Orazio to introduce Artemisia to Agostino Tassi (Romes yet another popular painter, specialized in reproducing landscapes) so that he could teach her how to ensure the perspectival integrity of the painting. The developments ultimate consequence, however, proved strongly counterproductive to the young female artists well-being. In 1612, she was raped by Tassi the experience that never ceased to affect Gentileschis existential attitudes throughout her life. What contributed even further, in this respect, is that following the incident, Gentileschi experienced several different humiliations while testifying against Tassi during the trial and also the fact that her offender managed to avoid being punished.
Even though Gentileschi was strong enough to remain herself after the rape, it can be presupposed that this event contributed to her feminist views. The artist did not surrender to the circumstances and became even more determined to share her existential views through her paintings. As Tassi was not sentenced, Artemisia acknowledged the strength of mens power and the weakness of women who were deprived in comparison to them. Of course, this experience affected her worldview and future works.
In 1613, Gentileschi married a Florentine painter Pierantonio Stiattesi and moved to live with him in Florence, which seems to be not a feminist action at all, as she accepted the dominance of a man. In this way, she did not emphasize her rights and independence; she became influenced by her spouses will. However, this experience was critical for her future because at this time she was able to establish herself as an utterly popular and highly paid artist, specialized in visualizing biblical fables and favored by the rich and powerful aristocrats, such as the Grand Duke/Duchess of Tuscany and Cosimo II de Medici. It was throughout the Florentine period of her life that Gentileschi produced the painting Judith Beheading Holofernes the most famous of her artistic masterpieces.
It is difficult to discuss the way Artemisia was influenced by her marriage to Pierantonio because it was formal. Even though she was not willing to be engaged in this relationship, such a step was necessary due to the cultural conventions of the time mandated middle-aged women to be married. Artemisia yielded to society because she realized that she could be a valued artist only if she fits it perfectly. Still, it did not take too long for her to become strongly frustrated with marriage the development followed by the artists relocation back to Rome in 1620, which emphasized the dominance of her personal views over cultural ones. While staying in the Eternal City for the next ten years of her life, Gentileschi produced close to two hundred biblical paintings, among which the most well-known are Lucretia and Judith and Her Maidservant with the Head of Holofernes.
In 1630, Gentileschi relocated to Naples. By this time, she attained the fame of one of Europes cult-artists owning her paintings used to be considered a statement of good taste, on the part of just about any Italian, French or Spanish aristocrat of the era. This achievement allowed Artemisia was influencing masses. Her works spread feminist insight through countries because they could be seen by many influential people. In this way, she also managed to establish herself as a master, proving that women had great potential and were able to reach achievements that did not concede mens ones. Among the notable artworks produced by Gentileschi while in Naples, can be named Self-Portrait and St. Cecilia.
In 1638, Gentileschi traveled to London to rejoin with her father, who has been working there since 1625 at the court of King Charles. In close collaboration with Orazio, Artemisia decorated the ceiling of the Royal Palace in Greenwich, which made their perceptions by the general public similar, avoiding mens dominance. Following Orazios death in 1639, Artemisia decided to stay in Britain. However, the advent of the English Civil War had forced the artist to move back to Naples. By then, Gentileschis art began to fall out of favor with the representatives of the European social elites causing the artist to begin experiencing material hardships.
The concluding chapter of her life in Naples was marked by the artists works becoming ever more conventional, in the sense of departing from the tradition of graphic realism in art something best illustrated by Gentileschis painting Esther Before Ahasuerus. At this time, she was not afraid to face societys resistance. She was eager to make people understand her desires and beliefs, which affected her works enormously. Artemisia Gentileschi died in Naples at the age of 63, presumably due to the outbreak of the black plague in this city in 1956 (Bohn, 2001).
Feminist Themes/Motifs
As it was mentioned in the Introduction, Artemisia Gentileschi is now commonly regarded as probably the first feminist in the history of Western civilization, even though the artist never positioned herself as the advocate of womens liberation (at least consciously). The reason for this is apparent there are indeed many themes and motifs in Gentileschis paintings that correlate perfectly well with the feminist assumption that women are denied a chance to attain self-actualization as the subjects of patriarchal oppression (Arruzza, 2016).
Specifically, Gentileschis art is consistent with the ideological provisions of feminisms third wave , reflective of its adherents commitment to promoting the idea that there is an irreconcilable cognitive/emotional gap between men and women and the latter has a right to act aggressively towards the former. As Parry and Fullagar (2013) noted, One particular aspect of the third wave (of feminism) has been interpreted in terms of the embodied politics of a generation of women in their twenties or thirties who other feminists claim are informal, grassroots oriented, individualistic, aggressive, radical, and deviant (p. 572). After all, one of the main motifs in this art is that of women exercising authority over the representatives of the strong gender in a graphically violent manner.
The artists painting Judith Beheading Holofernes exemplifies the validity of this statement better than any other:
This painting brings to life the biblical story of Judith beheading the Assyrian general Holofernes hence, revenging for his crimes against the chosen people . Even though the concerned fable has been explored by some Baroque artists before Gentileschi (including Caravaggio himself), she was the first one to succeed in ensuring the extreme lifelikeness of the depicted scene. After all, as one can see above, there is an essentially photographic quality to how the artist went about visualizing the murderous mise-en-scene in question.
The realistically portrayed spurts of blood squirting out of Holofernes neck are especially notable, in this respect. Enough, being thoroughly knowledgeable of human anatomy, Gentileschi must have played the scene in her mind numerous times before coming up with the idea of what would be the best way to represent it on canvas. Given the fact that Judith Beheading Holofernes was created circa 1614, and the fact that the character of Holofernes resembles Tassi, there can be only a few doubts as to the concerned artworks strongly autobiographical sounding.
As Spear (2000) pointed out, Given the artists (Gentileschi) unusual biography, and given the validation by modern psychology of the Aristotelian principle of catharsis, it is surely justifiable to interpret the painting (Judith Decapitating Holofernes), at least on one level, as a cathartic expression of the artists private, land perhaps repressed, rage (p. 669). Thus, this particular painting can indeed be discussed as the extrapolation of Gentileschis unwavering commitment to take revenge on Tassi for having raped her.
