A persons perception of the world changes depending on their social standpoint. Since peoples gender, age, nationality, religion, and other factors that influence social location vary, so do their experiences and how they see the world. One of the theories that emerged based on this idea is standpoint feminism, which belongs to Dorothy Smith, who argued that women live in a world established and ruled by men (Dillon, 2011). Another scholar, Hartsock (1983), states that women were expected to have a regular job and take care of the household in the last few centuries. Also, in Hartsocks opinion, that the whole society would benefit if women were allowed to have a role equal with men in a community. The state of women creates the base for feminist materialism (Hartsock, 1983). Additionally, Haraway (1988) also advocates for a system that transforms knowledge and ways of seeing (p. 416). This, in her opinion, would allow minorities with their unique experiences to be taken into consideration.
A standpoint of a single person may change the lives of many people around her. A woman, Amina Patel, lives in Great Britain and organizes walking groups for Muslim women (BBC, 2021). In her interview with BBC, she says that many people in the countryside are surprised to see her hike and climb mountains. Not only her gender but also her religion plays a role in the formation of her standpoint. As a Muslim woman living in the British countryside, Amina gets a unique experience that gives her a unique view of the world. Aside from that, it might have been what inspired her to start The Wanderlust Women project.
I partly agree with the argument that fully including women in societys activities would benefit everyone. It is a rather old idea, mentioned even in J. S. Mills On Liberty, but it seems that not everyone in the Western society, let alone the others, has accepted it so far. It is clear to me as a feminist, but there are still many problems that affect women daily and are created by society, such as the wage gap, pressure to have children, etc. As long as these problems are not resolved, society will not develop as well as it could.
References
BBC. (2021). Bolton woman inspired to create Muslim hiking group. Web.
Dillon, M. (2011). Introduction to sociological theory: Theorists, concepts, and their applicability to the twenty-first century. Wiley-Blackwell.
Haraway, D. (2003). Situating knowlegdes: The science question in feminism and the privilege of partial perspective. In McCann, C. R., & Kim, S. (Eds.), Feminist theory reader: Local and global perspectives (pp. 394-412). Psychology Press.
Hartsock, N. C. M. (2003). The feminist standpoint: Toward a specifically feminist historical materialism. In McCann, C. R., & Kim, S. (Eds.), Feminist theory reader: Local and global perspectives (pp. 354-369). Psychology Press.
People are often treated differently based on various factors, and women represent one group that has been prejudiced and neglected for a long time. As a result, female individuals have created a movement known as feminism to bring awareness to the difficulties they face. Feminism reflects an ideology meant to end sexism and sexist exploitation with a focus on issues encountered by women (Silver et al. 1). While having changed significantly over the years, contemporary feminism demonstrates that female persons remain frequently mistreated, but now the movement is finally joined by men.
Throughout history, feminism has transformed through several distinct but interconnected eras. The first wave of feminism started in the nineteenth century and is associated with the 1870s when many women began realizing that the commonly assumed feminine ideal was oppressive and unattainable (McGuirk 4). Accordingly, the discontent facilitated the development of reform-minded activist organizations across Europe and the United States and the subsequent rise of the Modern or New Womens Movement (McGuirk 4). The early-feminist period confronted anatomical, physiological, and biblical perspectives that rendered female individuals as inferior, and the activists promoted womens presence in public and professional institutions rather than simply in their households (McGuirk 4).
Furthermore, the second phase of feminism appears to have shifted its focus from oppression to equality, diversity, identity, and discourse (Scraton 4). The representatives of feminisms third wave strived to continue the work of their predecessors. The eras agenda concentrated on diversity and intersectional concerns (Jackson 34). Consequently, feminism began as a movement that criticized unrealistic expectations of female persons and encouraged women to pursue possibilities outside their homes, then focused on equality and later centered on diversity for the female population.
The current wave of feminism indicates that women are still facing challenges but is gaining support from men. Feminism used to be invisible and often maligned, yet it has become mainstream due to the effects of social media usage (Jackson 33). Young women are now especially involved in feminism through participation in wider activities via media and technology (Jackson 34). While modern female individuals share some similarities with the third era of feminism, having more equality with male persons has shifted the movements direction (Jackson 34).
Women are interested in sharing voices and engaging with global politics while striving for social change through online petitions and campaigns rather than traditional protest marches and sit-ins (Jackson 35). As feminism has become widespread, more men have joined the contest for womens rights. Although feminists are typically female persons, male individuals who share pro-feminist views are supported and appreciated by society (Silver et al. 1). Nonetheless, identifying as a feminist is challenging for men, which may create obstacles for the movement (Silver et al. 2). Accordingly, contemporary feminism continues the pursuits of previous waves but extends the goals and ways to achieve them.
To conclude, feminism has changed over the years by expanding its focus and involving more people. The movement began in the nineteenth century as an opposition to oppression and unrealistic images of women who were expected to simply maintain the household. Upon undergoing more stages that centered on equality and diversity, feminists are now interested in increasing the participation of female individuals in matters on the global level, which the activists achieve by utilizing social media. Moreover, an important shift in feminism is that the male population is starting to openly support womens rights to be involved in different aspects of life. Accordingly, mens interest in modern feminism suggests a new course for academic conversation.
Works Cited
Jackson, Sue. Young Feminists, Feminism and Digital media. Feminism & Psychology, vol. 28, no. 1, 2018, pp. 32-49.
McGuirk, Hayley. The Rebel: A Visual Representation of First-Wave Feminism in the Work of Frances Benjamin Johnston. Womens Studies, vol. 48, no. 5, 2019, pp. 1-23.
Scraton, Sheila. Feminism (s) and PE: 25 Years of Shaping up to Womanhood. Sport, Education and Society, vol. 23, no. 7, 2018, pp. 1-14.
Silver, Elisabeth, et al. Feminist Identity in Men: Masculinity, Gender Roles, and Sexual Approaches in Feminist, Non-Feminist, and Unsure Men. Sex Roles, vol. 80, no. 5, 2018, pp. 1-14.
It is well-known that sociology is an essential discipline that explores peoples interactions in society. Many theories explain how society influences people and how human beings impact the development of culture and civilizations. One of these theories is the empowerment and feminist theory, which examines the role, power, and status differences related to gender (Turner & Maschi, 2015). In addition, it explores the role of race, culture, and social status in shaping human beings and inspires people to achieve new goals and improve their lives. The ideas of empowerment and feminist theory are transferred to society through various works of art, such as songs, poems, and films. In this paper, the song Unstoppable will be examined as a tool for transferring the ideas of empowerment and feminist theory to society.
