The Wall Street crash of 1929 hit everyone in the U.S., and many people started preferring factory-made clothes due to their lower cost. And yet, women still strived to look beautiful, elegant, and even glamorous in the 1930s. They often would try to look sophisticated, wearing apparel of more muted colors, as well as clothes adorned with geometric or floral patterns. Unlike it had been in the decade before, many females of the 1930s wore mid-calf or floor-length dresses with long sleeves and wide shoulders. These dresses often were characterized by the accentuated high waist; and yet, they sometimes were bias-cut in order to make stress on the wearer’s curves (“1930s Fashion” n. pag.). Hats were still often used by women, though their use was reducing gradually (Phipps n.pag.). It is also worth pointing out that such material as nylon was introduced at the end of the decade; nylon stockings have become a popular type of clothing (“1930s Fashion” n. pag.). Thus, women of the thirties preferred more sophisticated and modest clothes than before. The dressing habits also were affected by the Wall Street crash, causing people to buy manufactured apparel rather than custom-made; and yet, they still tried to look fashionable and elegant.
Women’s Fashion in the 1940s
In the 1940s, the USA recovered from the Great Depression; at the same time, the war was going on in Europe, which reduced the amounts of imports and provided the U.S. clothes industry with a boost. The women’s apparel was often characterized by “squared shoulders, narrow hips, and skirts that ended just below the knee” (“Women’s Clothing” par. 1); very slim, “wasp” waists were also popular. And yet, due to the war, limiting legislation was in effect, which caused firms to reduce the use of cloth and led to the use of more practical garments (“1940 to 1950” n. pag.). At the same time, the needs of war caused more women to work in factories; this led to the popularity of slack garments, which were perceived as scandalous before (“1940 to 1950” n. pag.). However, in 1947, Christian Dior’s first fashion collection was presented; in the American media, it gained the name of “New Look.” Even in spite of the fact that the collection had at first been met with disapproval as wasteful, “New Look” gradually became more and more popular, and added long skirts and “curvaceous shapes” to the American women’s fashion (“1940 to 1950” n. pag.).
Women’s Fashion in the 1950s
The Dior’s “New Look” was already mentioned; it had a significant effect on the fashion for American women in the 1950s. The general look that included a very slim waist, making a woman look like an hourglass, still remained popular (Monet par. 2); this led to the frequent use of corselets, waist-cinchers, and similar means of making a female look thin. It is also stressed that women often had to attend social events in order to help their husbands with their career advancements, which led to the constant use of gloves (“1950 to 1960” n. pag.). The need to constantly look fashionable was alleviated by the fact that pret-a-porters became widespread, which allowed for the mass use of garments that resembled those of the “high fashion.” It is also noteworthy that women frequently had to play the roles of entertainers for males, and often wore cocktail dresses. This tendency became especially accented at the end of the 1950s, and was one of the factors that led to the development of the babydoll style in the 1960s (“1950 to 1960” n. pag.).
Eighteenth century is very significant in England history as it marked the evolution of various issues. Particularly, it marked the evolution of children clothing. Initially, children were not taken as such but as inferior beings compared to grown up men and women.
People maintained that they acted without reasoning and since they also lacked experience, they ended up misbehaving in various ways. Before the eighteenth century, children were being dressed the same way as their parents such that there was only a little distinction between their clothes and the clothes of the adults.
However, towards the end of the eighteenth century, clothes of both boys and girls changed greatly[1]. With that background in mind, this paper shall discus the characteristics of girls’ and boys’ dresses in the eighteenth century as well as the similarities between the dresses of both sexes.
Young Girls Dress In Early 18th Century In England
At the beginning of the eighteenth century, a new born child irrespective of sex wore a shirt and was wrapped with a piece of cloth which was referred to as a bed. All parts of the infant were wound with a piece of white cloth and the head was covered with cap consisting three layers.
People by then believed that such clothing allowed the baby to develop a straight posture while growing up. After removing the swaddling at the age of about four months, girls were clothed with frocks which were generally simple dresses that had fastenings at the back.
The bodice of the dress was fitting and was similar to the women’s dresses[2]. In addition, the shoulders and the bodice were attached with strings which were used by the parents especially while the child was learning how to walk. Petticoats were also worn beneath the frock.
Children learning how to walk also wore caps which were referred to as pundings and they were meant to protect their head from damage. Girls wore the flock until the age of twelve after which they were allowed to put on other clothes such as caps, shoes and the bibbed aprons. The shoes were usually colored to match the cap as well as the ribbons [3]
Young Boys Dress in Early 18th Century England
Surprisingly, boys were dressed with frocks as girls since there was no difference in their clothing in the early eighteenth century (Baumgarten 2011).[4] They were also clothed with petticoat or trousers under the frock to act as underwear. After attaining the age of four years, boys were clothed with masculine clothes for the very first time in their lives.
At the beginning of the century, boys of around four to five years of age were clothed with breeches which represented knee length tight trousers. As time went by, not only did the length of the breeches increase but also the size as they became looser.
Generally, boys between the age of four and eight wore attires which were known as a ‘skeleton suit’ which represented a long and a loose trouser. In addition, they also wore a jacket or tunic which was tacked inside. In most cases, boys continued to wear the slash which was initially worn with the frock before the age of four years.
The Similarities between the Dress of the Boys and Girls of 18th Century in England
There were a lot of similarities between the type of clothes which were worn by girls and boys. To begin with, the under wares of both boys and girls were similar up to the age of four years.
Before the same age, both sexes wore frocks which were made in the same way as they contained fastenings at the back. In most cases, stays were worn by both boys and girls with the normal clothing since they supported the back and hence helped to maintain straight body posture[5].
The greatest similarity between the clothes of boys and girls in the early eighteenth century was the fact that both were putting on similar frocks which were mostly white in color. It is only in the mid and towards the end of the eighteenth century that boys started to wear breeches.
Conclusion
The study has illustrated that the eighteenth century was characterized by great changes especially in children fashion. Initially, their clothes were not only restricted but they were designed to look as those of the adults. The era did not only mark the beginning of the clothes specifically made for children but there were other changes as well.
For instance, instead of boys wearing short and tight trousers, they started to be clothed with long and loose trousers[6]. the similarities between the clothes for both boys and girls continued to diminish as time went by.
Although changes continued to occur in the subsequent centuries, the most significant changes occurred in the eighteenth century and laid the foundation for the changes that occurred latter.
Bibliography
Brooke, Iris. English Children’s Costume 1775-1920. London: Dover Publications, 2003.
Buck, Anne. Dress in eighteenth-century England. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1979.
Humphreys, Colleen, and Sue Felshin. Children’s Clothing. Web.
Before starting a review of the documentary, I feel it is necessary to give a definition of sustainable fashion and establish a connection between the fashion industry and the environment. As I found out, sustainability in the fashion industry has two main perspectives. From the brand’s point of view, being sustainable means producing clothes that are most considerate for humanity and the environment. As for the consumer, sustainability means thinking if you need that garment before buying and what ethics you support with your purchase (“Understanding sustainable fashion,” n.d). Paris Lees’s documentary on the fashion industry addresses both of these perspectives and helps to understand the problems of the modern fashion industry and consumer behavior.
The Eye-Opening Moments
The documentary has opened my eyes to several issues, which I had not realized before. First of all, I had no idea that the fashion industry is the second-worst polluter of the environment (JayLaw, 2019, 1:10). It was also shocking to realize that the Brits alone spend £30 billion on unused clothes every year (JayLaw, 2019, 2:44). Just imagine all the money and resources spent on useless, redundant goods worldwide. Finally, while there were many other astonishing moments, I was disturbed by the fact that the unaware consumer can fund unethical companies or even indirectly support terrorism by simply buying a new piece of clothing (JayLaw, 2019, 12:44). After watching the documentary, I understood that sustainability in the fashion industry is much more important than I ever thought.
My Opinion On 3 Easy Steps
Paris Lees outlined three easy steps for environmentally conscious consumers at the end of her documentary. I would love to start following them since fashion sustainability appeared to be so vital for our planet. Steps 1 (Don’t love – don’t buy) and 2 (Look at the label) are my priority because they are quite easy to follow and beneficial for the environment, your wardrobe, and even your wallet. As for Step 3 (DIY) —it would take some time and probably training in sewing, so it would be more difficult to follow. However, even a small step in the right direction counts, especially if made by many people.
The desire for environmental sustainability is becoming more and more common in modern society. Moreover, of course, this affects the fashion industry, which strives to keep up with the current mood. Brands are beginning to abandon natural fur, proclaim themselves ethical companies and strive for carbon neutrality. At present, when the problems of the ecosystem are severe, an appeal to sustainable fashion is necessary.
The unwise consumption of fashion industry products has led to the emergence of such a concept as fast fashion. This is a popular term for clothing that is quickly and cheaply produced by a mass market that copies the trending images of luxury brands (Niinimäki 189). The low price allows customers to easily buy things and quickly part with them, thereby increasing the volume of waste produced. The working conditions of such companies are also not ideal, which makes production unethical and unstable.
In the TEDx talk video, Clara Vuletich raises the issue of clothing sustainability. Clara Vuletich is a designer-activist and educator who have worked in sustainable fashion in UK and Europe. In the modern world, people are overwhelmed with the amount of clothing and have 4 times more than the previous generation (“How to Engage with Ethical Fashion”). The speaker also says that often clothes are made in developing countries, where people work a lot but get extremely little. In the case of choosing whom to blame, there is always a shift of responsibility from customers to brands, organizations and the state, and vice versa.
The speaker says that the solution to the problem of clothing sustainability lies in understanding the changing behavior of consumers and studying the essence of the fashion industry and brands. Besides, in collaboration with other designers, the speaker developed several strategies to prevent fast fashion. Moreover, when training future designers, they asked the question, “What social and environmental significance can this piece of clothing have?” (“How to Engage with Ethical Fashion”). Cotton clothing was used as an example of demonstrating the circle of life of clothing. Studies show that to create one T-shirt from this material, 500 grams of pesticides are used to grow cotton (“How to Engage with Ethical Fashion”). It is evident that such an attitude negatively influences the environment. The alternative, organic cotton, is much more expensive, so it is used less often. The main idea of the speaker is that stability is not ultimately instilled from the outside. Everyone should understand for themselves the consequences of the actions of humanity and its attitude to nature.