This alone provides the artist with much feminist credit . After all, in the 17th century Italy, the criminality of the act of rape used to be only recognized in conjunction with the damaged reputation of a victimized womans family the victims suffering was not something to be taken into consideration in the court of law. And yet, it is clear from the artwork in question that Gentileschi refused to recognize the validity of this male-chauvinistic practice.
Another Gentileschis painting that can be deemed highly supportive of the feminists claim that the artist did belong to their cohort (without realizing it consciously) is Lucretia:
The reason for this is that, contrary to what used the 17th centurys conventions of representing women in the works of art, in this particular masterpiece Gentileschi made a point of ensuring that the depicted character (Christian martyr) radiates a strong aura of masculinity around her.
The fact that this has indeed been the case can be shown regarding the unmistakably manly qualities of Lucretias facial anthropology, such as her prominently protruding chin, and also the fact that the expression on the characters face connotes the sheer strength of her resolve to do what she felt needed to be done something that has traditionally been discussed in terms of a masculine virtue . And, as psychologists are well aware of, feminist-minded women have always been exhibiting a certain tendency to distance themselves from the conventions of femininity , which explains the manlike appearance of many of them.
Some contemporary feminists go as far as suggesting that Lucretia is about exposing the incompatibility between the male yin and female yang . For example, according to Garrard (1989), Gentileschis special expression (in Lucretia) of the theme lies in the juxtaposition of the female breast and the sword. The breast symbolizes female nurture and the ongoing cycle of human nature while the sword represents the phallic agent of death (p. 216). Thus, there were many objective preconditions for Gentileschis art to end up being seen as such that supports the cause of feminism. In the next sub-chapter of this explorative paper, I will outline the most notable aspects of how such a state of affairs came into being.
Gentileschis Influence on Modern Feminism
Even though Gentileschi did enjoy much popularity with art lovers throughout her lifetime, it became a common practice during the 18th and 19th centuries in the West to regard her as a minor artistic figure in the 17th centurys Italy. The situation, in this respect, began to change in the mid-20th century the development marked by the publishing of Anna Bantis novel Artemisia in 1947, which became a bestseller. The concerned novel did not only result in reviving public interest in Gentileschis art, but also in providing feminists with a discursive ground to argue that Artemisia should be regarded as one of their own.
The reason for this had to do with the qualitative subtleties of the novels plot, which in essence is about a female protagonist struggling to reconcile a model of artistic development based on male cultural expectations with her own experience of female social roles that function as barriers to that achievement (Lent, 2006, p. 213). Nevertheless, it was not up until this centurys seventies that the figure of Artemisia Gentileschi became strongly associated with the ideology of feminism. What contributed rather substantially, in this regard, was the 1973 founding of the art studio Artemisia in Chicago by the feminist artist Joy Poe and her female associates.
As Gardner-Huggett (2012) argued, The women who founded Artemisia were no longer willing to comply with their subjugation in the art world and understood that a feminist intervention would be necessary to disarm the masculine power that maintains patriarchal governance structures (p. 56). As of today, this studio is often being referred to as one of the main harbingers of womens liberation in the US during the specified historical period. It must be noted, however, that despite the studios name, neither of its members was willing to work within the realist representational format.
To validate the soundness of this suggestion, we can refer to the expressionist/modernist paintings of Phyllis MacDonald, Barbara Grad, Emily Pinkowski, and Margaret Wharton the studios most prominent affiliates. Thus, it will be appropriate to suggest that, for as long as visual art is concerned, Gentileschis influence on its contemporary feminist extrapolations had to do with helping to legitimize the idea that no rules apply within the context of how a female artist goes about expressing herself whatever ironically it may sound. After all, given the particulars of Gentileschis artistic style, she would likely be taken aback by most emanations of todays feminist art, as such that refer to just about anything but to the idea that women should assume an active stance while fighting for their rights.
Another major contribution to the popularization of Gentileschi as the 17th centurys feminist proved to be the 1989 publication of Mary Garrards book Artemisia Gentileschi: The Image of the Female Hero in Italian Baroque Art. In it, the author went a great length advocating the idea that Gentileschis preoccupation with exploring the theme of female domination over males was objectively predetermined. As Garrard pointed out, When a woman feels her affective life as a woman, or her condition as a social being too brutally ignored by existing discourse and power she may make herself a possessed agent of violence to combat what was experienced as frustration (p. 25). It is understood, of course, that this specific point of view on the significance of Gentileschis artistic legacy did help to establish her in the eyes of contemporaries as someone utterly passionate about the idea of womens liberation from patriarchal oppression. In its turn, this served as a powerful contribution towards sustaining the conceptual legitimacy of the feminist discourse since the early 1990s onwards.
Finally, we can mention the 1998 film Artemisia (based on Bantis novel and directed by Agnes Merlet), which also played an important role in presenting the concerned female artist as a woman with extremely progressive (as for her time) views on the surrounding social reality and womens place in it. In particular, the director made a point of emphasizing the sheer measure of Gentileschis courageousness within the context of how she used to go about exploring her sense of sexuality. At the same time, however, Merlets film ended up being criticized on account of containing although implicit but still easily traceable patriarchal overtones.
According to Lent (2006), Merlets film positions the male artist (Tassi) as the creator, teaching, and awakening the creativity of his female student, literalizing the metaphor of a males artistic creativity flowing like seminal fluid into their female students (p. 215). This serves as yet another indication that, even though there is very little disagreement among the promoters of feminism as to the fact that Gentileschi is indeed nothing short of a feminist heroine, how these individual discuss the artists contribution to the cause of promoting equality between both genders, do vary rather significantly. Partially, this situation can be explained by the continual absence of consensus among different feminist groups in the West on what should be deemed the discursive implications of Gentileschis artistic legacy.