The song is performed by an Australian pop singer, Sia, and was released in 2016. The main idea of the song is represented in its chorus, which goes in complete consonance with its title. Sia is singing about a strong woman who is capable of winning any game and doing anything to achieve success. By using the technique of repetition, the singer emphasizes that nothing can stop her from doing what she wants. Indeed, there are both feminist and empowerment notes in the song.
The lyrics of the song encourage listeners to take action to improve their lives. It is necessary to note that the song is particularly relevant to females because there is a specific context that demonstrates femininity and strength at the same time. Thus, Sia says, only alone I will cry out now, you will never see whats hiding out (Black Smoke, 2016). Then, she continues singing, pointing out that she is unstoppable, powerful, and does not need batteries to play (Black Smoke, 2016).
These words mean that even though the singer is a real woman who has emotions, it does not prevent her from being strong and energetic. It correlates with the feminist and empowerment theory, which rejects gender inequality, discrimination, patriarchy, and oppression, and supports the idea that gender is not a defining factor in achieving success (Turner & Maschi, 2015). The singer manages to show that being a woman does not necessarily mean being weak.
In addition, the song has a strong empowerment message, which inspires people to struggle for a better life and focus on success. Sia admits that she also has difficulties and moments when she feels upset, but it is significant to never give up and hide the negative emotions to win. The ideas expressed in the song are closely connected with the empowerment concepts of the theory, which suggests achieving goals and implementing strategies for changing peoples lives (Turner & Maschi, 2015). The singer is represented as a warrior who puts her armor on and fights for achieving her goals and strengthening her personality.
Therefore, it can be concluded that the song Unstoppable, which is performed by Sia, transfers the main ideas of empowerment and feminist theory. The singer manages to sing about her emotions and show her femininity. At the same time, she demonstrates her strength, highlighting that a woman can be emotional and strong at the same time. In addition, the song Unstoppable can serve as an excellent inspiration tool for people who are demotivated or upset. Listening to this song is recommended for everyone who needs inspiration and support.
Feminist archaeologists study vital information regarding the past societies through analyzing a social aspect of gender relations and ideologies. Feminist archeology examines the roles and activities of women in the past societies. Feminist archaeologists participate in theoretical issues that place women as the main focus of their analysis. Feminist researchers play a significant role in developing new interpretations of social values, cultural norms and gender ideologies. They use feminist theories for interpreting the past societies.
Feminist archaeologists oppose the irrational practice of viewing the values and customs of the past societies. Gender inequality continues to oppress many women in the society. Feminist archaeologists actively participate to address gender inequality. They take part in establishing methodologies that are significant in anthropological archeology. Feminist archeology adopts feminist theories in interpreting information on the past societies. This study aims to promote the significance of womens roles in the society. The goal of the feminist archeology intends to challenge the manner in which the modern world makes use of archeological information. Feminist theorists continue to pose vital questions that address gender inequality and discrimination.
Body
Feminist archeology explores gender issues of the past period in order to establish relevant information. According to Brettell and Sargent, feminist archaeologists contribute greatly to the interpretation of archeological information (56). Feminist archaeologists promote new methodologies in examining gender roles and use new questioning approach to challenge the conceived ideologies of the past societies. They give privilege of considering first all the social issues regarding women and men in a contemporary perspective. Feminist archeology brings a revolution that supports women who suffer from the overwhelming influence of masculinity. Feminist archaeologists offer new ideas which have immense effects on the gender practices and ideologies in the modern society.
Hamilton views that feminist archaeologists have challenged the traditional ideas of gender and sexuality (98). They have established an important discussion in feminist archeology. They want to promote gender equality as an approach of eliminating oppression that they face in the society. Women across the world continue to encounter oppression. Male archaeologists dominated early archeological studies because society ignored womens contribution to the science. Male archaeologists unintentionally engendered the early archeological studies by ignoring and overlooking womens contribution in the field of archeology.
Feminist theorists have made a great impact which has helped to promote the welfare of all the people in the community. Feminist archaeologists emphasize on autonomy, equality and independence that are vital aspects of ensuring effective gender roles. They strive to understand the roles that women and men played in the past societies. Feminist archaeologists have sufficient evidences from their investigations regarding the social issues that take place in the communities. They analyze the major problems of the previous periods.
Feminist archaeologists adopt microscopic, chemical and skeleton methodological analyses to investigate their findings. They work together to promote awareness to focus on addressing gender inequality in the past societies. The feminist theorists attempt to enhance the roles that women play in the social community. Thus feminist archeology identifies men as the ones who dominate social, religious and political positions in the past. Feminist archaeologists examine the past historical information through using physical evidence (Eugenides 107). Such theorists claim that men are physically stronger than women. Physical strength enables males to involve in activities, such as fighting, and hunting. On the other hand, women play quite different roles, such as taking care of children and performing household duties that restrict their mobility. Women become passive objects, and men therefore consider them as insignificant. Feminist researchers gather important information that shows the way in which women are vulnerable.
Feminist archaeologists examine how men become more influential than women in the society. Struck, White and Angell present that nature gave men more physical strength than it did to women (35). Men became dominant figures and influenced cultural processes, institutions and structures to enforce or support the masculinity. Feminist researchers reveal that men abuse their powers by resorting to domestic violence against women. Feminist archaeologists demand a reformation of the laws that aim to promote equality among men and women. Women economically depend on men, and this is the cause of their oppression. Feminist theorists want the government to implement social, cultural, structural and institutional reforms that aim to promote equality, independence, and autonomy among people. They call for the need to empower and raise womens status. Feminist archeology does not oppose masculinity but intend to create a better society in which people respect each other without discrimination or violence.
Feminist archaeologists raise vital questions that ensure effective gender roles. Womens oppression is a serious issue that can come to an end when the law economically empowers women. The contribution of the female archaeologists aims to create a better community that will respect the dignity and the rights of all the people regardless their gender. Feminist theorists want to transform the masculine attitude into the egalitarianism for the improvement of the entire society. Feminist archaeologists enhance the revitalization of womens status that men excluded in the past societies (Brettell and Sargent 59). In the past period, men considered women as unchanging, domestic and unimportant in the history. In contrast, feminist archaeologists gather vital information that explains the significance and capability of women in the society.