Eva Kruse raises the question of how the fashion industry is one of the primary pollutants and users of water in the modern world. Therefore, one five-dollar T-shirt uses 2,000 liters of water (“Changing the World Through Fashion”). The industry is built on the psychological influence and forcing people to buy something they would never have thought about. This exposure leads to an overabundance of clothing and further pollution of the environment while eliminating it.
Eva Kruse is the CEO and President of the Danish Fashion Institute. She sees the question about “what every one of us can do to improve our personal footprint and the environmental and social impact of the fashion industry” as the primary goal of her activities (“Changing the World Through Fashion”). Essential aspects in this case are the conclusions about the consumption, use and disposal of the purchased products. To do this, people need to use technology and creativity to achieve great results. The cooperative work of both organizations and consumers is essential to create sustainable choices. The speaker says that it is the interest of buyers in this area to give an impetus to the beginning of sustainable fashion (“Changing the World Through Fashion”). Everything is in the hands of the people themselves, and fashion’s future development is up to them. Companies, in turn, will make more environmentally friendly actions.
In one of the studied articles, the author also raises the problem of the negative impact of fashion on the environment and how to solve them. Therefore, Ro (2020) claims that fashion is responsible for around 10% of greenhouse gas emissions. Changing fashion forces people to buy more and more clothes, oversaturating their wardrobes. Changing fashion forces people to buy more and more clothes, oversaturating their wardrobes. Many do not even think about the negative contribution they make by buying up new collections every season. Jeans, for example, require one kilogram of cotton, which in turn consumes 7,500-10,000 liters of water (Ro). Thus, it is necessary to reduce the consumption of such products to improve the environment.
The market for sustainable clothing is developing at a relatively rapid pace. Many companies resort to such materials as garbage from waste from wood, fruit and other natural materials to create their products (Ro). However, not only changing the components of clothing can reduce the negative impact. Online shopping can also help reduce the level of oxide released during the transport of goods to ordinary shops.
The article under research examined the impact of the global pandemic on the sustainable fashion industry and all the people involved in it. Kent (2020) says that millions of workers had been laid off without pay in countries such as Bangladesh and Vietnam, and major brands were facing attention for opaque and unequal procurement practices. Thousands of people who have been making a profit for fashion houses for years have ended up on the street without any help from these very companies. For this reason, many brands try to avoid responsibility and the financial side associated with it.
Despite the negatives, the pandemic has also contributed to the success of several brands. Thus, “H&M group became the first brand ever to score above 70 per cent, leading the pack” (Kent). This rise can be explained by the increased popularity of online shopping, which has a positive impact on the environment and the fact that the company produces limited collections of clothing, shoes and accessories made of recycled and organic materials.
The market is saturated with goods that people do not need. At the same time, their production causes significant damage to the environment. Many consider sustainability a new trend, and some call it the only right and necessary solution that will save the industry and the entire planet. All over the world, individual designers and entire fashion corporations are eager to cooperate to find new ideas on making fashion ethical. After studying the sources mentioned above, it can be concluded that sustainable fashion is primarily awareness and care for oneself, other people and the environment.
Attention getter: The concept of “fast fashion” broke into everyday life, implying the availability and variety of fashionable clothes. However, the mass production of trendy garments has led to other more serious societal problems which can potentially harm the environment and people’s lives.
Credibility Statement: The textile industry has become the second largest polluter after aviation. Scientists have calculated that fifty million tons are the weight of clothing humanity produces yearly (Hugh, 2020). That’s double what it was 20 years ago, combined with the fact that the fashion industry is already responsible for ten percentages of all carbon emissions, which is potentially dangerous for society (Hugh, 2020).
Reason: The attempts of consumers and brands can stop such adverse conditions. Each person should be concerned with the planet’s future, striving to minimize potential harm to nature. Thus, today’s speech discusses a crucial global topic – what fast fashion is, why it is hazardous, and how its consequences can be minimized.
Body
Definition and Problem
The term Fast Fashion refers to the fashion industry’s business model of launching as many collections as possible in the shortest amount of time. Clothing collections are based on famous designers’ latest fashion trends, which are imitated quickly and mass-produced from low-quality materials. The negative impact of fast fashion includes using cheap, toxic dyes for textiles, making the fashion industry the second largest pollutant of clean water in the world after agriculture. The speed of clothing production means that consumers are throwing away more and more clothing, creating vast amounts of textile waste.
Causes
The low-cost characteristic of the mass market is achieved, among other things, by reducing the cost of creating clothes. And this is the constant increase in production capacity, the low quality of the product, and the use of the labor of the population of developing countries. The result of this approach has been legitimate criticism of fast fashion for pollution. Short-term trends, low-quality garments, and a focus on synthetics lead to increased emissions during production.
In a fast fashion, artificial fibers are often used, such as polyester. Such materials are harmful to the environment, as they are made from crude oil, and carbon dioxide is released during production. Chemicals also pollute the waters in the seas and rivers. When washing clothes in a washing machine, tiny fibers end up in the ocean in the form of microplastic particles. But even “natural fabrics” can become a problem on the scale of fast fashion. Growing cotton requires vast amounts of water and pesticides. This leads to the risk of drought, creates pressure on water basins, as well competition for resources between companies and local communities.
Solutions
There can be two solutions directed to fashion brands and consumers. Fast fashion brands have expressed concern that they are damaging the environment. As such, these brands are taking initiatives to create more sustainable clothing and sustainable brands. For example, UNIQLO (Japan) has developed a technology to reduce the use of used clothing. He also recycles them into the new fabric to make new clothes. This recycling method should be an example for other brands. All parties in the supply chain must work to preserve the environment during production. The goal is to avoid polluting the environment with textile waste.
Brands work based on the constant production of new clothing lines to meet the ever-changing consumer demand for everything new. Therefore, the buyer can take some steps to reduce the demand for quick-change products. For example, you and I can check the composition and wear clothes made from natural materials and renewable resources. If the clothes are in good condition, you can give them away or even sell them, thereby delaying the moment things enter the landfill, simultaneously satisfying the other person’s need for clothes. Wear the clothes you love. Do not accept or return clothing that is in doubt. One of the most valuable pieces of advice can be to avoid following fleeting trends but choose your style. It can help to feel more comfortable wearing all of the clothes. It is essential to save time in searching. Try to select a high-quality, comfortable and suitable thing for you in all respects. Customers can give preference to products made by responsible companies. Responsible companies strive to reduce their environmental impact by using renewable energy and recycled materials, avoiding the animal cruelty, and respecting workers’ rights at all stages of production.
Conclusion
Therefore, fast fashion is one of the most potentially dangerous widely-spreading production spheres, which has significant adverse environmental consequences. The possible solutions include recommendations for becoming more attentive consumers. The fashion brand also can take some measures, such as improving the quality of materials. Consumers’ and production companies’ complex attempts consumers and production companies’ problematic attempts can help fast fashion become slower.
In conclusion, we are all, as consumers, responsible for drafting the demand for clothes. Rational consumption can change the supply of fast fashion trends. Even small attempts can provoke more significant changes in the global situation. Our current culture of applying things is unsustainable. But by knowing who a conscious consumer is and how to refuse the number of utilized clothes, we can improve the condition of the environment and minimize the consequences of fast fashion.
The concept of social identity in modern society is increasingly becoming important in a global society as people try to identify with specific cultures and practices. Despite the impact technology has on culture, there is still an attempt by people from various parts of the world to uphold the values and beliefs of their ancestors. However, some scholars now argue that advertising in fashion is having a significant impact on social identity. People all over the world, irrespective of their geographic location or socio-cultural values, want to be seen as fashionable. They want their dress code and mannerism to be as modern as possible as a way of identifying with the finest in society.
However, the only way that people can identify what is trendy is through the media. It means that consumers do not dictate what is trendy or not. They rely on what the media deems as trendy to know when and how to redefine their social identity. Social scientists, especially the marketers, have realized this fact and are using it to their advantage. Advertising in fashion is not becoming a major tool that defines social identity. People identify with the best as stated in the media. The study seeks to determine how advertising on fashion impact on social identity. The study will use both primary and secondary data sources to inform the study. The analysis will be done using both qualitative and quantitative research methods.
Background
Social identity, in modern human history, is very important as people want to be identified with and seen to belong to a certain group. Morey defines social identity as a person’s sense of who he or she is based on his or her group membership (23). Advertising in fashion is taking full advantage of the need for social identity among their audience to influence their purchasing pattern. As Morey notes, the celebrities in our society have become the symbol of what is ideal in a social setting (55). Top footballers such as Cristiano Ronaldo and Lionel Messi are portrayed as symbols of perfect men. Top actresses such as Angelina Jolie on the other hand are portrayed as perfect women. As such, what they do, wear, or use is considered the best. Advertising agencies in the fashion industry are keen on getting an endorsement from these top celebrities as a way of making their products popular in the market. Subliminal advertising is increasingly defining the way people behave and the social identity groups they want to be associated with the society.
The world is increasingly becoming a global village where events taking place in the United Kingdom can easily affect someone in the United States and vice versa. The traditional practices and beliefs that are used to define the social identity of people at the local level within different communities have been completely eroded due to global interaction, education, and many other changing socio-economic and political factors. Western culture has dominated the global society, especially through music and movies. Teenagers and young adults want to be associated with global superstars such as John Cena, Jay Z, Lady Gaga, and Lady Gaga among other celebrities. In fashion design, these people are brought out as the epitome of beauty and perfection. People get bombarded with advertisements that focus on what these people do and why society should identify with them.
According to Buckingham, in the past advertising would focus on aligning their product proposition with what the society values and considers as right (34). However, this is changing very rapidly as the advertisers learn how they can manipulate their audience. Instead of relying on what society considers as valuable, they are shaping the beliefs and practices of the society. They are making their audience to unlearn what was considered culturally valuable and to embrace a new culture that is popularized by these celebrities who they then use to advertise their products. Buckingham notes that until recently, same-sex marriage was considered abomination even in the United States (12).