Conclusion
In light of what has been mentioned earlier, there can be only a few doubts that Gentileschi does deserve to be given credit for having contributed to the cause of womens empowerment, which in the 19th century became the conceptual cornerstone of the ideology of feminism. At the same time, however, the obtained insights imply that due to the sectarian divisions within the feminist movement in the West, it is likely that the provided feminist interpretations of the artists legacy will continue to exhibit a certain inconsistency with each other, especially given the fact that Gentileschi never articulated in writing her outlook on the essence of the interrelationship between men and women.
References
Arruzza, C. (2016). Functionalist, determinist, reductionist: Social reproduction feminism and its critics. Science & Society, 80(1), 9-30.
Bohn, B. (2001). Artemisia Gentileschi and the authority of art. Renaissance Quarterly, 54(1), 275-277.
Gardner-Huggett, J. (2012). Artemisia challenges the elders: How a women artists cooperative created a community for feminism and art made by women. Frontiers, 33(2), 55-75.
Garrard, M. Artemisia Gentileschi: The image of the female Hero in Italian Baroque art. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989.
Lent, T. (2006). My heart belongs to daddy : The fictionalization of baroque artists Artemisia Gentileschi in contemporary film and novels. Literature/Film Quarterly, 34(3), 212-218.
Parry, D., & Fullagar, S. (2013). Feminist leisure research in the contemporary era. Journal of Leisure Research, 45(5), 571-582.
Spear, R. (2000). Artemisia Gentileschi: Ten years of fact and fiction. The Art Bulletin, 82(3), 568-579.
The article that is going to be analyzed in the paper at hand is called The Internet Is Full of Jerks, Because the World Is Full of Jerks: What Feminist Theory Teaches Us About the Internet and is written by the feminist scholar Adrienne Shaw. The title is partially self-explanatory: the author of the article speculates upon the increasing sexism and misogyny that currently dominate online spaces, filling it with various forms of hatred and humiliation, as well as the ability of feminist theory to change this situation (Shaw, 2014).
In Shaws view, she is addressing a problem that can no longer be ignored: her primary concern is to restore justice in relation to feminism. Shaws point is that feminist theory is totally ignored by researchers when it comes to studying modern technologies and technological spaces that are initially designed as exclusively male spheres of activity. Shaw cites the common delusion that gender studies have nothing to do with online spaces since otherwise it would mean that men have no gender either (p. 273). She insists that feminism is capability of offering the technology field a critique of generating knowledge even when it is far from being centered on women as the research object. Thus, the major thesis of the article is that feminist theory that has to encounter misogyny, aggravated by cultural norms of Internet communication cannot be ignored in its attempts to give people an opportunity to re-evaluate how to properly use emerging spaces as well as how new spheres shape their existence. According to the author, despite this extreme opposition, feminism is still highly attentive to the way power is distributed in various discourses and therefore can notice and eliminate potential threats connected with the invasion of technologies into peoples lives. She believes that, unlike most theories that involve the study of technologies, feminist theory does not perceive them as naturally good or evil, as they are always analyzed and assessed in terms of production and consumption (Shaw, 2014).
In order to support her thesis, Shaw provides examples that show the ability of feminist theory to make sense of technological implementation without relying on oversimplified beliefs about natural propensities and determinism despite the aggressiveness of the Internet space towards this. She reviews Janet Abbates research on the topic, proving that a male-dominated field of technology was initially considered to be destined for women. However, over the course of time, gender imbalance appeared as coding set the standards and working conditions that excluded everyone who was not white and male from this professional field. Another researcher, to whose work Shaw resorts, is Lisa Nakamura, who investigates racism and sexism as accidental vs. predetermined phenomena existing in the online space. The scholar comes to the conclusion that both racism and sexism can be explained by neither communicative failures nor simple trolling. On the contrary, these attitudes result from the same privilege that helped male users achieve domination in technologies, making them a part of masculine culture.
Having this privilege allows people to be jerks not only keeping anonymity, but also when they can be sure that no consequences will follow. This aggressive position of white, male users makes it possible for them to determine who can participate in Internet discussions and to what extent. Shaw exemplifies this inadequacy using the case of Anita Sarkeesian, who launched a project with the purpose of investigating how women were represented in various video games. Her online activity resulted in numerous death and rape threats, flash games and videos humiliating the woman, acts of vandalism on her Wiki page, and other assaults and attacks, which were highly demonstrative in terms of attitude to feminist theory in the online space. Similar situations occurred each time someone tried to address the issue of race, gender or other types of discrimination on the Internet. Such behavior allows Shaw to infer that the online space is deliberately made hazardous for women in order to exclude them from discourses dominated by men. She provides evidence from a male journalist, who claims that attacks on women are more numerous and violent on the Internet than any threats he received as a male journalist. This made a lot of women discontinue their blogs, websites, or profiles and distance themselves from the online space in their professional activity (Shaw, 2014).
What Shaw tries to prove is that despite its evident advantages, feminist theory cannot be applied in the field of technology as long as such kind of behavior is supported by the overwhelming majority of users. Despite the fact that racism, misogyny, and homophobia did not appear with the age of information, these attitudes get aggravated by the Internet as it encourages all kinds of extreme and intolerant behavior (Shaw, 2014).
Moreover, despite the fact that modern technologies made it possible for a large number of people to participate in culture production (e.g. creating fandoms), this opportunity remains limited for people who are marginalized because of their gender, race, religion, and for other common reasons. This implies that these peoples voices are excluded from the culture formation process. On the contrary, feminist theory teaches people to encourage the activity of minorities in digital production and recognize their contribution to the development of the online space. According to Shaw, feminism makes people re-evaluate the relationships between leaders and outsiders and question the necessity for over-privileging. In addition, the author poses a question regarding surveillance networks violating privacy of online participation by making it hypervisible. In this context, lessons learnt from feminism that promote, among other things, a right for privacy, should be put into practice. This practical usefulness of feminist theory allows Shaw to conclude that it cannot be simply neglected as a valuable perspective on the media world (Shaw, 2014).