Feminist archaeologists engage in important efforts that focus to challenge the male domination attitude. They pose critical questions to develop new significant gender roles. Feminist archaeologists have a definite agenda that focuses on understanding the conditions under which women lived in the past societies (Eugenides 103). Feminist archeology adopts a unique coherent approach which other archeological methodologies lack. Promoting womens roles could not be possible in the past societies because men dominated the social institutions and structures that looked down upon women. Feminist archaeologists intend to change the interpretation of the past ideological issues regarding gender roles. In the past period, men were responsible for governing societal roles that favor them while oppressing women. Feminist theorists research on vital information to get examples what women experienced in life. The principles that feminist archaeologists use correspond to the natural law that does not allow people to exploit each other.
Conclusion
The idea that the feminist archaeologists emphasize is appropriate because all the human beings are equal and there is no need of oppressing the others. Feminist researchers take part in self-reflexivity and ensure to restore the sanity and dignity of the marginalized and oppressed people in the society. They examine the gender roles that women and men played in the past societies. Upon analyzing the major issues of the past societies, the feminist archaeologists develop recommended policies that the government, private individuals, different stakeholder and entire people should observe. Such researchers desire to ensure that both men and women enjoy equal rights, and opportunities in all aspects of life. Feminist archaeologists believe that gender equality can exist when both males and females are capable to take advantage of equality in education, work, politics, society, business, science and other spheres of life.
Works Cited
Brettell, Caroline B. and Carolyn F. Sargent. Gender in Cross-Cultural Perspective. 6th ed, 2012. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall. Print.
Eugenides, Jeffrey. Middlesex: A Novel. 1st ed. New York: Picador, 2007. Print.
Hamilton, Sue. Archeology and Women: Ancient and Modern Issues. Walnut Creek, Calif: Left Coast Press, 2007. Print.
Struck, William., E. B. White and Roger Angell. The elements of style. 4th ed. New York: Longman, 1999. Print.
During 1990s, Woman Movement was made up of different movements whose support overlapped, each of which had a different ideological background. There was an active group of women who called themselves radical feminists and riot grrrl. These women become aware of their status as women and arer concerned with personal and artistic freedom, keeping their own identities and careers after marriage, using their possibilities to better the world in amorphous ways (such as ending war ), and often proselytizing for personal identity.
Main body
Riot grrrl movement can be seen as the third wave feminism as it reflects unique perception of women of their roles and position in society. The women have become aware of their legal rights and disabilities as a consequence of the inclusion of educated women in movements to repair the legal disabilities. Here too, they began to question social and legal assumptions that they had previously taken for granted, and another cycle of feminism was born. The impetus for change and the model of how that change should take place has been the movement to ensure unique personal identify. Today, when we think of womens rights, one of the first things that may come to mind is affirmative actionthat is, a requirement, usually a government requirement, that action be taken in favor of the members of some group which is seen to be disadvantaged (Hermes 101). The hidden agenda in all affirmative action plans is the mistaken notion that, if there were no discrimination, all groups would be randomly distributed throughout every area of employment, school district, even residential neighborhood. Many of todays feminists have accepted the notion that such a random distribution of women, as well as of minority groups, in all areas of our society, is a desired goal that will be achieved only by government fiat, and this kind of equality by government fiat is what they are working for (Monem, p. 8).
The third wave feminists view the second wave as weak and fragile. The second wave feminism was marked by equal rights and liberties. For many women who tried valiantly to be creative homemakers after World War II, this life turned out not to be satisfying (Hermes, p. 102). They knew they were unhappy, but they couldnt make the imaginative leap that would allow them to see themselves changing their lives in a way that would be both meaningful and, at the same time, preserve what they valued in the situation they had. They couldnt visualize it, so they couldnt do it. In many issues, the second wave feminists did not reach their aims and goals such equal opportunities and workplace promotion. Today, only some women have reached high social position working hard all their life (Monem, p. 8).
The third wave feminism is a product of popular culture because it reflects social values, traditions, hopes and beliefs of women. Series such as Sex and the City and Ally McBeal are nowhere near as straight- forward in their definition of postfeminism (Hermes, p. 88). This example shows that sexual freedom is important for women thus it is also a product of modern culture. And personal lifestyle or sexual interest in men is not a defining factor in feminism. There are radical feminists who are married as well as those who are single; there are Marxist feminists who are married as well as those who are single; there are, in both political groups, unmarried women who are sexually active heterosexuals and women who are sexually active lesbians; there are monogamous unmarried couples of both persuasions. Of course there are still feminists who are committed to the rhetoric of oppression and even sexual separatism, but they are part of the spectrum, not the defining color of the movement. By far the most influential group of feminists have been the radical feminists, who decided that the unhappy marriage was not intellectually productive for them. When the first organizers of consciousness-raising groups influenced women who had become accustomed to activism in the New Left student movementformulated their theories, they used the concept of oppression they had learned from theoreticians and applied it to the conclusion that all women of all classes were the victims of male oppression. The radicals called for a feminist perspective that would provide a complete and consistent analysis of society, placing male domination of women and male-inspired sex roles at the root of social problems. Hermes underlines that: issues and themes are trendy; and popular psychology is often referenced between characters. Feminist concerns such as the right to work, the right to not be discriminated against (99). Some of these feminists are agitating for utopian schemes like communal housekeeping for professional women, but the economics of the times are such that household help is fairly generally available for those with even moderate means: concerns about child care for working mothers and sharing housework does not exist. Domestic service is so low paid that in many parts of the country most American mothers hire help to care for their children and households at least some of the time (Hermes 102). Modern women want to have it all, these feminists, to be sexually and professionally liberated. They marry for love; they divorce more easily than they had ever done before. Some are lesbians, and it ii acknowledged privately that lesbians existed, although they are hardly out of the closet. Instead of being women in the Woman Movement, the feminists encouraged everyone to call them girls, because they thought of themselves as eternally young. This was the conventional liberal (as opposed to classical liberal) philosophy of the timegovernment regulation of working conditions was an unmitigated good and was the only way to get powerful private business interests to modify their pursuit of profit in order to benefit the working class (Monem, p., p. 8).