It was spoken about in hushed tones and the American army prohibited the act among its officers. However, top celebrities have been used over the recent past to try and convince the society that although some people may still consider the practice an abomination, we should be tolerant enough to respect others’ decisions. Indeed such a massive change of attitude, to the extent that there are churches that conduct weddings for same-sex marriages is a major change that would not have been imaginable about five decades ago. Numerous other social identity changes have been witnessed over the recent past that is directly attributed to the impact that advertising in fashion has had on society. I am interested in this issue because I want to determine if indeed advertising in fashion is responsible for the moral erosion in our modern society. In this paper, the researcher seeks to determine how advertising in fashion impact on social identity.
Annotated Bibliography
Advertising in fashion as a concept is becoming a major area of research among scholars in modern society. Some of these scholars want to determine the impact that these advertisements have on the purchasing pattern of people within society. Others want to determine how these advertisements are shaping the socio-cultural practices, while others want to investigate the changing patterns taken in advertising. The works of these scholars will be critical in determining how to impact upon social identity fashion in modern society. The researcher will conduct a comprehensive annotation of bibliographies relevant to this study.
Leavitt, Peter, et al. “Frozen in Time: The Impact of Native American Media Representations on Identity and Self-Understanding.” Journal of Social Issue, vol. 71, no. 1, 2015, pp. 39-53.
According to o these scholars, in modern society, the media plays a critical role in helping people determine their social identity. The United States is home to people of very diverse backgrounds. These people are unique in various ways. Native Americans are different from Whites or other groups in society. The minorities in this country have been subjected to discrimination and stereotyping for a long time. The scholars argue that irrespective of one’s social background, media plays a critical role in defining their social identity. The time when children would be taken through traditional education systems where they are taught about their identity by the elders is long gone. They now rely on school and what they learn in their immediate environment to determine their social identity.
As such, media is central to the determination of people’s identity. However, the media has completely ignored Native Americans, especially in movies and songs that are defining popular culture. In the very few instances where Native Americans are given media attention, negative stereotypes play a significant role that it becomes almost impossible for one to identify with such characters. In many cases they are portrayed as villains in popular movies, making it impossible for the Native Americans to develop admiration towards them. The advertisers would always use the stars in these movies when it comes to advertising. As such, the Native Americans are forced to embrace a new culture that is completely different from what was embraced by their forefathers. The scholars are lamenting about the eroding culture among the Native Americans, largely attributed to mass media and advertising in fashion.
Tsai, Sunny, and Rita Linjuan. “Motivations and Antecedents of Consumer Engagement with Brand Pages on Social Networking Sites.” Journal of Interactive Advertisement. vol. 13, no. 2, 2013, pp. 76-87.
Social media has completely transformed advertising in modern society. In the past, passing promotional messages to the consumers was on a one-way mode where advertisers could not get instant feedback from the customers through the same platforms. However, that has completely changed in modern society thanks to the emergence of social media. The social media platforms are making it possible for advertising agencies to engage their consumers in an interactive platform. Social networking sites enable advertisers to engage the companies promoting specific brands. The study looked at both implicit and explicit theories related to consumer behavior and how they are influenced by promotional messages. It looked at para-social interaction, community identification, and perceived source credibility as the main relationship factors that define consumer engagement with brands in social media.
In their article, the scholars contend that although advertisements in fashion are keen on dictating to the audience what they believe is trendy sometimes they reach out directly to the people and engage them when coming up with new trends. They get to ask them what their views are and what they would want to see in the new products. Facebook is one of the social media platforms actively being used by top brands to engage the targeted audiences to not only come up with new products but also new promotional messages. This non-manipulative approach of advertising is not very common in the fashion industry where there is always some kind of a race towards the new and the unique. An item introduced in the market today may not last long before being considered old-fashioned and that requires some degree of manipulating the audience.
Wood, Natalie, and Michael Solomon. Virtual Social Identity and Consumer Behavior. Taylor & Francis, 2015.
The world is rapidly changing thanks to the major changes that have been witnessed in emerging technologies. In this book, the scholars argue that technology is not just making work easy but it is also introducing a new way of life. The emergence of virtual reality is making it possible for people to lead a life that would otherwise be just a pipe dream. Through virtual reality, a person who has never been to the moon can create an image of him in the moon and experience what it would be like to be in the moon. VR technology makes the experience so real that one feels like he or she is actually in the moon while in essence he or she is just seated in a VR studio at home, in school, or along the streets.
Social media is also making it possible for people to sometimes assume identities that are not their own, making it possible to impersonate others or pretend to be someone else. They call this phenomenon of virtual social identity. The scholars argue that virtual social identity may have a significant impact on the behavior of people. The idea that one can do or say anything without his or her identity being revealed creates some sense of fearlessness. The invisibility that is created by the virtual mask makes one believe that one can commit a crime and get away with it. The sense of responsibility may be lost completely making it easy for one to be tempted into criminal activities. The media portrayal of criminals who engage in cybercrime also motivates people to use virtual social identity to harm others.
McDonald Matthew, Stephen Wearing. Social Psychology and Theories of Consumer Culture: A Political Economy Perspective. Taylor & Francis, 2013.
The work of these scholars focused on social psychology in modern society and theories of consumer culture. The book looks at some of the major theories and models that define consumer behavior. Other than the explicit Theory of Demand and Supply, the book also explores other implicit psychoanalytic theories of consumers. It is common to find a situation where a customer opts to purchase an item that is expensive not because he or she has used it before, but because of the belief that it offers a better value than the one that is priced cheaply. A rational person would be expected to opt for a cheaper product. However, through media campaigns, perception is often created in the minds of people that when something is expensive, then it offers an added value to its users. The scholars also look at the issue of self-identity in modern consumer culture. In theories of human development, it is believed that adolescents are the most affected by the need for belonging. However, the scholars believe that irrespective of one’s age, there will always be a desire to belong to a given group. The kind of materials exposed to the people in the media influences their perception of what they believe to be ideal. As such, they tend to define their self-identity based on these perceptions. Consumer culture is, therefore, influenced by the beliefs of people. Their purchasing pattern will be based on what they have been made to believe is the right thing in society.
Tamara, Ansons, et al. Handbook of Research on Digital Media and Advertising: User Generated Content Consumption. IGI Global, 2012.
The digital media has completely transformed advertising in the contemporary world. In the past, advertisers used mass media to pass promotional campaigns in the market. However, the emergence of social media has completely transformed promotional strategies. While using mass media, the strategy was to come up with a promotional message that would be convincing to the audience. However, scholars note that the strategy is changing when using social media platforms. The focus is to pass a compelling message that is not only convincing but also capable of eliciting positive debate among the audience. In social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube, the audiences can and often respond to promotional messages, especially when they feel that what a brand promises is not what it delivers.
The firm must first confirm that its product proposition is aligned with product attributes. As such, those who have used the product can conform to the rest of the population that what they were promised is what was delivered. User-generated content in this context refers to a deliberate attempt by the advertising agencies to ensure that the promotional campaigns is exactly what the audience expects and identifies within the market. The advertisement agencies must, therefore, understand the popular culture as portrayed in the media. However, the scholars warn that not everything portrayed in the media makes up popular culture. That is why digital media makes it easy for firms to conduct research and to understand what consumers consider as valuable. When developing advertising messages, these scholars argue that in mind should be the need to ensure that their values and beliefs are clearly understood.
Buckingham, David. The Material Child: Growing Up in Consumer Culture. Polity, 2011.
In modern society, children are growing up in a highly commercialized world. They are constantly bombarded by constant manipulative advertisements that make them see the world from a completely different perspective compared with the older generation. The scholar argues that it may not be easy to determine whether the modern-day children are either victims of manipulative marketing or willing participants in the materialized world. On one end, it is easy to believe that they are victims of these manipulative advertisements. They are constantly reminded that certain things are good for them. For example, confectionaries are advertised in such admirable ways that these children cannot avoid the temptation to take them. So are other products such as hamburgers and pizzas. Video games are also popularized in media campaigns. However, no one is actively promoting health habits such as regular exercise and lean food. These children grow up valuing things that pose health risks such as obesity, diabetes, and coronary diseases. They have been manipulated so much by the advertisements that they forget the need to lead healthy lives.
The situation is complicated by peer pressure. Given that their peers are also impacted by these advertisements, a social identity is formed that these children would want to belong. It means that even if they had the personal drive to lead a different lifestyle, the pressure from the peers would force them into these practices. On the other end, the author argues that these children tend to become competent participants in consumer culture. They get to learn about the dangers of some types of food, the need to engage in physical activities, and the health benefits of staying healthy. However, they continue to embrace the consumer culture as promoted by the campaigners. It would be expected that as rational people, they would follow what they know would be beneficial to them and their loved ones. Their decision to continue with a given behavioral pattern despite the obvious dangers makes them party to the consumer culture, not victims.
Figure 1: Trending fashion designs.
Jobling, Paul. Advertising Menswear: Masculinity and Fashion in the British Media Since 1945. McMillan, 2014.
In this book, the scholar specifically focuses on the impact that advertising had on menswear soon after the Second World War to the modern society. The book makes an important to refer to the concept of ‘peacock male’ that emerged in the 1950s. In this era in British society, a new culture emerged where men paid special attention to what they wore. The culture then was promoted by the media, emphasized on the need for men to be like peacocks, always attractive and keen on their attire. The United Kingdom was recovering from the devastating war and companies were experiencing a boom. However, these companies needed to address a specific problem in the fashion industry.
Women were more focused on fashion than men were, and this meant that firms specializing in menswear registered low sales. To address this problem, they came up with and aggressively promoted the culture of peacock men. This culture was seen as the only way of introducing a new social identity among men. To be a peacock man, one had to dress up in a given manner. Using celebrities such as Charlie Chaplin, the advertisers were able to inculcate the culture among British men, thereby promoting sales in menswear. In the 1960s as globalization took shape, international celebrities such as John Wayne were used to promote popular culture in British society. To this day, advertising menswear still uses top celebrities to promote sales. The figure below shows popular images during peacock men culture
Figure 2: Men’s fashion wear.
Methodology
In this proposal development stage, it is important to define the methodology that the researcher will use when conducting the actual research. The methodology helps in defining steps that will be followed to collect and analyze data to respond to the set hypotheses. The researcher intends to use both primary and secondary sources of data to answer research questions. Secondary data will be obtained from books, journal articles, and reliable online sources. Primary data will be collected from a sample of respondents. The researcher intends to interview experts in these areas of knowledge when collecting the needed data.