The major strength of the article is its evidence-based character: the author provides numerous examples of other studies (including those performed by males) that support her point of view. Moreover, she manages to compare and juxtapose different perspectives, identifying their strong and weak points. Most of the sources that the article quotes are contemporary, which gives the reader an up-to-date picture of the problem and the urgency with which it should be tackled. The author has considerable personal involvement in the issue under discussion, which makes her arguments all the more convincing and credible.
However, despite a number of strengths, the article still has some relative weaknesses. Shaws writing wavers between academic and journalistic styles, which is rather a questionable mixture. Moreover, the author frequently switches from one point to another, leaving the reader perplexed. Shaws unwillingness to follow a logical pattern of argumentation makes it challenging to identify the major thesis of the article and its underlying idea. This difficulty is aggravated by the structure of the text: it is divided into huge paragraphs that contain numerous points instead of developing one at a time.
Thus, it can be concluded that the information provided in the article evokes scientific interest, but could have been presented in a more organized manner.
Reference
Shaw, A. (2014). The Internet is full of jerks, because the world is full of jerks: What feminist theory teaches us about the Internet. Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies, 11(3), 273-277.
In studies on African American women and their experiences in higher educational institutions, as well as faced barriers, researchers usually apply such theories as to the feminist theory, the glass ceiling theory, and the leadership theory. The theoretical framework that appears most frequently in studies than others is the feminist theory, including its different types with a focus on Black feminism and multiracial feminism (Ramos & Yi, 2020; Williams, 2016). This theory needs to be discussed in detail in comparison to other models actively used in research.
The feminist theory was formulated in the late part of the 20th century by a group of researchers interested in studying feminism of the 18-19th century. The ideas of multiracial feminism were later developed by Zinn and Dill in 1996 (Ramos & Yi, 2020). Black feminism became developed in the 1980s regarding the efforts made by Anna Julia Cooper, as well as Crenshaw, who discussed the theory in the study of 1989 (Williams, 2016). The key components of the feminist framework are the following ones: the gender factor, power, and empowerment, class, equality, and inequality, along with sexual objectification (Ramos & Yi, 2020; Whitehead, 2017; Williams, 2016). When applying multiracial and black feminism, the key factors also include race and discrimination.
As it is was stated earlier, the feminist theory is used in studies on African American womens experiences with a focus on Black feminism or multiracial feminism. Thus, Ramos and Yi (2020) referred to multiracial feminism to study the diversity in womens of color experiences related to such factors as racism and sexism in their educational institutions. Whitehead (2017) used a combined framework concerning the leadership, glass ceiling, and Black feminism theories to explain the challenges faced by African American females in educational institutions. Williams (2016) studied barriers faced by African American superintendents about the intersectionality aspect of the feminist theory. Furthermore, Squire and McCann (2018) applied the critical feminist approach to study womens of color experiences regarding participation in doctoral programs. This review of the application of the feminist theory in many studies on related topics helps determine how to leverage this theoretical framework in the current research to examine the barriers of African American women to higher education.
The advantages of applying this theoretical framework to studying the research problem are in possibilities to understand the presence or absence of barriers from the perspective of womens gender or sex. This framework allows for understanding whether African American women face barriers because of their gender, female roles, associated sexism, oppression, and the lack of power in an educational institution (Whitehead, 2017; Williams, 2016). Using this theory, it is possible to study the aspects of gender inequality and gender discrimination by experienced African American young females obtaining higher education.
Potential limitations of applying this theoretical framework to the current research include the impossibility to explain all the aspects of experienced problems and barriers that are not related to race and gender issues. The feminist theory does not cover the aspects that can be explained regarding the glass ceiling theory or the leadership theory. Much attention to Black feminism is paid mostly to the problem of gender inequality and the lack of power in women of color. Therefore, this theory can be supported by other theories, such as the glass ceiling and leadership concepts and models.
References
Ramos, D. M., & Yi, V. (2020). Doctoral women of color coping with racism and sexism in the academy. International Journal of Doctoral Studies, 15, 135-158
Squire, D. D., & McCann, K. (2018). Women of color with critical worldviews constructing spaces of resistance in education doctoral programs. Journal of College Student Development, 59(4), 404-420.
Whitehead, M. (2017). A phenomenological study of the barriers and challenges presented to African-American women in leadership roles at four-year higher education institutions (Publication No. 10269091) [Dissertation, University of Louisiana at Lafayette]. ProQuest Dissertation Publishing.
Williams, K. (2016). The African-American female superintendent: barriers and facilitators to success (Publication No. 10096123) [Dissertation, Capella University]. ProQuest Dissertation Publishing.
Regarding the important issues in the feminism, it is necessary to refer to the term of socialist feminism, to examine the issues of the dualistic typification, beauty ideals and the beauty industry in the context of the feminism. It is also important to suggest some solutions and criteria in order to stabilize newly appeared tense situation around these issues in the modern society.
It is a derivation of feminism that mainly focuses upon certain spheres of life of a woman: the public and private one. Socialist feminism also argues that liberation itself can be achieved only by working to end both the economic and cultural sources of womens oppression (Olsen, 1997).
It might be said that socialist feminism is a dualistic typification theory that extend Marxist feminisms reasons for the role of capitalism in the womens harassment and oppression and radical theory of the feminism in the issues of the genders and the patriarchys role. Here might be also regarded such issues that led to the concept of women or feminine against men or masculine .
Some of the contributors to this movement have criticized common traditional Marxism for not being able to find an inseparable connection between the issues of patriarchy and classism . It is important to point out that Marx and Engels were actually basically silent on gender harassment and oppression except that they subsumed it beneath wider class harassment and oppression.
Marx knew that when oppression connected with the class issue was outdo, gender harassment and oppression would disappear as well. According to socialist feminists, this view of gender oppression as a sub class of class oppression is naive and much of the work of socialist feminists has gone toward separating gender phenomena from class phenomena (Meehan, 2002).
Other socialist feminists, for example such famous American organizations as: Radical Women and also the Freedom Socialist Party, refer to the common classical works of Marx and of Engels, such as Private Property and the State and Origin of the Family .