Postmodern feminists discovered that they faced similar problems and were treated in similar ways. They also discovered that if society had certain false attitudes and norms about what women wanted and what abilities they had, women themselves had internalized these same attitudes. The Cinderella Complex was written by a self-professed feminist who was appalled to discover her own psychological dependency, and she spent several years interviewing women around the country, finding that many of them, too, had a deep-seated desire to have others make decisions for them. Many feminists were appalled by what they saw as an abandonment of sexual politics on the part of one of the founders of the contemporary womens movement. If discussing what each person in a marriage really wants makes them understand each other better, romance is enhanced, not killed. What a sex-role revolution can do in a marriage is to make friends and partners out of people who were almost strangers and turn what were grudgingly accepted as duties into voluntary commitments (Monem, p. 8).
Consciousness raising for women does not seem to be very big in the world today. Perhaps one reason is that as women moved into the Superwoman mode, trying to combine demanding jobs with family concerns, they didnt have as much time as they did in the seventies. Perhaps its that feminism is no longer new, and women think they have nothing to learn from each other in this way. It is in some ways an expression of success, but in others, its a loss. Consciousness raising formed a connection between many women that will never be broken. When it became the exception and not the rule for a woman with children to stay home in order to care for them, young families faced a problem: who would care for the children? There were several alternatives: some sort of day care, some sort of live-in help, or some sort of change in the nature or timing of a womans work (flexible time, job sharing, home office, entrepreneurship, alternating going to work and staying home). All of these required some sort of change in the nature of the fathers work, too. It was also becoming clear that it was more and more ridiculous for all-male clubs to have the rules they did about women on the premises, whether or not they admitted women as members (Hermes, p. 106).
Conclusion
In sum, postmodern feminist is a product of popular culture influenced by mass media and social norms. Modern women want absence of social problems, focusing on male dominance and emphasizing personal change as political, instead of calling for the usual forms of political action. The women in this particular group all eventually became high-profile women. Other groups are formed by women with less glamorous lives: office workers in particular companies or high-school and college students. Modern feminists feel that sexism and sexist oppression are more fundamental than economic exploitation in explaining social injustice. There are a lot of ways in which feminists differ, but here the issue of personal lifestyle is at issue.
Works Cited
Hermes, J. Ally McBeal, Sex and the City and the Tragic success of Feminism in Joanne Hollows and Rachel Moseley (eds) Feminism in Popular Culture, Oxford: Berg, 2006.
Monem, Nadine. (2007). Riot Grrrl: Revolution Style Girl Now! Black Dog Publishing, London UK. P.8
The Black Feminist Movement was organized in an endeavor to meet the requirements of black women who were racially browbeaten in the Womens Movement and sexually exploited during the Black Liberation Movement. Therefore it can be said that the movement developed as a rejoinder to the above-mentioned two movements. Black women were an indistinguishable class whose survival and wants were disregarded. The purpose of the movement was to build up a premise that could effectively bring to a halt, the racist, sexist, and classist prejudice that were interrelated in their lives. The Womens Liberation Movement has been regarded as the sole chattels of white middle-class women. If any black woman is seen drawn to this movement, it was ridiculously dealt with. This disinclination comes from the attitude that those who are subjugated cannot do the same to others. Faced with the sexism of black men and the racism of white women, black women in their relevant actions had two ways- they could either linger in the movements or strive to teach non-black or non-female companions about their requests, or they could be in possession of a movement. The first option, though dignified in its purpose, was not feasible since it was not exclusively their task to instruct the so-called class. Bringing up a Black Feminist Movement was not an easy mission. Despite the call for such a movement, few black women were eager to recognize themselves as feminists. Having determined to outline a movement in their hold, black women were required to delineate the objectives of the Black Feminist Movement and to verify its hub. The black woman ought to be strapping against the maltreatment shown to them simply for the reason of their subsistence in this world.
The white racists as well as the black nationalists categorize them as Matriarchs, as they had practically no constructive personality to authenticate their survival. Black women who crave liberation are to be self-righteous, noble, and free from all the improbable and deviant notions of prettiness and womanhood. They must not allow themselves to be kept upon a plinth, thereby allowing mocking at by those who pretend to be superior. The efficacy of the movement has not been homogeneous in the white feminist and black communities. Many white women in the feminist movement have accredited their racial discrimination and made attempts to address it in anti-racist instruction seminars. The Black Feminist Movement had to proceed through thorny paths. Most prominently, the movement was aimed to hit upon a means to expand their hold amidst the black and Third World women. The women who have little or no entry to the movement were also to be given awareness about the true nature and aim of the movement as well as resources and strategies for change through instructions. It has been tough for black women to come forward from the numerous imprecise descriptions that have reflected them as disgraceful beings. The movement was set as a target of the Black Liberation Struggle to hearten all skilled and efficient black women to emerge, strong and gorgeous, without the inferior feeling of culpable or discordant. This objective was to empower black women and enable them to mount up and reach the destination of leadership and reputation in the black community. Even though there were numerous movements for black, for example, the Civil Rights Movement, Black Nationalism, and others, all the movements were categorized under the title Black Liberation Movement. The movement, though apparently for the emancipation of the black race, was actually organized for the liberation of the black male.
The Black Feminist Movement has resulted in the formation of other similar risings intended to end oppression. In order to be again successful in its mission, the the movement had to cling to the existing male-oriented black liberation movement as well as move with its procedures. Indeed, all the black feminist movements did not reach their destination however some of them moved on and are still in motion to achieve the goal.
Works Cited
The National Black Feminist Organizations Statement of Purpose, issued in 1973 (Customer had provided the reference).
Modern world sets lots of problems for human beings and every time it is a considerable challenge for the mankind to try to solve this or that problem. One of these problems is the issue of gender inequality that troubles people a lot because touches every single person. But, to be true, this very gender problem is not the point of today, it appeared many centuries ago. The humankind developed together with this problem, attitudes towards it changed throughout the course of centuries but the problem itself did not disappear.
From the earliest times of human history people paid their attention to the inequality of men and women and, of course, both sides treated this issue differently. The history of human beings knew the periods when matriarchal societies existed, as well as patriarchal ones. Sometimes, this depended upon the epoch this society existed in, sometimes upon the culture of this or that nation. But, in any case, when one sex started to dominate another on would always claim that it was suppressed. Even nowadays matriarchal societies can be found, especially in the countries of Asia, where the power of women is doubtless.