Research Questions
In this proposal, it is necessary to come up with questions that must be answered to help achieve research objectives. The following are the primary questions that will form the basis of our research questionnaire to be used during the interviews:
What is the relationship between fashion and social identity in modern society?
How is fashioned shaped by advertisements in modern society?
How has advertising in fashion impacted upon social identity?
Why would people allow themselves to be influenced in decision making by fashion advertisements?
What can be done to align emerging fashion with cultural values and identities?
The researcher will use both primary and secondary sources of data to respond to the above questions.
Research Hypotheses
The research hypotheses try to respond to the research questions using preliminary data during the research. The following are the research hypotheses that the researcher will test during primary data analysis.
H1. A close relationship exists between fashion and social identity in modern society.
H2. Fashion can only take shape in society when promoted through advertisements.
H3. Advertising in fashion has introduced a new social identity in society.
H4. The decisions that people make are often informed by the knowledge gathered in media platforms.
H5. Advertisers need to embrace cultural values and practices when promoting their products.
These hypotheses will be tested during the primary data analysis stage after collecting data from the field.
Research Approach and Methodology
It is critical to define the research approach at this stage to help define the kind of data that should be collected from the field. This study will take the form of a survey. It means that the researcher will go identify the appropriate respondents through a simple sampling method and then engage them in an interview to find a response to the above questions. A face-to-face interview will be appropriate in this study. It will allow the researcher to engage the respondents in discussions that will address any unclear issues in the study. After collecting the needed data, the researcher will use a mixed methodology of analyzing the data. The quantitative research method will help in quantifying the magnitude of the impact advertising in fashion has had upon social identity. The method will enable the researcher to present the data in graphical form. Qualitative analysis will help in explaining the phenomena involved in advertising in the fashion and social identity development. The two methods will facilitate comprehensive data analysis.
Research Design
When planning to conduct a research project, it is important to come up with a comprehensive action plan that identifies the individual activities that should be conducted to achieve the desired outcome. The plan should schedule the activities and identify the milestones in the project. The following table 1 shows an action plan for the scheduled activities in this project.
Activity/Time
April 2017
May 2017
June 2017
July 2017
Aug 2017
Sep 2017
Oct 2017
Proposal Development
X
Approval of Proposal
X
Sampling and Informing
X
Review of Literatures
X
Primary Data Collection
X
Analysis of Primary Data
X
Compilation and Presentation
X
The graphical presentation of the activities as shown above identifies the individual activities that must be accomplished and their timeline to ensure that overall success is achieved in this study. The first activity is proposal development. The researcher is currently developing a proposal that will guide the process of conducting the research. It is scheduled to be completed within April. The next step will be the approval of the proposal by the lecturer. The lecturer may want to adjust the proposal in any way or will be convinced that the proposal is adequate to initiate the research project. The researcher expects the process of approving this proposal to take one month given that there are proposals for other students that also need approval. When approved, the researcher will move to the next step of sampling the respondents are directly requesting them to be part of the study. This must be done as early as possible to ensure that we have the participants needed for this research.
The researcher will then go to the next phase of reviewing existing literature on this topic. The process of collecting all the needed secondary data sources and reviewing them is expected to take one month. The researcher will then go to the field to conduct the primary research. As mentioned before, it will involve a face-to-face interview with the respondents. After collecting the needed data, the researcher will conduct analysis using qualitative and quantitative methods. The last task will be to compile and present the report. As shown in the above plan, it is expected that the whole process will be completed by the end of October 2017. It is assumed that the researcher will not encounter any major disruptive obstacles that may halt the entire process.
Works Cited
Buckingham, David. The Material Child: Growing Up in Consumer Culture. Polity, 2011.
Jobling, Paul. Advertising Menswear: Masculinity and Fashion in the British Media Since 1945. McMillan, 2014.
Kuada, John. Research Methodology: A Project Guide for University Students. Samfundslitteratur, 2012.
Leavitt, Peter, et al. “Frozen in Time: The Impact of Native American Media Representations on Identity and Self-Understanding.” Journal of Social Issue, vol. 71, no. 1, 2015, pp. 39-53.
McDonald Matthew, Stephen Wearing. Social Psychology and Theories of Consumer Culture: A Political Economy Perspective. Taylor & Francis, 2013.
Morey, Anne. Genre, Reception, and Adaptation in the Twilight Series. Routledge, 2016.
Moss, Mark. The Media and the Models of Masculinity. Lexington Books, 2011.
Tamara, Ansons, et al. Handbook of Research on Digital Media and Advertising: User Generated Content Consumption. IGI Global, 2012.
Tsai, Sunny and Rita Linjuan. “Motivations and Antecedents of Consumer Engagement with Brand Pages on Social Networking Sites.” Journal of Interactive Advertisement. vol. 13, no. 2, 2013, pp. 76-87.
Wood, Natalie, and Michael Solomon. Virtual Social Identity and Consumer Behavior. Taylor & Francis, 2015.
As it was stated in the introduction part of the article under analysis, a study was conducted to test one hypothesis whether buying motivations of representatives of generation X and generation Y are identical when they reach a particular age.
Providing clear definitions of the two generations, the article discusses the differences in lifestyles and perceptions of jobs and consumer goods in representatives of both generations and marketers’ strategies applied to these age groups.
The study combined three research methods, including those of a survey mailed to high school teachers and college tutors, several day observations conducted by one person at the local mall and interviews with experienced marketers.
The results retrieved from the survey and discussed in this article focused mainly on the demographic characteristics of the participants with only a few sentences devoted to the clothing brands preferred by representatives of different generations.
The discussion of the results of observation and interviews was fragmented and included only a few remarks of particular individuals without detailed summary and critical analysis of the collected data. The article discussed the research limitations which mainly focused on the specifics of the research design. The two tables included into the article contained the summarized information on the survey results.
The discussion of the research results focused mainly on attitudes of representatives of generation X and generation Y to different criteria in making a choice of certain clothing items and a place for shopping.
The conclusions drawn by the author from these results were rather unexpected because they touched upon the dominant personal characteristics of generations and even their attitudes to purchasing the real estate. The following discussion of the advertizing strategies used for each generation were not linked to the research results and based mainly upon the author’s personal opinion.
Even though the author concluded that the hypothesis included into the introduction regarding the identical needs and motivations in representatives of different generations is valid, the rest of the discussion does not support this claim.
Positioning of the paper within the academic area
As it is stated in the title of this article, it was intended to be a practitioner paper and to have certain practical implications. Regarding the positioning of this paper within the academic area, it can be stated that it may be relevant for marketers developing advertizing strategies for clothing companies and clothing malls.
However, analyzing the choice of the hypothesis for this study as well as the discussion of the research findings, it can be stated that the research findings of this paper cannot be readily used by marketers in their professional practice.
This article can be of little value for the marketers because of its limitations and lack of evidence for drawing the conclusions which were made by the author. Dias did not discuss the main motivations for conducting this study which could include the lack of research of certain problems or certain limitations of similar studies which were conducted previously.
The disparity between the research goals, methods, results and conclusions significantly reduces the value of this paper. Its findings could be of potential value for the marketers if the author had aligned the discussion of the research results with the main hypothesis and research objectives.
Critique of the paper: the six strengths of the article
Analyzing the research design, methods and manner of representation of the achieved results, it can be stated that the article under analysis has a number of strengths and weaknesses.
The first strength of this article is the use of the statistics data and precise definitions of the age groups of generation X and generation Y. This characteristic enables the potential readers of this article to obtain a clear understanding of the research question and the main characteristics of the participants. The second strength of this paper is the use of in-text citations.
The parenthetical citations show the amount of preliminary research conducted by the scholar and support the claims made by the author with assumptions of other researchers working in the same domain. The third strength of this article is a detailed description of the research methods, sampling and research participants involved into the study.
This description enables the target audience of this article to evaluate the relevance of the chosen research methods and validity of the received results and conclusions. The fourth strength of this paper is the combination of three research methods.
The combination of different approaches might be helpful for comparing the achieved results to ensure their validity and compensating for particular limitations attributed to each of them. This complex design could have improved the reliability of the study. The fifth strength of the article is the discussion of limitations of each of the three research methods.
According to Bryman and Bell (2007, p. 105), the awareness of limitations of the topic area and research methods can lead the researchers and readers towards better understanding of the research problem. Therefore, the discussion of limitations included into this article demonstrates the author’s broad understanding of the research problem and the potential value of her findings.
The sixth strength of the paper under analysis is a substantial discussion section which was intended to interpret the research findings. The discussion section is valuable for explaining the main conclusions made in the study and pointing out at the major premises making the author to draw such conclusions.
Therefore, the organization of the paper under analysis as well as the research in general has a number of strengths which increase the significance of this paper.
The six weaknesses of the article and suggestions for improvement
Apart from the limitations of the study design discussed by the author, this paper has a number of weaknesses which offer a potential for improvement in case if a similar study is conducted in the future.
The first weakness of this study is the disparity between the reference list and the in-text citations. For instance, in the introduction part Dias (2003, p. 78) mentions a book Generation X by Coupland and even provides particular examples from this book but does not include in-text citations and does not include this source into the reference list.
The same goes for the statistics data retrieved from the US Census Bureau which is not properly cited either. Additionally, in particular episodes the author makes claims without supporting them with citations of certain reliable sources that is inadmissible for a scholarly article. As to the reference list, it contains only four sources which are not enough for conducting a profound research.
Even though these sources are relevant and significant, they are insufficient for a scholarly research. The recommendation for improvement is to include a more detailed literature review, add up to twenty sources to the reference list and use in-text citations when making certain claims for which support of legitimate sources is necessary.
The second weakness of this paper is the disparity between the research goals and methods. The three research methods are aimed at collecting the data which is irrelevant for supporting the main claim made in the introduction part of the article.
According to Adams, Raeside, and Khan (2007, p. 32), to evaluate the quality of a particular research, one should answer the question whether the conclusions made by the author make logical sense in their relation to the hypotheses formulated at the beginning. Analyzing the initial hypothesis and the conclusions drawn by the scholar, it can be stated that they make logical sense.