Also they refer to Woman and Socialism by writer August Bebel. These socialist feminists consider those works a strong explanation of the connection between gender harassment and oppression and the issue of class exploitation.
But from the other point of view the Socialist Party of the United States is a bright example of party of a socialist feminist which is actually not definitely Marxist one, although there are certain members that identify themselves as Marxists. This party has its own statement of principles which says: Socialist feminism confronts the common root of sexism, racism and classism: the determination of a life of oppression or privilege based on accidents of birth or circumstances. Socialist feminism is an inclusive way of creating social change. We value synthesis and cooperation rather than conflict and competition (Ramazanoglu, 2000).
In this context it is necessary to mention the beauty ideals and the beauty industry. Despite achievements made since the time of rise of the movement hold by women, the pressure on females today related to beauty ideals and standards may appear even wider than it was thirty years ago.
It must be outlined that the standards and requirements are not just more hard and difficult to meet, but it should be said that the targets for this kind of pressure are much younger nowadays. It might be regarded as a means of that the beauty industry has explored the profit and benefits to be made from the young girls called tweens , who are just about entering their teenage age.
Following these facts it should be said that the wider availability and circulation of mass media services actually means that the effect and influence of beauty ideals has belled in a geographical as well as in across classes way.
Thus appears a question about the issues that should be done by the feminists in order to improve and stabilize situation. Nowadays they hold campaigns (Such as Dove commercial campaign) aimed to challenge unrealistic and not true images of women in advertising industry. Such campaigns encourage our society to look for a wider definition of what is called beauty . It is also aimed to inspire women to enjoy and to be proud of themselves.
Works Cited
Johnston, Carolyn. Sexual Power: Feminism and the Family in America. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 1992.
Meehan, Eileen R., and Ellen Riordan, eds. Sex & Money: Feminism and Political Economy in the Media. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002.
Olsen, Frances Elisabeth. Feminism in Central and Eastern Europe: Risks and Possibilities of American Engagement. Yale Law Journal 106.7 (1997): 2215-2257.
Ramazanoglu, Caroline. Feminism and the Contradictions of Oppression. London: Routledge, 2000.
Judith Butlers essay has far reaching implications that tend to pose infinite interpretations and questions to the readers. Nevertheless, it is the product of the feminine reaction to globalization and post-modernism and the concepts that she has outlined are obviously chapters to critiques and quests into the diverse levels of analysis.
Of particular interest, I would like to draw the attention of the reader to two pertinent queries and discuss them as far as there is room for complexity of analysis and divergent thinking. First and foremost as Butlers response, Contingent Foundations: Feminism and the Question of Postmodernism, was presented after Benhabibs essay. Although the focus of Butlers essay is the relationship between postmodernism and feminism, she observes herself as the theorist who performs, and the academic context she performs in. The query is Butlers use of the quotes for the word postmodernism. She begins with an inquiry of postmodernism and suggests that the term has been ascribed to her and her writing, Who are these postmodernists? Is this a name that one takes on for oneself, or is it more often a name that one is called if and when one offers a critique of the subject?
She states, several times, that I dont know what postmodernism is but she senses it when she comes across it. Although Butlers performance is a rebuttal to Benhabibs essay, she does not delve into the topic of feminism until the end. She recalls Foucault to ground her theory in and among power systems, and then asserts that Benhabibs conceptualization of feminism is restrictive and paranoid.
The next priority would be to justify the question of relativism v/s universalism. Justice is a cross-cultural discourse and it would not be a futile attempt to search for universalities to overcome the shortcomings of relativism. Cultural relativism does not hold womens rights as universality valid and true. All norms and regulations are solely products of a particular culture and every value is understood only within that particular culture. Cultural relativism otherwise is independent but it cannot be refuted that cultures are also interdependent. Those who belong to the western culture belong to the colonial powers and are part of leveled organization, while the dominant culture in the third world contest gives a rather divergent view of the argument. Cross-cultural dialogue are possible if women from different background experience a consciousness based on commonalities and diversities. Therefore, womens rights activist concentrate on universal human rights. Butler points out that where it seeks recourse to a position hypothetical, counterfactual or imaginary that places itself beyond the play of power, and which seeks to establish the metapolitical basis for a negotiation of power relations. (Butler, Judith. Contingent Foundations: Feminism and the Question of Postmodernism. (Butler and Scott 6). All human interactions are subject to power relation and is impossible to escape power play. The category of the universal has to be relieved of its foundational weight and opened as site of insistent contest and resignification. Butler, Judith. Contingent Foundations: Feminism and the Question of Postmodernism. (Butler and Scott 7). It would be impossible to invoke a political and practical dimension to the truth about what it means to be human, or what it means to be a woman because a particular category is already segregated. The claim to universality will ever remain a challenge.
Works Cited
Butler, Judith., and Scott, Joan W. Feminists Theroize the Political. New York: Routledge, 1992.
The feminist standpoint theory is a politically modeled theory that tends to lean towards social epistemology. The central premise of the feminist standpoint theory is that the people who are subjected to marginalization are more advantaged when it comes to possessing information than those people who are not subjected to marginalization. The concept of marginalization highlights the political nature of this theory, while the theorys focus on the social environment of the marginalized highlights its concern with social epistemology. Proponents of this theory are of the view that gender can be useful when gauging the familiarity of feminist issues. The general belief among standpoint theorists is that the social location of the marginalized individuals puts them in a better position to speak for or against social matters. This paper is a response to standpoint theory and its influence in todays social, philosophical, and scientific circles.
Standpoint theory creates a middle ground for scholars who often argue over the relevance of social values in scientific theories. There are those who feel that feminist standpoint theory tends to lean too much on social values and therefore cannot qualify as a valid scientific theory. Both sides of the divide would concur that the theory brings science closer to sociology and vice versa. However, its minimal application means that most scholars are wary of its ambiguous nature. Most philosophers and theorists would rather delve into a one-sided theory than try to work with an ambiguous one. For this reason, the feminist standpoint theory has been shunned by several members of the academic community, including feminists. The theory enjoyed a brief period of popularity in the 1980s, but since then, the theorys relevance has been on the decline.