The book that is to be considered in this critical essay is dedicated to the problem of gender inequalities, and namely feminism and its relation to religions of the world, their interaction and impact upon each other. This is the book by a prominent American writer Rita M. Gross called Feminism and Religion: The Introduction . The author of the book is widely known as a feminist and religious writer whose views arise a lot of controversy but are supported by the majority of activists of women rights movements in her country and abroad. Rita M. Gross is acknowledged as an expert in the fields of religion, especially Buddhism, and feminism, so her point of view in these issues, which she tried to express in her book, must be thoroughly considered.
The book Feminism and Religion: The Introduction was first published in 1996 and has become a real masterpiece of feminist literature since that time. It concerns the most important points of the interrelations between religion and feminism, as well as between them both and an academic subject of religious studies. The role of women in many religions is one of the most important questions touched upon in the book. And, probably, the leitmotif of the book is an attempt to change the social attitudes and accepted judgements about religions and the way they are taught to people. So, let us now take our time and examine the book by Rita M. Gross critically in order to see the essence of the book and the competence of the author in the current issue.
The main idea of Rita M. Gross in her book Feminism and Religion: The Introduction is the change of social stereotypes concerning religion, the way it is taught in educational and religious establishments. What is also very important is the role of women in the development of this or that religion, and, correspondently, the changes that are needed in the traditional science in connection with the shift of attitudes towards women. Simply to put it, Rita M. Gross wrote her book in order to show how deep was the delusion in the traditional history and some other sciences that are dedicated to study of men exclusively.
This is only one of the four central issues for feminism and religion (p. 2). Among others are such points as a sharp necessity to include the information concerning women in the religions of the world for the purposes of making those religions objective and not sexist. The second point derives from the previous one and expresses the thought formulated by Rita M. Gross, according to which the religious studies and the history should be rewritten and reread after the demanded information about women is added. The third basic point of the book examines the impact of the feminist movement upon the religions and suggests that all religions should be more feminist than androcentric because it makes them much more objective and complete.
These main ideas of this book are supported by the correspondent statements and thoughts expressed by Rita M. Gross and by other scientists dealing with the issue of gender in different countries, cultures and epochs. The author herself asks a question: Are the worlds major religions inevitably sexist and disadvantageous to women, or are they inherently egalitarian and reformable, despite their patriarchal veneers? (p. 2) This lines display the very essence of the book and of the whole feminist movement and religion as its part. They demonstrate that the current state of things with the religion and the role women play in it can not be called acceptable. From this expression of womens attitudes it is evident that women are not satisfied that they were or still are discriminated, as if they belonged to some other natural species of animals, other than men. Feminists struggle for the admittance of womens equality with men and their rightful participation in all spheres of activity of the human society.
From this the definition of feminism is easily formulated by Rita M. Gross. She calls feminism simply the conviction that women really do inhabit the human realm and are not other, not a separate species (p. 16). This means, as the author explains further, that women must be treated as same human beings as men because they represent the same species. This very point leads the author to the idea of religious and scientific inequality, or so-called androcentrism . Rita M. Gross says that androcentric scholarship and religion can never be objective or neutral towards women, because it represents the sphere of knowledge connected only with males. Especially, when this point is used speaking about religious studies, it is much more common to study the deeds of males. All major religions of the world, including Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, etc. are reflections of the patriarchy that was a norm of the society they were created in. Religious studies also operate with their terms and bear little information of women and for women.
The author does not agree with the present state of things and rejects the point of view that can be heard very often. This point suggests that feminist scholarship, as well as religion influenced by feminism, might be biased according to gender and, due to this reason, can not be treated as an objective one either. Opposing to this, the author of the book speaks of the completeness of this kind of science and gives her own evidence of this point of view being false: & in my viewpoint, gender-balanced and gender-inclusive scholarship is far more objective than androcentric scholarship, simply because it is more complete (p. 16) This is said by the author because it is evident for her that one should not exclude an integral part out of a single whole, i. e. if a half of pages are torn out of a book a reader will wonder where are those pages, but no one wonders where are the scientific and religious data about a half of the mankind.
Rita M. Gross also adds that in the history of human religions and sciences it is considered to be something awful when a distinction between males and human beings appears, but no one sees anything bad in the fact that throughout the history of the mankind such a distinction was used to speak of women: Egyptians allowed women& This line does not need any continuation because the phrase it starts with shows how low respect to women was in those times in the Egyptian society. If the situation was better, and women were rightful members of the Egyptian society that line would sound like that: In the Egyptian society men do X and women do Y& But the reality in that epoch was worse than it can be imagined, and Egyptians were not an exception from global tradition. Only with the appearance of feminism and such writers like Rita M. Gross the situation with rights of women started to change for better.
The author of the book also rises the problem of standards in the study of this or that science or religious studies. The third chapter of the book called Where Have All the Women Gone? is dedicated to the detailed analysis of this problem. Rita M. Gross sees the inevitability of the appearance of the androgynous paradigm in the study of any science and religion defining it as follows: An androgynous paradigm demands that scholars be interested in women and what they do in the same way that we have always been interested in what men have done and thought. (p. 70).
Speaking about the standards in the study of a certain matter in religion, the author points out that, first of all, there is a need to find those who sets these standards. For example, feminist scholars must make attempts to find out who says what should be studied and what should not, which events are suitable for studying and which are not. This includes, for instance, the study of the womens role in the development of the Christianity. No one can argue that women were very seldom leaders of some Christian religious institutions but the contribution made by women to the progress of this very religion. Giving the thoughts of other scholars, like Eleanor McLaughlin, the author of the book suggests that In this world of spirituality&women are found who speak and write, who made history and shaped a tradition. Men do dominate the history of theology and of church institutions. But it is a judgment and a choice, rather than an objective datum, to conclude that these subjects are what one should study in the history of Christianity. (pp. 67 68).