However, taking into consideration the methods used in this research, the survey and observation results, it can be stated that the conclusions concerning the identity of the buying motivations in representatives of different generations could not be drawn from the research results discussed in this article.
Therefore, even though the conclusion is linked to the initial hypothesis, it does not have logical sense, taking into account the research results and the argumentation provided by Dias. The recommendation for improvement of this point is to align the research methods with the main hypothesis and objectives.
The third weakness of this paper is the use of observation method for defining the consumers’ buying motivations. Cooper and Schindler (2011, p. 215) noted that one of the main limitations of the observation method is its inappropriateness for gathering information on such topics as preferences and attitudes. Therefore, the method of observation is not suitable for the research question.
The suggestion for improvement would be to replace the method of observation with a more appropriate technique. The fourth weakness of this article is the inappropriate distribution of surveys for gathering the information on the attitudes of generation X and generation Y. By sending these surveys to colleges and high schools, the scholar could not access the representatives of both generations.
Though the age of college students can vary, the majority of college population is no older than 23. Consequently, taking into account the year 2003 when the survey was conducted, it can be stated that both groups of participants belonged to the generation Y who were born between the years 1981 and 2002.
The suggestion for improvement of this significant weakness is to send a part of surveys to enterprises and ask the employees to answer them.
The fifth weakness was discussion of limitations before the discussion of the research results. This feature can reduce the validity of the research results. The recommendation for improvement is to include this section before the main conclusion. The section of limitation is valuable but it should be one of the final parts of the scholarly article because it offers the improvements and directions for further research of the topic.
The sixth weakness is the tables on page 84 which are difficult to interpret and are not the best way for presenting the research results. The improvement of this point can be achieved by changing the structure of these tables and their graphical layout.
Consequently, this article has a number of significant weaknesses which substantially decrease the value of this paper.
Validity and reliability of the research findings
Judging from the weaknesses of this article which were discussed in the previous section, it can be stated that the findings of this study cannot be regarded as valid and reliable.
The inappropriateness of research methods for exploring this topic, the inconsistency of the research goals, methods and outcomes, not to mention the overall organization of report and insufficient references decrease the value of this article and do not allow making any generalizations.
Not to mention the convenient sampling that was mentioned by the author as one of the limitations of the study, the sample was not representative and even did not include the required number of representatives of the generation X. Additionally, the results of the recent studies have presented conclusions opposite to the conclusion made by Dias (2003).
Van Den Bergh, Behrer and Kerkstoel (2011, p. 11) noted that generation can be defined as a product of current times and people cannot become identical to their parents when reaching a particular age.
The assumption made by Dias (2003, p. 85) concerning the same categories of products as their parents bought, including cars and baby clothing does not mean that generation Y will select the same products and the same brands. Therefore, this claim cannot be a basis for generalization.
In general, the findings of this article could be of practical value for marketers, but further research is required for investigating this question and minimizing the limitations.
Conclusion
As it can be seen from the critique of the main strengths and weaknesses of the article by Dias, the study of generational buying motivations had significant limitations which reduce the validity, reliability and practical value of its findings.
Due to the inappropriate research methods and the discrepancy between the research goals and methods, on the one hand, and the research results and conclusions, on the other hand, the argumentation provided by Dias (2003) cannot be regarded as sufficient for supporting her hypothesis.
References
Adams, J., Raeside, R., & Khan, H. (2007) Research methods for graduate business and social science students. Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications.
Bryman, A. & Bell, E. (2007) Business research methods. New York, Oxford University Press.
Cooper, D. & Schindler, P. (2011) Business research methods. 11th edition. New York, McGraw Hill.
Dias, L. P. (2003) Generational buying motivations for fashion. Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 7 (1), pp. 78 – 86.
Van Den Bergh, J., Behrer, M. & Kerkstoel, G. (2011) How cool brands stay hot: Branding to generation Y. Philadelphia, Kogan Page Limited.
At the beginning, it is essential to admit, that currently the fashion industry is being completely committed to fierce and long-standing rivalry. Making one’s business successful and profitable, managing this market competition requires implying new programs, developing projects, that enable to acquire desirable receipts by gathering a considerable amount of target customers around one’s product.
Licensing as a way of brand extension in fashion industry proves to be an effective means of creating the stimulating environment for company’s further progress. Generally, the term “brand licensing” implies a strategy of admission of a company given to a licensee to spread the products under its trademark.
Due to this, the licensee has a legal right to develop, produce, represent, and merchandise different kinds of products using the name and the logo of the partner brand company. Moreover, licensing is being treated not only as brand’s building, but also as its rescue through launching new products and getting attention of the audience.
However, the topic of using licensing in brand extension has to be more thoroughly examined and analyzed, which will be the purpose of this paper.
The objective of the study is to make a deep insight analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of implying licensing process as a potential impetus to brand popularisation. In the paper there will be considered different circumstances connected with implementation of licensing method.
Brand licensing as a popular up-to-date strategy of improving the position of a particular brand on the world market reflects the importance of the study.
While carrying out a research, the scientific method and the method of critical literature analysis were employed.
During studying the topic, a great amount of relevant literature was being used and analysed. Firstly, I have to mention the work of Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J,m Anderson, R. E., and Tatham, R. L. called Multivariate Data Analysis.
There, the writers accurately uncover and characterize the whole complexity of the system of multivariate data analysis, which implies the performance of marketing through simultaneous observation of different statistical variables.
Therefore, the book shows how licensing can interfere with the other processes taking place in a certain company. Due to multivariate analysis, licensing is viewed through a prism of measurement scales and is considered as an alternative technique to satisfying customers’ demands.
The next literature source, that was being used, is the work of Ray Kent Marketing Research – Approaches, Methods and Application in Europe. Having become marketing researcher, Ray Kent has devoted his book to the processes, that currently take place on the market, particularly in Europe.
Naturally, lisencing as one of the most popular strategies of brand building and brand extension was one of the important themes in Mr.Kent’s research. He has imperically analysed the core elements of licensing, how they are correlated and how they function in order to achieve the intended purpose.
Comparing the two sources, we can notice, that the first is concentrated on the mathematical-based analyses of marketing processes, whereas the second describes the way the licensing in particular is applied, why more and more European trademarks venture implying this marketing discipline.
“A brand can take some risks. A strong brand is resilient and can stand some extension…, especially if the extension has some degree of separation.” , says David Aaker, (Aaker, 138) the author of numerous marketing books, which include the one I have used during managing my research, Building Strong Brands. The author has been working on a problem of brand identity and brand building programs.
As it can be inferred, the strategy of licensing was being considered as a reasonable opportunity of extanding the trademark, exploiting the brand. However, David Aaker, supporting the idea of licensing, warns the reader about possible negative cases of applying this business strategy.
His work “Brand Leadership” and “Brand Portfolio Strategy” are also partly devoted to this question. “In 1993, 37% of Gillette’s sales were accounted for by products launched in the five previous years. By launching new innovations when the previous are barely established, Gillette keeps ahead of the competition. Brand extension communicates vision and values of the brand. Fashion brands have always understood this.
When Chanel produce a limited range of skis and snowboots giving them away free to supermodels hitting the slopes, they strengthened their grip on Chanel’s ownership of the quality of luxury: brand extension as marketing.”(Aaker, 87)
There the author expresses a differentiation between “volume-” and “luxury-concentrated” companies, indicating, that the latter imply the licensing strategy less frequently than the first in order to preserve brand’s entity and uniqueness.
Undoubtedly, in the case of brand extension, a considerable hazard to brand’s equity is introduced, as states David Aaker states, but the licensing strategy is the best option for the company to grow and to spread new products into new markets.
The writer has offered to discussion a special scheme. It indicates, that only in a case of brand relevance being beyond the organizational competence brand extension makes a great sense, resulting in gradual brand building and reasonable profit making.
However, “A side effect of extending beyond the company’s core competencies is that it can result in a change of perception and direction for the brand. ”, notices the marketing researcher. (Aaker, 281)
Finally, the author states “The most important contributing factor to the success of a licensed brand is the quality of the manufacturer, which is why it is absurd for brandowners to limit their options to only the most persistent courtiers. ” (Aaker, 305) Indeed, poor quality of a new product, launched to the market can spoil the real brand’s image, authority, which is undoubtedly hard to gain.
This idea is strongly supported by an international authority on brand management and marketing Jean Noel Kapferer in his work Strategic Brand Management. There he has expressed the point of view: “Brands are rejuvenated by new products matching new needs, not by advertising.” (Kapferer, 13) admitting that licensing in terms of performing new products and launching them stimulates interest and, accordingly, revenues.
Jean Kapferer expresses the point of view, that the most prospective brand managers are looking for potential opportunities and free places on the market through the increasingly spread process of branding. The author describes the conditions under which global branding works best and presents possible dangers, that may occur. He illustrates the most effective ways and strategies of brand management.
Kevin Lane Keller, a Professor of Marketing, is famous for his work Strategic Brand Management, where he gives a list of special strategies and tactics of building and developing a brand. “Because it can be a shortcut to building brand equity, licensing has gained in popularity.”, (Keller, 114) admits the author.
However, at the same time he expresses the risk that a company is likely to run when applying the technique of licensing inappropriately: “Inappropriate licensing can dilute brand meaning with consumers and marketing focus within the organization.” (Keller, 122)
“Business success was fuelled in particular by licensing of his name for products other than the seasonal designer clothing that made Calvin Klein a household name.” (Keller, 124) Indeed, the CK brand has announced numerous licensing programs of production of golf and other kinds of sport apparel, cosmetics and fragrances. The latter, at a turn, has become a reasonable shot in brand’s extension.
“Other licensing agreements have led to a Harley Barbie doll, Harley cologne, a Harley Visa card” (Keller, 125), led the author, explaining, that inventing new products under the certain brand results in satisfaction of the former customers’ needs and expectations.
Harley Davidson, as a lifestyle, will be undoubtedly appreciated by loyal consumers not only in terms of motorcycles, but also in production of new items, which are intended to create comfort and security.
Alina Wheeler, the author of Designing Brand Identity, has worked on a topic of developing a new brand and revitalizing existing one. This edition explains disciplined and collaborative processes, brand strategies that may lead to brand’s prosperity and world-recognition.