The feminist standpoint theory can easily be confused with a feminist view. However, the theory is based on the concept of social location. This implies that social location just happens to be gender and feminist related. Given the biological and psychoanalytic nature of feminist standpoint theory, it can be difficult for women theorists to analyze it. According to the theory, women are likely to sympathize with their projections due to their social location. In addition, it is argued that women have predisposed knowledge of feminism that is not found in men. All these claims are likely to complicate the input of men when it comes to feminism. One can interpret the feminist standpoint theory to mean that men are biologically and psychoanalytically less resourceful when it comes to feminism issues.
According to the feminist standpoint theory, objective knowledge changes depending on the social location of individuals. This sentiment redirects ones attention to the knowledge acquisition process. The proponents of this theory are of the view that the only way human beings acquire knowledge is through their social and material dispositions. This notion is quite misplaced, considering the process of knowledge acquisition depends on many other factors. Feminist standpoint theory seems to limit the process of knowledge acquisition. The capacity to acquire knowledge also differs from one individual to another, depending on several biological, environmental, and psychological factors. It seems erroneous to assume that people in the same social location have similar levels of knowledge. It would be hard to argue for a theory that impacts knowledge while undermining the knowledge-acquisition process at the same time.
When the feminist standpoint theory first came to effect, it received both adoration and criticism in good measure. However, criticism of the theory seems to be on the increase. The reason for this trend is that the proponents of this theory have failed to update the structural foundations that form the standpoint theory. Initially, the theory was accepted as a foundational theory that ushered in a new perspective on feminism. However, as time passes, the proponents of this theory have failed to respond to the criticism that is leveled against this theory in a satisfying manner. If the criticism against this theory goes on unanswered, the theory could potentially slip into oblivion.
One strong point of feminist standpoint theory is that it is able to utilize the insider-outsider concept. Summarized, this concept argues that insiders will always have a certain advantage over outsiders when it comes to information gathering. According to the insider-outsider concept, individuals who are confined to certain situations (insiders) have to gather accurate information that might help them escape their confinement. This concept might act as a blueprint of the feminist standpoint theory. In addition, the concept pinpoints the obvious advantages insiders have over outsiders. Although this concept can be challenged scientifically, its practical application is irrefutable.
Although the scientific standpoint theory does not lean too much on science, its philosophical worth is evident. However, the long-term sustainability of this theory is unpredictable. The theory lacks the necessary foundational or dynamic aspects that make a theory irrefutable. There is a chance that the theory will not survive the current scrutiny from modern theorists and philosophers. The architects and proponents of this theory need to subject it to a re-evaluation and conduct more research on the subject. The theory has proved useful in the past, and with a little improvement, it can reclaim its place in modern science and philosophy.
The incorporation of feminism in such grounds as philosophical and theoretical grounds is what is referred to as the feminist theory. Feminist theory has been incorporated in various works and also a variety of disciplines which include all approaches to the females role and the lives of the feminist issues in psychoanalysis, anthropology, philosophy, feminist literary criticism, economics, gender studies and continental philosophy.
It is important to note that feminist theory is particularly focused on the issues of inequality and politics of gender. It is also concerned with other issues like the relationships of power and sexuality. The field of feminist theory is also greatly concerned with the promotion of the rights of women, their interests and other women issues as well as the issue of gender inequality (Carol; 126; 1988).
In international relations, the feminist theory is very important as it elevates the women to international politics. However, this theory is not fully incorporated into international relations and in many diplomatic negotiations the role of women is greatly undermined. This has brought about resistance from women and they have argued that they have to be treated as equals in all matters that relate to the society especially in the international level. This paper will look into the relevance of the incorporation of the feminist theory into the international relations.
Feminism
Feminism can be defined as the political, philosophical and intellectual discourse that has the objective of protecting the rights and equality of women in social, economical, intellectual, political and cultural issues. Feminism involves various theories, movements and philosophies that are all focused on the issue of the gender difference and these are very vocal in the advocacy of the equality of women and they also promote the rights and interests of women.
Feminism can be historically categorized into three categories which include; the first wave which was experienced in the nineteenth to the early twentieth century. The second wave was experienced in the 1960s and the 1970s while the third wave is being experienced from the 1990s to date. These movements bore the feminist theory through various historical periods. Feminism is manifested in a multitude of fields and they include such disciplines as the feminist literary criticism, feminist history and feminist geography (Tickner; 45; 2001).
The feminism issue has been responsible for altering many predominant perspectives on a wide range of fields around the whole around and especially the western societies and these fields include such things as culture to the law. The activists of feminism have greatly campaigned for the women in various aspects as legally, integrity of the women bodies and also their autonomy, rights to abortion and reproduction, rights to protection, occupational rights and against all other forms of discrimination that can be rooted to gender biasness (Meyers; 185; 1997).
Historically, feminist movements and theories were championed by middle class women who were mostly white and they originated from Western Europe and North America. However, in the modern times the women from other races and spheres of life have joined in advocating for the protection and the promotion of the women rights around the world.
There are new developments to the approach of feminism and this can be attributed to the fact that the women from other regions apart from Western Europe and North America have proposed new forms of feminism and this was greatly influenced Civil Rights Movement of the United States which run in the 1960s, the gaining of independence to various countries in Latin America, South East Asia and Africa. After that, the women from third world countries have proposed Third World Feminism. Some of the postcolonial feminists have criticized the western feminists as being ethnocentric and this is a feeling that is shared by some black feminists all over the world (Monk; 125; 1996).
After the 1980s, feminists who have a standpoint outlook are arguing that the issue of feminism should be related to how the experience of women inequality has been incorporated into such issues as homophobia, racism, colonization and classism. During the late 1980s and the 1990s feminists have argued that the roles of the genders are constructed socially and that generalizing the experiences of women across the histories and cultures is impossible (Carol; 126; 1988).