In the fourth chapter of her book, Rita M. Gross pays much attention to one of the most controversial questions in the modern feminist literature and asks if all the religions of the world are sexist in their nature or some exceptions do exist. Having studied a lot of works of feminist authors from all over the world, the author presents this argument from all possible points of view, including those defending womens rights and those that stand for the further existence of the androcentric society. The analysis of this question does not stop at the study of the western feminist tradition and religions of western nations, such as Christianity. Rita M. Gross is widely known in the United States of America and abroad as an expert in the field of religious studies, and especially in its sphere that concerns Buddhism, so great attention is paid to the role of women in this Asian religion, as well as to the comparison of religions based on the role they give to women in their development.
The last chapter of the book Feminism and Religion: The Introduction is dedicated to the most significant issue of feminism in the modern world. This is the issue of the future of women, i. e. which changes can be and must be done to reconsider the history of the mankind and the essence of this or that religion after the role of women in them is proven and restored. These changes should include such things as political correctness or the so called inclusive language, admission of the influence of feminism and women on the whole for the development of a certain religion. The existence of feminist religions , i. e. religions influenced much by the idea of gender equality, can not be doubted according to Gross, who asks a question: Why are all the religions in the world based upon a male image? Why the God or Allah is considered to be men? And the whole book by Rita M. Gross is the answer to these questions.
To express my personal opinion of the book, I would like to state the following. I am not a feminist at all, and before reading this very book I have never even thought that feminist values can appeal so close to my views and beliefs. Feminism and Religion represents a wide range of facts and thoughts that can persuade a reader that the situation with the rights of women really needs considerable improvements. Specific examples of ancient and modern religions being completely androcentric leave no space for discussion. Even people who are not concerned about the topic at all and who are satisfied with the current state of things start to think of the problem after reading this book.
The examples from the books dedicated to the study of the history of Egypt, lines from books concerned with the study of various religions of the world look very convincing and relevant to the topic of the book. Here we can not even say that any relevant or important fact was omitted by the author, the full range of data, sometimes unfamiliar to the most educated scholars makes this book one of the best sources of information on feminism and its impact upon religious studies.
To assess the logical consistency of the authors thought it is enough to take a look at the structure of the book. It starts with the introduction to the topic, including the background of the problem its history and causes. Than the definitions of the most relevant terms of the research are given including the notions of such basic phenomena as religion, religious studies and feminism. After this the four basic problems of feminism at the modern stage of its development are formulated and speculated upon. Each chapter of the book is dedicated to a certain topic and is disclosed in great detail thus allowing the reader to be in the topic. Probably, the only disadvantage of the book is the language it is written in. I mean that in some aspects the author operates with some terminology and it is somewhat difficult for ordinary people to go into the issue because they can understand not all the words they read.
As for the values of Rita M. Gross it is hard to judge. As it has already been mentioned, I am not a feminist and before reading this book I could not understand the problem and, respectively, the purpose of the book. But having read a couple of chapters I started to think more attentively about the words I was reading. Examples that proved the discrimination of women that existed in the society earlier and still exists nowadays made me realize that my values can be called feminist to a much larger extent than I could think. After the book is read I can say that I support the majority of evident and implicit values expressed by the author of Feminism and Religion . I am not a radical supporter of the feminist values and ideas but I feel like supporting the actions directed at making improvements to the situation with gender equality and women rights.
All the above said allows us to make the following conclusion for this critical essay. The issue of gender inequality is rather significant nowadays and the book by Rita M. Gross presents the wide range of various data relevant to the topic thus being one of the fullest sources of information on this point. The factual material, thoughts and specific examples they are supported with are the factors that make this book useful for every person dealing with the issues of feminism and religion. Although some terms in the book are not clear for an average reader and thus complicate the understanding, the transparent structure and the logical manner of presenting the information compensate this disadvantage.
Works Cited
Gross, R. Feminism and Religion. 2 edition, Beacon Press; 1996.
Powerful efforts to ridicule and silence activist has been achieved through quick progress in prosperity of the western world. However, nationalism and feminism are different movements in one nut shell. In this case, they both aims to cleanse rectify and shape the western society from the conflicting issues ranging from religion, legal rights, politics and culture. Researchers assert that, the two perspectives can be analyzed within a common framework of gender and culture relationship (Kinshlansky, Gearly & OBrien, 2008). This is to mean that, they coincide over common issues of in the society such as national liberation, legal rights and war against neo-colonialism. However, their consistency will be assessed individually.
Background: Feminism and Nationalism
Currently, there is a huge debate over the position of women in the society. Majority argue that with the patriarchal nature of the society, women have been treated as inferior to men. On the other hand, the concept of nationalism came into being approximately five centuries ago. This movement involves individuals struggling to gain identification in a political entity so called a nation. Since then, it has dominated both in political and international affairs. There is an aggressive debate over the difference between a nation and nationalism (Kinshlansky, Gearly & OBrien, 2008). However it is evident that nationalism gave rise to emergence of nations in the western world. Post modernist and Marxists have their own view that a nation exists individually and that nobody can explain how it develops.
Certainly these schools of thoughts lack consistency due to the contradicting issues and challenges posed to them by their critics. Nationalists and feminists are unable to give a clear stand on them. For instance, nationalist of a particular country like USA, claim that, nationalism was first initiated from their own incumbent to other nations (Kinshlansky, Gearly & OBrien, 2008). In this case, there is much contradiction over the specific nation where nationalism first came into being. Moreover, critics wonder what constitute to a nation since nationalists argue that the incumbent is a cultural entity within a particular territory. Currently, there are ideological divisions over what nationalists refer to as a nation (Kinshlansky, Gearly & OBrien, 2008). In this case, it is more difficult to settle on the different views of critics about nationalism. Different revolution faces of nationalism calls for review of past history for us to know the common implication it has toward the people.
In line with this, several varieties of nationalism such as contemporary, civic, territorial and left-wing nationalism had emerged. Different forms of nationalism advocated for similar issues though took different dimensions. Several waves of nationalism have created an impact in the western world at different times.
Theories: Feminism and Nationalism
In this case there has been bias in several concepts such as gender and social roles (Cheris & Spender, 2010).
They criticize the logic in which laws were made claiming that, they reinforce men interests. However, there are subdivisions among feminists into gender, liberal, cultural and dominant feminists (Cheris & Spender, 2010). Though they share common ideologies and facts towards the patriarchal society, their views are different. For instance, liberal feminists claim that, women and men have equal rationality hence they should be treated equally. Liberal feminist look down upon enforcing the government to abolish gender based distinction from the law (Cheris & Spender, 2010).