Unlike other authors, Alina Wheeler is looking into a branding process from another point of view, dispelling its essence and reformatting it into a global relation of five stages of methods.
She considers that the most fertile factor of brand development is not that, which leads the company to implying licensing programs, but that, which actually serves as the outer face of the company, the most elementary issues like design, form, and color. In brand revival she prefers alteration in the higher described terms to the technique of licensing.
Integrated Intellectual Asset Management by Steve Manton, offers a comprehensive explanation to appropriate exploitation of the brands’ intellectual assets. This can be achieved by involving the organizations’ management in different kinds of strategies, one of which is brand licensing. This proves the following citation:
“Intellectual asset strategy should address issues, such as:
How intellectual assets underpinning the organization’s key differentiating and enabling capabilities are to be managed;
Whether the organization will seek to generate revenue from its intellectual assets via licensing, and if so, how opportunities are to be realized;
How the organization will use trademarks to protect, develop and exploit its brand.” (Manton, 105)
So, Steve Manton identifies licensing to the list of strategies of intellectual assets management.
Summarizing the contents of different literature sources, we can observe the tendency of wide application of the brand licensing strategy.
The world known researchers on marketing and management have approved of using licensing technique to extend a certain brand and move it further into new markets by finding new customers for lately-launched products.
Requirements To The Licensee Company And A Brief Outview Of The Contract Points
However, according to research, not every brand has a possibility of extension via licensing, there are several universal rules for the potential licensors. Firstly, a large majority of licensing agencies are likely to deal with well-developed companies, which already have a firm basis and consider licensing strategy as an additional activity. Secondly, the brand pretending to being licensed has to be an expert in the product it is producing.
Without a firm ground a trademark is, of course, able to launch new products, but they are likely to end in fiasco as far as a customer has not developed a clear image of the initial brand product yet. The next requirement the brand has to possess is its ability to be quickly recognized through its logo, form or color.
Moreover, the brand has to lead clear policy according to its development steps, because while becoming famous, a company has not to overexpose to the customer and overload the brand strategy program. Finally, a company has to consist of well-organized staff, the inner infrastructure should also be corresponding, creating a strong team, which in cooperation manages the aim of the company.
At first, I have to mention that a standard contract has to include detailed information about both trademarks, their registration numbers, the territory and term, during which a contract functions. Next, a licensee has to sign under the statements, that
a licensee company has no legal right to own the brand;
licensing is not a joint venture;
a licensee is obliged to preserve the reputation of the brand;
both sides are not supposed t expose all the details of their contract.
According to the contract, a licensee has a legal right to merchandize the products, approved by a licensor company, and does not need to fear infringement. At its own turn, the licensor company has to provide appropriate support to the licensee company, which includes the profound observation of marketing, advertising, and even packaging.
The licensee company is normally allowed to apply the name of the brand company on the packaging; however, the licensor can as well deny the usage of the name on promotional material.
Due to the contract, a licensor has all the possibility to recall the product production and all its marketing, no matter if the process has already begun or not. Moreover, a licensor has the right to prove all licensee’s accounts without a previous warning and inspect the whole factory.
Under the circumstances of not selling the product within the particular territory during the particular time, a licensor has the right to suggest a territory to another licensee company.
Before launching the product, a licensee is obliged to perform it to the licensor brand company and receive either approval or denial. Generally, a licensee’s production has to respond to industry standard. In the appointed term, a licensee has to pay a certain percentage royalty and permanently send reports about marketing process.
A licensee company is liable to merchandize the products only through the allowed channels. The licensor, at a turn, has to keep the licensee informed about the possible marketing plans changes and provide with advance consultation about future marketing options.
“Brand is more than just a label on a product”, they say. Indeed, in modern world it has become a lifestyle, where certain people are being identified to a certain trademark, creating at a time a special community. This community is an expression of loyalty to the brand, the indicator of products’ reliability and quality.
Though, nowadays market due to brands’ fierce competition forces them to apply new strategies, innovative ideas, perform different kinds of products to encourage audience’s interest and heighten demand. Undoubtedly, the one, who is the most creative and ingenious, exposed to changes and improvements, will not only be afloat, but also conquer higher positions in the world trade.
Correspondingly, many companies, especially in world fashion, are actively taking up such business strategy as brand licensing. The latter is being considered an efficient tool not only for gaining a considerable profit, but also for building up a brand, its extension, which is, namely, the topic of my research.
Having defined the term “brand licensing” at the beginning of my research, and having analyzed several literature, concerning this topic, I can surely state, that licensing as a strategy of brand extension is a perfect idea to refresh the brand in the memory of its customers, to offer new products as a definition of brand’s vitality and direction. Generally, extending the brand deepens its sense, delivers its meaning and values to a customer.
In fact, brand’s extension into new markets indicates the level of its development. Brand extension usually receives a feedback in market because the appearance of new products causes customers’ attitude change and gradually boosts the consumption of the innovative items.
Analyzing the positive sides of providing fashion brand licensing, I have to enumerate the following points:
Brand licensing is the only tool existing for reasonable brand extension without tremendous investments, but with considerable revenues
The initial brand company is free from many points of legal consideration, such as different tasks of developing new outlet, which will be the duty of licensee
A fashion brand company acquires a new look and image by launching new products
Licensee is considered to have stronger incentive than ordinary working man to realize their product, due to the fact, that their whole business depends on it
From the other side, licensee company with buying a patent for presenting a brand, has already a quick start, because the image of it is already created
Mentioning negative points of brand licensing program implementation, I would like to start with the following statement: “Whether an extension is good or bad, logical or illogical, doesn’t correlate to success in the marketplace,” observes Robert Sprung, CEO of Tipping Sprung, a New York-based brand-extension consultancy.
“Just because it sells well doesn’t mean it’s good for the brand in the long term.” (Sprung) In opinion, Robert Sprung is completely right, because
the licensing strategy as a strategy of brand extension cannot assure of the desirable results, which depend on several aspects including the relevance and quality of the newly launched products;
the initial brand company risks its equity and entity;
the initial brand company can lose demand on its own production with the rising interest in licensee’s product;
the initial brand company, even being worldwide recognized and approved can lose its position due to poor quality of new licensee’s production;
However, despite having positive and negative characteristics, the strategy of brand licensing is being popular for a long time already.
Annually, such events as Licensing International, Brand Licensing Europe and Brand Licensing Central and Eastern Europe are being held with the purpose of representation a brand to a wide audience of potential licensees. Such popular fashion trademarks as Polo, Calvin Klein, Dolce & Gabbana are being licensed by the other companies to produce new items and accessories.
The main problem of our research lies in the issue of whether the licensing implication in high fashion industry really justifies the brand extension.
Taking to the topic of high fashion industry, at first we have to clarify the components it consists of. According to “Wikinvest”, high fashion industry is devided into five segments: haute couture, luxury, affordable luxury, mainstream, and discount. Giving a brief explanation to each of these segments, it is essential to know, that
Haute couture as the most expensive and highly appreciated out of all segments is managed by mere fashion organizations, that are to produce special-appointed garment for the richest people of the world;
The luxury segment has lower quality and price, though is appointed for wealthy customers;
Affordable luxury aims at the consumers, who are not wealthy enough to buy luxury brand production but are ready to consume lower-priced options;
The purpose of mainstream brands is popularisation;
Discount brands are appointed for low-income customers.
Due to this differentiation, we are going to analyze the relevance of implying brand licensing to the companies, which are distinguished by their target audience.
Firstly, I would like to admit, that the highest position of fashion industry called “haute couture” is unlikely to turn its trademarks to brand licensing. Haute couture is a specialized sector of clothing production, appointed only for the weathiest people in the world.
Therefore, such haute couture apparel makers as Giorgio Armani Privé (segment of Giorgio Armani), Christian Dior,Chanel, Givenchy (owned by LVMH Moet Hennessy L.V. (LVMUY)), Christian Lacroix and Emanuel Ungaro have time-long permanent clients and are secure of product’s realization.
Even at the time of unfirm economical situation in a country, these brands are not affected due to the fact, that the highest “strata” of society is also not radically affected and can continue spending millions on first-class garment.
The haute couture brands do not apply brand licensing in order to protect their products from becoming “popular”, to preserve their uniqueness. In this case, consequently, we can talk about irrelevance of brand extension in the whole.
The luxury-concentrated fashion brands such as Dolce & Gabbana, Prada, Gucci, Hermès, Lanvin put also the main accent on maintaining exclusivity of the product, not letting the representatives of middle and lower classes afford it. In contrast, the companies even limit the “access” to their products by raising their prize and simply reducing the production in order to acquire the status of being “exclusive”.
For instance, a famous trademark Burberry has reduced its production in 2002 to return to the definition of being luxurious, to intend its product only for the higher rank of people.
We can observe that at the time, when luxury fashion brand companies are separating themselves from the vast quantity of existing brands, the fashion companies of a lower rank, namely affordable luxury, mainstream and discount brands are giving their best to popularize their production.
As far as the target audience for such companies is higher middle, middle and lower class, the task they set is to realize the customer’s opportunities in launching new products, extending the marketing opportunities. That is why, one of the most applied strategy among garment-producing companies has proved to be brand licensing.
For example, in March 2007 Hugo Boss trade mark, a representative of affordable luxury brand companies, has signed a licensing contract with Swarovski Group Hoding, due to which the latter is enabled to produce and present to the market qualitative Hugo Boss jewelry for men and woman. Despite this, Hugo Boss has extended its brand through having such products as perfumes, cosmetics, and accessories licensed.
Observing the development of the fashion brand Hugo, we see, how the initial company in 1970, which was originally intended for production of men official apparel, has extended itself to numerous segments on the market. Obviously, for fashion industry brands it is an ideal technique of extending the meaning of their brand.
Considering mainstream and discount brands, to which belong Gap (GPS), Abercrombie & Fitch Company (ANF), Dress Barn (DBRN), Macy’s Inc. (M), Polo Ralph Lauren (RL) and others, we have to admit, that they are highly dependant on the economical situation of the country.
With the threat of recession, the quantity of customers lowers considerably, because the middle class is, correspondingly, dependant on the economy too. This is also one of the reasons why these fashion brand companies take to licensing strategies.