International relations
International relations can be defined as a representation of foreign affairs study and also the study of the global issues that are accrued to countries and nations at the international level. It involves such things as studying the states roles, also the intergovernmental organizations roles, the roles of the non-governmental organizations and the multinational corporations. International relations can be said to be both an academic field as well as a public policy.
It can either be normative or positive and this is because its objective is to analyze and formulate the foreign policy of the countries around the world. Many experts have asserted that international relations are under the umbrella of the field of political science (Cynthia; 145; 1994).
However, international relations can be said to be incorporated under other fields which are very diverse in nature and they include such disciplines as sociology, philosophy, history, geography, anthropology, economics, psychology, law and cultural studies. There are a lot of issues which are also very diverse that are concerned with international relations and they include such things as state sovereignty, global finance, globalization, ecological sustainability, nationalism, development, economy, terrorism, human rights, human security, nationalism, and foreign interventionism among a contingent of other issues.
Feminism in international relations
Feminism in international relations is a term that is broad and given to the works of the scholars who have attempted to bring gender concerns to the international relations field of study. In the field of international relations, feminism is brought in from a school of though known as reflectionism.
Many scholars have cited Cynthia Enloes books title Bananas, Beaches and Bases, a text that critically examined the role of women in the international politics as the wives of diplomats, plantation workers and military bases sex workers. Most important, the book is that it emphasizes the women to look at their perspective in relation to the international politics and also calls upon the men to look at the position of the women in international politics and reflect on their feeling about the involvement of women in international politics (Kenney; 258; 1997).
However, it would be wrong to think that the feminist international relation was concerned solely on the position of the women in international politics. It is important to note that from the time feminism was incepted, it had a major apprehension with the notion of males and its major focus was the notion of masculinities (Andrew; 59; 1994).
International relations by feminists is always concerned with how international politics are impacted by both sexes and also looks at the major concepts that are applied at the international relations for example in such aspects as security and war and how these aspects are related to gender. Feminist international relations is not entirely focused with the international relations on the traditional level of the states and diplomacy but it has extended with the emphasis of the significance of paying attention to how gender affects the international politics and economy. It is in this respect that there is no clear distinction between the feminists who focus on the international relations and the international political economy (Carol; 126; 1988).
Feminist international relations has emerged during the last two decades of the twentieth century and it is important to note that towards the end of the Cold War and the re-evaluation of the theories that were accrued to the traditional international relations particularly during the 1990s there was the chance of feminists gendering international politics. Feminists in this respect have adopted several methodologies which include deconstructivism which is highly linked to such methodologies as post structuralism and postmodernism.
However, the influence of feministic international relations has been steadily developing and international issues and international policy communities such as the United Nations and the various institutions have had to be more responsive to the requirements of the liberal feminist and how they emphasis on the opportunity equality of the females (Vivienne; 156; 1999).
Relevance of Feministic theory to international relations
Throughout the history, women have been sidelined from the critical issues that have been major concerns to any given society. In almost all societies, women were viewed as not being equal to men and this led to a form of a society where the man was the head of everything and the woman was viewed as a subordinate or secondary entity in any matters that concerned the society. However, with the world undergoing through tremendous changes, the females were found to be an integral part of the development that the world was going through.
One of the most important aspects of the feminist approach was that the world while undergoing through globalization found that the women were being left behind in international relations and yet they had a very important role to play in the field of international relations (Jensen; 196; 1996).
One of the reasons of incorporation feminist theory in the field of international relations was that women had been marginalized for a very long time and this was a great hindrance to the global development. This can be seen from the perspective that women played a very major role in the development of any society and man alone could not be left with the responsibility of ensuring that the human race developed to its current position and still to more heights. This is why feminist theory is very important to the field of international relations and it can further be noted that on every background of development, the role played by women is very critical (Cynthia; 201; 2004).
On some issues that are under the umbrella of the field of international relations, the input of women have been noted to be very beneficial to the field of international relations and one this can be evidenced by the role the women have played in certain critical areas of international relations. It is important to note that women have for a long time been involved in various diplomatic negotiations especially those accrued to human development and also to the issues of security. It is important to note that women have had a very good approach to some of the international matters and these have helped shape the human life in a positive manner.
For example women have played a very good role in ensuring that all matters that pertain to the freedoms and rights protection have been enforced through international. However, the involvement of women has been limited and this can be rooted to the fact that women have never been given an equal opportunity with men in the picture. However, the involvement of women has ensured that various developments have benefited all the people around the world (Carver; 98; 1998).
If feminist theory is incorporated into the international relations field, then the women will have equal opportunities as men and this means that development will be evenly spread between the two sexes. This will be very beneficial because the issue of marginalizing women will be done away with and the women can have access to such things as power just as men have had historically. However, it is important to note that women have had powerful position but the main idea behind equal access to power is that when a country has a woman president, she is referred to as a woman president and not just as the president. This can be seen as some sought of gender inequality (Andrew; 59; 1994).
On the issue of security, when feminist theory is incorporated into the international relations, the security might improve. It is important to note that some feminists have argued that that the 9/11 attacks on America by terrorists was accrued to the fact that the United States was changing to a feminine country. This can be true because the country had some very influential women in some very powerful posts. With the incorporation of this theory in the international relations, security is bound to improve because various other countries will adopt the United States position on women and power and hence there will be no particular target for international crime that can be related to feminism (Tickner; 45; 2001).
It is also important to note that women are more informed about the requirements and the needs of the society more than man can be informed. If this is to be applied to the international relations, then it is important to note that the woman is in a better position to change the world to a better place than man alone can do. It is important to note that man is also important and hence the need for the two sexes to come together and bring a better world for the current generation and the future generations.
It is important to note that woman has played a very important role in the development of the world to the position it is in albeit the woman is never recognized for the effort she has played to bring the world to where it is now. It is in this respect that it is important for the woman to be involved in any matter that will bring development to the world and also sustain life for the future generations (Cynthia; 201; 2004).