Additionally, legal feminists celebrate and adore the fact that there are differences among men and women especially on cultural backgrounds. It is evident that, the feminist school of thought has not been consistent as there have been several new waves replacing the older ones. Moreover, real feminism has been reformed giving it a total configuration from the ancient ones (Cheris & Spender, 2010). This poses a big question on whether the contrasting interests between the ancient feminists will aid in bringing a change with the modern incumbent.
Currently, new feminism has taken a different dimension toward the issue of equality. Traditional feminists only advocated for gender equality as opposed to the modern feminists who are demanding extra rights for women (Cheris & Spender, 2010). This brings in criticism that, if feminism was an issue of equality, why do feminists demand more rights for women? Critics argue that, if more rights will be given to women men should also be considered. In this case, we find that feminism has been a different that all the time and therefore, it is impossible to predict the trend of feminism in future (Cheris & Spender, 2010).
References
Cheris,K. &Spender, D. (2010). Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women: Identity politics to publishing. New York: Routledge Publishing, Inc.
Kishlansky, M., Geary, P. & OBrien, P. (2008). Civilization in the West, New York: Longman Pearson Education, Inc.
In the attempt to lay a fundamental mechanism for understanding how gender roles are socially constructed within a society, feminism has created a new interpretation of gender and sex
Despite the fact that a number of women fight for gender equality, they do not support feminist objectives. Surprisingly, these women fail to consider themselves as feminists. However, they portray male characteristics of superiority (patriarchy) in different aspects of life.
The position of the paper is that women should not only back up feminist activities, but also accept their positions as women.
Why my Topic interests Me
My social background has played a key role towards my choice of the topic for my presentation
It is a burden for parents to have three daughters in the Indian culture especially when it comes to addressing their reproductive and bodily rights and needs
For instance, it is a challenge for the Indian parents to cater for dowry expenses of the three girls
Such girls will not only lack proper education but also be exposed to early marriages.
Therefore, there is the need for me to develop a set of ideologies aiming at identifying and defending the political, economic, and social rights of women in society.
From my personal experience, I was always fighting for equal rights in the family but never knew the term- Feminism . In fact, I did not know about feminism until I took the class last semester. Therefore, with such a knowledge, I will strive confidently to restore the dignity of women that has been taken away not only in India but also in the world at large. Such an effort will awaken the dreams, voice, and power of many women that could not be witnessed before.
Academic Disciplines used to answer the Research Question
In response to the research question Historical Development of Feminism and Patriarchy , I conducted a literature review of the topic using credible sources that addressed specifically the issue of feminism.
I used many studies in various disciplines such as economic, literary critics, anthropology, and women studies without negating sociology.
Such sources have been included in the notes section for confirmation.
Research Findings
Many of the issues that affect the lives of women attract some ethical and moral concerns from various people.
According to feminists, the failure to give women the rights to determine whether they want to carry on with their pregnancies or not amounts to denial of fundamental human rights for autonomy in control of ones productive health and even to control ones body.
Women in the United States have always encountered challenges that interfere with their individual fulfillment in society.
For instance, some have risen up to fight for their rights, but they hardly identify themselves as feminists due to the stigma associated with the term.
They cannot fight for their own rights by themselves without interventions of various women movements such as the Womens Liberation Movement (WLM).
Through constitutional development, women have managed to advocate for the ratification of laws that protect them from inhumane conditions such as rape, violence and subjugation to the domain of the home.
Therefore, as argued by scholars who subscribe to feminist school of thought, women should be given reproductive rights such as using contraceptives and procurement of an abortion at will.
A larger extension of this argument is that women should also have the ability to say when, how, and with whom they have sexual intercourse.
Before the advent of feminism, the living conditions of women were very poor since they were perpetually pushed to the periphery, even on matters touching their own health.
Women existed to be seen, but not to be heard, since they were the properties of men.
Therefore, any women should be protected from practices that would interfere with reproduction such as gender-based violence, forced sterilization, and female genital mutilation.
There is the need to develop various theories explaining the manner in which women can deal with the challenges associated with negative gender profiling such as gender discrimination.
Conclusively, women bear the mindset and not the identity, which seems to be self-interested.
The negative depiction of feminism and feminists has made many women believe in equality.
References
Center for American Women and Politics. (2012). Women of Color in Elective Office. New Brunswick, NJ: Center for American Women and Politics.
Cole, R., & Sabik, J. (2010). Associations between femininity and womens political behavior during midlife. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34(4), 508-520.
Duncan, E. (2010). Womens relationship to feminism: effects of generation and feminist selflabeling. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34(4), 498-507.
Gwyn, K., & Margo, O. (n.d). Womens Lives: Multicultural Perspective. London: Routledge.
Hennessy, R., & Ingraham, C. (1997). Materialist feminism: a reader in class, difference, and womens lives. London: Routledge.
Holland, J., & Cortina, M. (2013). When sexism and feminism collide the sexual harassment of feminist working women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37(2), 192-208.
Hooks, B. (2000). Feminism is for everybody: Passionate politics. Brooklyn, NY: South End Press.
MacKinnon, C. (2007). Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
McCabe, J. (2005). Whats in a label? The relationship between feminist self-identification and feminist attitudes among US women and men. Gender & Society, 19(4), 480-505.
Moradi, B., Martin, A., & Brewster, M. (2012). Disarming the threat to feminist identification: an application of personal construct theory to measurement and intervention. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 36(2), 197-209.
Penny, F., & Nicola, F. (2001). Differential aesthetics: art practices, philosophy and feminist understandings. Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate.
Ramsey, R., Haines, E., Hurt, M., Nelson, A., Turner, L., Liss, M., & Erchull, J. (2007). Thinking of others: Feminist identification and the perception of others beliefs. Sex Roles, 56(10), 611-616.
Ray, S. (2003). Against Earnestness: The Place in Performance in Feminist Theory. Studies in Practical Philosophy, 3(1), 22-79.
Showalter, E. (1999). Towards a Feminist Poetics. New York: Croom Helm. pp. 2536.
Snyder-Hall, C. (2010). Third-wave feminism and the defense of choice . Perspectives on Politics, 8(1), 255-261.
Wendy, S. (2010). African American Women and Electoral Politics: A Challenge to the Post-Race Rhetoric of the Obama Moment. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Yoder, D., Tobias, A., & Snell, F. (2011). When declaring I am a feminist matters: Labeling is linked to activism. Sex Roles, 64(2), 9-18.