To withstand the crisis, a company frequently sells the patents to another company, which starts developing new ideas according to the demands of the customers’ sector and presenting the products to markets, making its own profit. The initial company, in its turn, not investing great sums of money, receives a certain percentage of revenue.
The new items launched into the market not only raise the customers’ interest, but also, being of a lower prise, are affordable for a consumer. Consequently, brand licensing can function not only as brand extension strategy, but also carry an additional function of companies’ avoiding bankruptcy at times of economical breakdown.
Generally, the research is orientated on the following questions:
In which cases has the fashion brand licensing positive, and in which negative aspects?
What hazards does the company face implying the licensing strategy?
What is the relation of the licensor and the licensee?
On what issues has a licensor company obligation to concentrate while applying the strategy of brand licensing?
Firstly, having analyzed higher mentioned information, I should conclude, that fashion brand licensing as a tool of brand extension does not justify itself in terms of applying it to the haute couture and luxury-concentrated fashion industry. In this case, it carries negative points, as far as brand extension will be treated as an inappropriate policy according to the company’s direction.
Secondly, I would like to express, that licensing serves as an absolutely relevant strategy of brand extension for mainstream and discount brands. This is because they are intended for the wide audience and popularization is their main purpose.
For some brand managers, licensing is a method to get their brands in front of consumers in new ways. For others, it’s a way to bring to market new products without taking on the risk and investment internally.
For manufacturers, licensing becomes a way to differentiate in a crowded marketplace where surviving on price alone is a scary proposition. But one way or another, the licensor has to establish a strong relationship with the licensee, as far as only clear communication and understanding between the both parts are responsible for achieving the desirable results.
The positive side of using brand licensing method is that the licensee company in comparison with the licensor has equal interest in products’ realization, it stands for brand’s innovation and ensures that new products will deliver real added brand value. The licensee company has never been intended to spoil the image of the initial brand company.
However, having acquired a license of using a certain trademark, manufacturers often move in the direction of reducing the product’s price, making, consequently, steps backward in product quality. As practice shows, sooner or later, constant price-cut leads to inevitable brand-destruction.
One of the most important things while implying strategy of fashion brand licensing is the requirement of relevance maintaining. The latter means that while the tastes are constantly changing, the fashion brand company has to remain at least partly loyal to the direction it led earlier.
For example, the customer would be negatively impressed if Burberry turned to the production of football garment only due to temporary increasing interest of customers in this type of garment.
Turning back to the paper’s aim and problems, we can observe the obvious relation of them to each other. Firstly, the aim of the paper lies in fundamental analyses of the process of licensing as a tool of brand extension, what is inextricably connected with comparing the negative and the positive points of the implementation of brand licensing.
What is more, as an objective was set to analyze the relevance of application of licensing to each segment of fashion industry.
The problem of the research lied in the question whether exactly brand licensing is appropriate strategy in extending the brand. Having analyzed all the aspects, I have come to conclusion that taking up the strategy of spreading the brand’s marketing opportunities through licensing has more advantages than disadvantages.
The full list of them has been enumerated higher, indicating that the both sides – a licensor and a licensee – are making reasonable profit out of this contract.
Print media has been the most powerful pathway for the transmission of fashion, fashion designs and other elements of the fashion industry. In fact, fashion magazines have been the key to the fashion industry (Stone, 2004). For several centuries, the fashion industry has increasingly taken the modern advantage of technological advancements in printing.
In turn, technological advancements have turned the industry into a major consumer of print technology. Nevertheless, towards the end of the 20th century, the fashion industry made a major trend by incorporating the internet (Stone, 2004). Since 2000, the fashion industry has experienced the influence of internet revolution.
Thousands of readers are migrating from print to online media. According to Kansara (2009a), readers are increasingly getting access to the free and abundant information available online. Moreover, according to Kansara (2009b), advertisers are also pulling out of the printing industry. Advertisers are the main source of revenues in print magazines (Hill, 2004).
Their migration from the print media (fashion magazines) to online magazines and blogs has left print magazines in a poor state. This state is actually forcing them out of business (Kansara 2009b). The situation worsened between 2008 and 2010 during the global economic crisis. For instance, major fashion companies were adversely affected by the crisis- major fashion and luxury titles declining significantly (Ovide & Adams, 2009).
According to Clifford (2009), renowned fashion publishers such as Conde Nast had their performances declining by 2009, a factor that worried many in the industry. In fact, Clifford (2009) asserts that the problem persuaded most people to evaluate the fashion industry within the context of migration from print to digital media.
Since then, major printers have resolved to increase their efforts towards digitalizing their business, which, with no doubt, is killing the print media (Keen, 2008). Currently, many print magazines are still circulating every year. Nevertheless, the value, volume and significance of the printed materials in the fashion industry are reducing (Stone, 2004).
Two important aspects of the digital world are worth discussion as a cause of the decline- the economics of print media versus digital media and the change of consumer preference from print media to digital media in the fashion industry. Therefore, the statement “print media is dead” seems to be true as far as the state of the migration is concerned.
The fashion industry and media as a popular culture
According to Storey (1997), a popular culture is simply defined as the culture that is widely appreciated and favoured or liked by many people and organizations. Storey asserts that such a quantitative index is the one that meets the approval of many parties. To provide an example, Storey argues that such objects as books, DVDs and CDs are part of a popular culture.
Within the context of media and the fashion industry, the print magazine presents a popular culture because they have enjoyed a wide appreciation and approval of many people across the globe (Albertazzi & Cobley 2010). In addition, fashion is a part of a culture that has been popular since ancient times. From Storey’s definition of popular culture, it is worth taking fashion media as a form of popular culture that has grown significantly with the development of media technologies since 1670s.
How did the fashion media develop into a popular culture?
To answer this question, it is necessary to review the presentation of fashion magazine and its historical context. According to Barker (2000), the first fashion magazine started in France in 1672, appearing under the title “Mercure Galant”. The magazine, which was printed in Paris, provided the public with information on the latest clothing styles. It quickly became popular throughout Western Europe.
By 1677, Louis XIV authorised the publisher to produce the magazine on a monthly basis as a way of enlightening the minds of his cabinet (Kondratiev 2010). At first, the magazine presented fashions in the form of drawings. However, with increasing popularity of the media, the publisher started producing issues of “Mercure Galant” with photographic representations of fashions.
In the 20th century, the magazine, together with others that had sprung up in the 19th and 20th centuries, used sophisticated print and photography innovations to deliver real presentations of fashion. The fashion media combined fashion and art. Later, the magazine included short articles written by artists. Therefore, a new era of fashion was born. It became a popular culture in the western world.
According to Bailey and Seock (2008), the most successful and long-lasting player in the fashion media is the “Vogue Magazine”, which was first printed in 1892 in the US. The magazine quickly gained popularity in the US and Europe because it had a high degree of duality. In fact, the Vogue delivered information on the latest trends in fashion. It combined fashion with art and photography (Bailey & Seock 2008).
After the Second World War, fashion media expended significantly due to changes in perceptions towards women and feminine priorities. In fact, fashion styles became more and more dynamic- the cycles of change from one fashion to another became a common phenomenon. Women became the main target- most of the magazines contained large volume of information on the latest and expected feminine fashions.
Secondly, by 1960s, the magazines had started targeting young people, including teenagers. In fact, teenagers had a greater desire and purchasing power for fashions. In addition, they had their own styles. It was also during this era that numerous fashion magazines emerged and became popular in Europe and America, including the Elle, Cosmopolitan, Vogue, Marie Claire, Glamour, InStyle and Grazia.
Characteristics of print fashion media as a popular culture
According to Fiske (1989), a culture is the social circulation of pleasures, values and meanings to the process of forming social identities and relationships and the process of entering into the daily life. On the other hand, Fiske (1989) defines the term “popular” as ‘…statistically what is most renowned or appealing to most people or institutions’.
Moreover, Fiske argues that “popular” serves the interest of the people. It is worth noting that the term “people” is used in reference to a shifting set of social positions and interests defined by their relations to the prominent society. From these definitions, Fiske defines popular culture as a culture of conflicts and resistances that involve a struggle to make meanings, values and pleasures to those people without power.
The conflict and opposition between the class of people with power and those without describe “popular culture”. It is evident that fashion media is a form of popular culture for a number of reasons. For instance, fashion magazines are made for the purpose of advertisement, which ensures that the corporate (the class with power), connects with the consumers (those without power).
It is also evident that fashion magazines develop a relationship between the two social groups. Conflicts and oppositions between people with power and those without it define this relationship. For example, the consumers need to have adequate information on fashion trends and latest designs. They also want to know the future of clothing styles.
On the other hand, the corporate want to “own” the mindsets of their consumers. They compete with each other over the control of their consumers. Using fashion magazines, the designers seek to control the readers and outdo their desire to know the future of clothing styles. The development of this system of relationships between the two sides has produced a popular culture that has become a part of the modern society.
The wide range of fashion magazines that have emerged over the last century has become a part of the mass media, but they seek to convey information on fashions and fashion design. The definition of fashion media is not complete without a reference to fashion magazine because magazines have been the dominant feature in fashion communication.
According to Blackman (2006), fashion magazine is “the printed publication that seeks to provide information and news on the latest trends in fashion”. Noteworthy, the definition also refers to the publications that are issued monthly. It further incorporates advertisements, articles and information on such things as clothing, forecast on fashions, cosmetics and other accessories related to fashion.
Another definition, given by Brian Moeran in his essay “More than just a fashion magazine”, sees fashion magazine as a sociologically interesting material with two aspects- cultural product and commodities (Moeran 2006). Fashion magazines tend to deliver information on experiential and models of behaviour that reflects the lives of the readers and their ideal self (Blackman 2006). As commodities, fashion magazines belong to the publishing world and are a popular advertising and sales medium.
Modern aspects of the fashion media
As described in the introduction part of the essay, the modern fashion media is a sophisticated industry that is currently experiencing tremendous changes that affect both the consumer and the publishers. Technological changes and the internet are the main factors that cause changes in the fashion media. The invention of the internet in 1990s and its presentation to the public was one of the major breakthroughs in the history of communication.
The internet has given consumers the opportunity to break the geographical barrier and transform their relationships with remote individuals and communities. In the modern context, the idea is to perceive the world as a web of social, cultural, economic and political interconnections enhanced by technologies that facilitate timely delivery of information.