The feminist theory when incorporated into the field of international relations will eventually bring about the changes that the human race have been yearning for a number of centuries now. However, with the concept of masculinity still playing a major role will, this may not be achieved unless the world changes entirely. The activists of feminist theory have some very good reason to be incorporated into the international relations and this is because they have some policies that will ensure that the world is a better place to live in. This can be seen as an important aspect of the feminist theory being incorporated into the international relations.
Feminists have not only argued for a place of the women in the international politics but have been arguing for better policies to be implemented and they are mainly concerned with such issues as the protection of the human rights, protection of the environment, life sustaining development and other critical issues. This means that women can bring forth a better world than what we have and hence they need to be involved in the policy making at an international level (Vivienne; 156; 1999).
Conclusion
Women have a major role to play in any type of issue that the world needs. This means that they have to be seen as an integral part of any issue. This is more for international relations where women may play a very important part in ensuring that the world is a better place to live in.
Bibliographies
Andrew, Barbara (1994). The psychology of tyranny: Wollstonecraft and Woolf on the gendered dimension of war. (Mary Wollstonecraft; Virginia Woolf) (Special Issue: Feminism and Peace) Hypatia v9, n2:85 (17 pages).
Carol Cohn, Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals, Signs, (1988).
Carver, Terrell and Veronique Mottier, ed. Politics of Sexuality. NY: Routledge, 1998.
Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Beaches and Bases (Pandora Press 1990).
Cynthia Enloe, The Curious Feminist: Searching for Women in a New Age of Empire, University of California Press 2004.
Jensen, Pamela Grande, ed. Finding a New Feminism: Rethinking the Woman Question for Liberal Democracy. Rowman and Littlefield, 1996.
Kenney, Sally J. and Helen Kinsella, ed. Politics and Feminist Standpoint Theories. Haworth Press, 1997.
Meyers, Diana Tietjens, ed. Feminist Social Thought: A Reader. Routledge, 1997.
Monk, Janice and Maria Dolors, ed. Women of the European Union. Routledge, 1996.
Tickner, J. Ann. Gendering World Politics. Columbia University Press (2001).
Vivienne Jabri, Eleanor OGorman, Lynne Rienner, Women, Culture, and International Relations (Critical Perspectives on World Politics). Publishers Inc, US, 1999.
Social movements many of which are grass-root based but have grown to the national and international levels exist for various reasons. They have goals and agendas that they try to promote and sell the policies and agendas to the public while others exist to preserve and maintain the very vision and mission of the mother social movement (Altbach, 2007). They exist in form of activist organization that are organized bureaucratically or organized in such away that members interact with the management of the groups. Womens Lib is a feminist movement that exists in southern state of Arizona. This is a womens faction or womens freedom that engages in a succession of campaigns that are directed towards realizing changes or alterations in a number of women related issues like the domestic violence, sexual annoyance, equal reimburse, voting rights, sexual hostility, maternity leave and reproductive rights. These are some of the goals that the movement was formed to articulate for. I chose to talk about Womens Lib because it has come out to be the most active social movement and has the largest following compared to other groups (Altbach, 2007).
Main body
According to Treanor (2002) the history of the movement indicates that Womens Lib came into existence in the late 1980s at the time when the second wave of the feminist movement coming to an end. There was also active articulation for political equality. Women were expectant to look exhaustively on their individual lives and how they could enthusiastically politicized them in order to reflect on a configuration of power that is sexist. Womens Lib came into existence at the time when feminist activities were very high in the country and there were many groups formed that were pro feminist movements (Altbach, 2007). The central role was to crusade against the political and cultural differences. Some of the common leaders like Hong Kingston and Chela Sandoval championed specific issues like discrimination, race and gender.
The organizational of the movement is flexible and devolves in nature such that the member of the movement can easily interact with the management. Our organization is flexible and we can interact with our members easily. These sentiments were echoed by Campbell the head of communications in the movement. At the national level, there is the top management that made up president elected by the members in general annual assembly help annually. She further elaborated how the president is assisted by the seven other congress persons elected from the seven counties in the state to run the movement. The movement has branches at the county level and the grass-root levels. This allows for affiliate groups to join the movement at grass-root levels while also allowing registration of new members at the grass-root levels. Currently Womens Lib has over two million registered members while the unregistered stands at a million. This are however projected to increase annually with more that hundred thousand new members registered annually.
To measure its success, the Womens lib has achieved key social changes that it will remain remembered for. We shall be remembered for championing cultural and political changes. She further noted. Some of them include the right for a woman to initiate divorce case and the right to divorce itself. Women can now make personal decision on matters regarding pregnancy on whether to use contraceptives or not and whether to abort or not. The other key right that women fought for was the right to own property. All these changes affected and changed the western society. The other social change that is used to measure the success of the movement is the wide employment for women. More women got employed and not only did they have employment but also given wages that are more equitable.
To promote its cause of making sure that there is cultural equity especially on matters like equal pay, domestic and sexual violence, the movement engages itself in a number of activities that are all geared at the above goal. The movement organizes sensitization meetings with women both working and those not working. These meetings are done semiannually and normally addressed by re-known female activists. These meetings act at the same time act as motivational as well inspirational moments for the women. The other activity that Womens Lib is involved in is the grass-root campaigns it is involved to woo more people to the movement and at the same time encourage the already existing members to activity participate in the activities of the movement. To make this succeeds the leadership involves every member in the mobilization process.
Conclusion
According to Campbell, the person concern with communication in the movement the future of the movement is promising as they plan to expand to other states. The movement also plans to strengthen the grass-root bases by registering more people and creating structures to allow affiliate groups to easily join the movement. The movement also plans to look for strategic partners and sponsors who can finance the activities of the movement. This is vital as the movement current service on well-wishers and donors to finance its activities. In conclusion it can be argued that the movement has achieved a lot in terms of women rights issues and the movement needs to be embraced in our society.
Reference
Altbach, Gerald. (2007). From Feminism to Liberation. Piscataway: Transaction Publishers.
Treanor, Norton. (2002). the feminist movement. Farmington Hills: Greenhaven Press.