Zucker, N., & BayCheng, Y. (2010). Minding the Gap Between Feminist Identity and Attitudes: The Behavioral and Ideological Divide Between Feminists and NonLabelers. Journal of personality, 78(6), 1895-1924.
The realities of contemporary living in the West are marked by the continual incorporation of different feminist provisions as an integral part of what can be defined as the Western sociocultural/scientific paradigm. The fact that this is indeed the case can be illustrated regarding the ongoing popularization of the idea that science/rationality is not as gender-neutral as most people tend to assume.
There are currently two argumentative dimensions to the claim that science is gendered, which can generally be categorized as technical and discursive . The first of them is concerned with the empirical observation of the fact that the particulars of ones gender affiliation have a notable effect on how he or she tends to perceive the surrounding reality, as well as on how the concerned individual indulges in the dialectical (cause-effect) type of reasoning.
For example, according to Hrdy, it may be the case that the specifics of womens brain-wiring naturally presupposes that they should be particularly likely to succeed in conducting biological research: (As compared to men biologists) women biologists may have some special sensibility concerning the creatures that they study, an ability to enter into the lives of their subjects (148). The discursive justification of the idea that the factor of gender affects both the methodological subtleties of particular scientific research and this researchs practical implications has a strongly defined moralistic sounding to it.
Its proponents suggest that since there can be no a thoroughly objective scientific theory in existence, it is important to ensure that the scientific endeavor serves the purpose of safeguarding the so-called constitutive values , which are best defined as the set of ethical axioms that originate in the currently dominant socio-cultural discourse. In its turn, this makes it possible for science to be gender-conscious to an extent something best exemplified regarding the scientific implications of feminism. As Intemann noted: Feminists& aim to change theoretical frameworks (in science) that reinforce gender stereotypes or power relations (1004).
It is understood, however, that the gendered outlook on science/rationality cannot be deemed as such that represents an undisputed truth-value. The reason for this is that the advocates of gendered science do not take into account the evolutionary predetermined operational specifics of the male and female cognitive apparatuses, as well as the fact that to say that a particular scientific project is constitutively/contextually sound is a polite way of saying that this project has been curtailed to appease the self-appointed guardians of public morality, and as such, it can never prove very fruitful.
Effects of Feminism on Science
It is quite impossible to come up with the axiomatically sound answer to the question of what a feminist conception of science should be all about. The reason for this is quite apparent as of today, there is no universally adopted definition as to what the notion of feminist science stands for, in the first place. This alone exposes the sheer erroneousness of the suggestion that feminism can make science better both concepts are methodologically incompatible.
Whereas science is concerned with expanding humanitys intellectual horizons (even if it comes to the expense of offending some delicate sensibilities in people), feminism aims to achieve something opposite to slow down the pace of the ongoing scientific project as innately male-chauvinistic . In this respect, the effect of feminism on science can be compared to that of just about any monotheistic religion.
While promoting the idea of gender-egalitarianism, feminists invariably act as the agents of energetic entropy within the society hence, the actual significance of feminisms strong affiliation with the essentially quasi-religious and highly entropic notions of harmony , equality , tolerance , and asexuality . What this means is that, despite the apparent progressiveness of the feminist rhetoric, feminism will ultimately seek to stabilize the fluctuating dynamics within the society, once the latter ceases to remain patriarchal.
The main purpose of science, however, has always been and will continue to be concerned with challenging peoples conventional understanding of what causes the physical/social reality to manifest itself in a manner it does. Galileo Galilei stands out perfectly exemplary, in this regard. After having discovered that there are black spots on the Sun, he stated: Sunspots are& not permanent or fixed, but variable concerning shape and density.
They also undergo various degrees some small imprecise and irregular movements. Absolutely all of them are produced and dissipated, some in shorter and others in longer periods (Galilei 97). Apparently, by its very virtue science is strongly opposed to the idealistic, mechanistically orderly and spatially stable conceptualizations of how this world turns around it is there to offend, to shake off outdated knowledge, and to offer often counterintuitive but scientifically valid explanations for natures various phenomena.
Feminism, on the other hand, is there to oppose what its promoters perceive as the sheer wickedness of the thoroughly objective laws of nature something that turns this ideology into nothing short of yet another highly irrational/aggressive quasi-religion, aimed to erect obstacles on the way of scientific progress.
Sexuality Studies as a Science
Even though feminism can be hardly considered a viable theory of gender relations, there is very little doubt that the science of sexuality is indeed epistemologically respectable provided, of course, that the validity of this statement is to be assessed through the methodological lenses of neurology (rather than psychology).
The reason for this is that, as opposed to what it is the case with psychologists (and feminists to say the least), whose theorization of sexuality is highly speculative, neurologists are aware that the particulars of ones sexual self-identity/behavior should be discussed in conjunction with the morphological specifics of his or her brains structuring, which in turn suggests that, contrary to the feminist perspective on the issue, the Darwinian principle of the survival of the fittest continues to apply to the socially integrated representatives of the Homo Sapiens species.
Consequently, this presupposes that ones ability to act the societys productive member is positively related to the persons aptness in addressing its biological functions as a man or a woman. Allegorically speaking, men are the evolutions instrument for ensuring the great variance of different genetic mutations within the species, whereas the womens biological role is to screen these mutations while selecting only the potentially beneficial ones (Hrdy 133).
Because different regions of the brains neocortex/limbic system have long ago been found responsible for determining the qualitative aspects of the affiliated persons sexual behavior, and because these regions can be subjected to quantitative measurements (neuro-scanning), there is a hypothetical possibility for sexology to be as epistemologically sound as it is the case with just about any hard science, such as physics or chemistry, for example (Boyle 10). However, such an eventual development will only be made possible after the hawks of political correctness/feminism loosen their grip on the intellectual domain in the West.
Works Cited
Boyle, Robert. New Experiments Physico-Mechanicall, Touching the Spring of the Air and its Effects .
Galilei, Galileo. Concerning Sunspots .
Hrdy, Sarah. Empathy, Polyandry, and the Myth of the Coy Female.
Intemann, Kristen. Feminism, Underdetermination, and Values in Science. Philosophy of Science, vol. 72, no. 5, 2005, pp. 10011012.