Therefore, this is the philosophy behind the World Wide Web and digital communication. Information and data overload have resulted from the presence of a huge amount of information crated and used by consumers. It further defines the modern communication. In the fashion industry, the consumer of information has been one of the most affected groups after the invention of the internet.
Modern consumer behaviour and its impact on fashion media
The Web 2.0 is the rebirth of the internet technology as a social medium that allows free interaction between people and groups (Kansara 2009). It is no longer a one-way communication because it allows people to interact with each other and share information on various issues affecting communities and individuals.
In fact, the modern aspect of the internet technology has allowed a consumer-generated content, which means that consumers share information and opinions regarding products, services, brands companies and other issues using social networks, websites and blogs. It has also enhanced a two-way communication between consumers and producers.
Consumers are no left out of major decision-making processes in industries. In fashion media, the industry had set its business model as a profit-maker through printing. Therefore, profits are a crucial element for the survival of the print magazine. Magazines must fetch and attract a large audience if they are to make profits. However, Web 2.0 has brought significant changes in this model.
For instance, whereas the print magazines sought to “lock-in” customers by proving to be the product with the most useful information about fashion, the internet has facilitated the springing up of thousands of websites. Customers are free to visit these websites from their remote locations, which gives them the ability to make decisions when purchasing clothes.
Secondly, bloggers in the fashion industry are not mere internet users, but fashion consumers with a high interest in fashion. In the modern context, bloggers attend fashion shows and post pictures, photos and video clips with information on the latest fashion and fashion trends.
The Web 2.0 has produced a number of effects on the fashion industry due to the above-mentioned aspects. First, it has created and enhanced knowledge through information sharing. Considering the observation “knowledge is power”, it is clear that the internet has empowered consumers in the fashion industry. Consumers have taken the position of media professionals in the fashion industry by assuming the role of fashion journalists.
This is a critical situation because even the print magazines have to develop their own websites in order to interact with consumers. On the other hand, they have to endure criticism and enjoy appraisal from the consumer and consumer groups. In the modern context, media companies without websites and interactive platforms to engage consumers in dialogue have little chances of succeeding because consumers have the freedom to visit other websites that allow dialogue and socialization.
In fact, by just posting comments and suggestions on media websites, an armature becomes a professional. Consumers have assumed the role of fashion journalists, which gives them the power to examine publishers from all points of view. They gain the potential to publish both true and false information about companies. Publishers of fashion magazine must engage consumers in productive dialogue to avoid false information being posted on websites because it may destroy their reputations.
Print media cannot provide such platforms. It relies on company websites. Therefore, this aspect is affecting print materials in the fashion industry. In addition, consumers are increasingly creating websites and blogs to expose their feelings and opinions about fashion, designs and the fashion industry in general.
The amount of data available on the internet is impressively high. However, people tend to access this information and appreciate it with ease. Studies have shown that the internet-provided information is easily readable because it tends to be short and in the form of post messages. This means that the people’s ability to read information on print materials is on the decline.
In the fashion industry, this is a critical factor because the phenomenon has reduced the audience of the print magazine because people are migrating to the digitalised information. Since print magazines provide readable messages with junk information, consumers are increasingly opting to go for blogs, websites and social networks because they can find the information they need in the form of short messages and with large visual content.
Consumers tend to appreciate visual content (what they see) and shun written information (Schroeder 2004). Therefore, this factor is one of the issues that have contributed to the decline of the popularity of the printed fashion magazines. It is also worth noting that the fashion industry is concerned with consumer satisfaction. In fact, for a print media to improve its appreciation as a popular culture, it is necessary for it to retain its readers.
For example, consumers who read a magazine for the first time are likely to return to reading the same product again or failing to return based on whether there was an element of consumer satisfaction (Telsa 2010). If a fashion magazine did not satisfy the reader, it is likely that the reader will not return to read that particular magazine. He or she may not consider reading any other magazine.
The reader will look for an alternative source of information such as going for fashion exhibitions and shows. However, the internet-based fashion media has used this opportunity to capture and “lock-in” consumers. Since the internet supports multiple websites, blogs and social networks, a consumer who visits one of them is not likely to exit even if there is no satisfaction (Kansara 2009b). In fact, the consumer has the freedom to move from one site to another “with a click of a mouse”.
The internet seems to be the best alternative for consumers who are dissatisfied with the information presented by fashion magazines. However, the impact is that this aspect of the internet-based fashion media is the death of print media (Keen 2008).
Another important aspect of the online fashion media is the frequency of updating fashion consumers and the public in general. Whereas the print fashion magazines are issued once per month, the internet-based fashion media provides instant updates on fashion and trends in fashion. In fact, bloggers and online fashion magazines tend to compete with each other.
They are trying to outdo each other based on who provides the highest rate and frequency of updating their customers (Telsa 2010). Customers feel satisfied when they get instant updates. It eliminates the time needed to wait for the monthly updates. Digitalization of publishers is an issue that is inevitable in practice and discussion. Printers are feeling the need to ensure that they find a better way of interacting with their audience and responding to their requests.
Most of the requests made by consumers include the desire to get instant updates on the current trends and information (Telsa 2010). Obviously, the print media cannot provide instant updates. Therefore, a consumer will have to wait for the next issue of a fashion magazine. With the availability of large information and updates on the internet, consumers are compelled to migrate to the digital media.
Although this is a positive development for both consumers and the industry, a factor has contributed to the decline of the print fashion media. In fact, the desire to get timely updates has resulted into the migration from the print media to the digital media witnessed since 2000. Combined with other factors, it can be said to be one of the causes of the death of print media.
Financial crisis and the impact on print media
In addition to consumer behaviour, the frequency of economic problems in the modern world has contributed to the decline of the print media in the fashion industry (Clifford 2009). According to Brook (2009), the 2008-2010 global economic crises affected the print media. For instance, the number of fashion magazines printed in 2009 decreased significantly.
In addition, companies such as Vogue decided to increase the amount of information in their online publication due to the decreasing rate of reading in their print versions (Telsa 2010). In fact, it has been shown that some of the companies have decided to encourage online reading as a way of tackling the competition they face from independent bloggers, who have now assumed the role of fashion journalists (Clifford 2009).
Conclusion
In the fashion industry, print magazines have dominated the channels of fashion communication since 1670s. Therefore, print fashion magazines have become a popular culture in the world. However, the culture is experiencing technological changes. It is evident that the print media is slowly dying and its place taken by digital fashion media. A range of factors has contributed to the progressive death of print fashion media.
For instance, the digital migration has been motivated by the recent economic crisis, the easiness of information searching and communication provided by the internet, the availability of a wide volume of information, bulkiness of print media and the recent economic crisis.
References
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Keen, A., 2008, “The Cult of the Amateur: How blogs, MySpace, YouTube and the rest of today’s user-generated media are killing our culture and economy”, Nicholas Brealey Publishing, London.
The modern market of commercial advertising is an industry that has grown exponentially. Competition amongst brands of various products forces companies to pour money and creative power into advertising. The human psyche is studied, and a social image is created so that the ads have a powerful, memorable impact upon the consumers, driving them to choose certain brands over others. Social impact is particularly noticeable in the fashion industry, where ads create an image that consumers attempt to mimic. In the “Alexander Wang” fashion advertisement analyzed in this essay, the female image is exploited to create a provocative symbol which lacks the sexual self-empowerment of feminist ideology.
Alexander Wang is a contemporary fashion label named after its creator and designer. It features unique urban designs of clothing primarily for young adults. The advertisement analyzed was printed in magazines and on billboards as part of the 2014 Spring campaign. “General subtext meant to be evoked by these ads is the failure of the dominant, white class to relax and take pleasure in success” (Bordo 100). The campaign of the luxurious brand is aimed towards young white women in urban areas. In the advertisement, the woman is wearing designer shorts that are exposing the woman’s leg. They are also seemingly tight, highlighting the curves of the woman’s thighs and glutes. The woman’s shirt is white, with the area in the abdomen and above the chest area seemingly see-through. The area across the woman’s chest is covered by a label “Parental Advisory: Explicit Content.” While, undoubtedly, the clothing is stylish, it is meant to be sexually provocative. Tight clothing, especially highlighting the glutes and exposing the thighs is popular in contemporary styles. The shirt is also designed as a tease, exposing parts of the torso but hiding the woman’s breasts under a label usually shown before sexual content in the media. While each woman desires to look attractive in the clothing she buys, this design is directed at defining the image of a woman as a sexual entity.
In the photo, the white young woman is what would be considered sexually attractive by most people. By her exposed body, it can be seen she is very thin and fit, but not to the point of being unattractive. Her skin is tan and has a somewhat unnatural glow. The woman is sitting provocatively in a bathroom sink with her legs spread apart. Her head is leaning back, pushing forward her hips and torso, and she has a facial expression that can be read as that of sexual desire. As with any advertisement, there is obvious tampering of the image digitally. Everything in this advertisement, from clothing to the woman’s body, is meant to induce sexual excitement. The woman radiates sexual desire and to achieve such perfection the advertised product must be purchased. Women are dehumanized, an ideal form only as a sexual entity with no regard for mind or emotion. “Sexuality as a term of power belongs to the empowered” (Freedman 266). The way that sexuality is portrayed in this advertisement is common in the Western media, where it is a male domain with females having no say. Recently with the rise of feminism and technology such as dependable birth control, females can show self-assertion in sexual matters (Hooks 85). However, there is still a lingering factor in society, of setting an unachievable bar regarding digitally altered beauty. It achieves the purpose of the advertisers as their products are purchased in attempts to imitate this look.
The Alexander Wang advertisement campaign uses the female image to create a sexual symbol for its fashion brand. By doing so, it creates an unrealistic depiction of the female desiring sex and takes away the self-empowerment of choice voiced by the feminist movement. It is a commercial phenomenon that is sexist in nature and needs change.
Works Cited
Bordo, Susan. “Hunger as Ideology.” Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1993
Freedman, Estelle B. No Turning Back: The History of Feminism and the Future of Women. New York, Ballantine Books, 2003.
Hooks, Bell. Feminism is for Everybody: Passionate Politics. Cambridge, MA, South End Press, 2000.
