This project aims at identifying the relationship between the use of antibiotics and farming and people’s health issues related to antibiotic resistance. People consuming organic (antibiotic-free) and mass-market (produced by big farming organisations) will complete monthly reports for a year. The reports will include information concerning the consumed food, purchases (meat and dairy products), health issues, antibiotics use.
Funding Body
Medical Research Foundation can be interested in funding this project due to its possible implications. The organisation has announced its intent to fund research addressing several areas, including “the influence of human behaviour within and beyond healthcare settings” (Medical Research Foundation 2018, para. 5). The present study lies within the scope of this topic as it aims at exploring the peculiarities of the behaviour of people who have been diagnosed with an antimicrobial-resistant bacteria infection.
Background
It has been estimated that approximately 25,000 people in the EU die due to antibiotic resistance (Sandoiu, 2018). It is also predicted that antibiotic resistance can account for 10 million deaths in 2050 if the current trends do not change. One of the primary reasons for this condition in people is the use of antibiotics in farming (Lee Ventola 2015). Farmers worldwide have used this type of medication to prevent the spread of illnesses in their animals, prevent the development of diseases, and even accelerate animals’ growth (Economou & Gousia 2015). However, the use of antibiotics is associated with the occurrence of antibiotic resistance in people (Watkins & Bonomo, 2016). The need for a thorough investigation into the matter is apparent.
Aims and Hypothesis
The aim of this project is to identify the relationship between people’s development of an antimicrobial-resistant bacteria infection and their behaviour with the focus on their dietary habits, as well as their exposure to animals and/or antibiotics.
The following hypothesis will guide the present study:
People consuming mass-market products (not labelled as organic or antibiotic-free) are more likely to be infected with antimicrobial-resistant bacteria as compared to people consuming products labelled as “no antibiotics.”
The null hypothesis can be formulated as follows:
People consuming mass-market food and those eating antibiotic-free foods have equal chances of being infected with antimicrobial-resistant bacteria.
Methodology and Programme of Work
The project will last for one year and will involve people from different parts of the UK. The potential participants will be recruited in supermarkets and retail units specialising in selling organic and/or antibiotic-free meat and dairy products. Those who agree to participate will complete monthly reports concerning their diets, purchases (only meat and dairy products will be included), and health issues (antimicrobial-resistant infection) they might have, as well as antibiotics they use, exposure to certain hazards (such as working on a farm).
The overall number of participants will be approximately 10,000 (including 5,000 consumers of organic foods and 5,000 people consuming products of big farming organisations). People over 18 years old will be included in order to avoid certain ethical issues, while other variables such as gender, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status will be excluded. Simultaneously, quarterly laboratory tests of the products bought in some of the retail units will be conducted.
Budget
The preliminary budget for the project is as follows:
Expenses
Funds, £
1
Recruiters’ Salaries
5,000
2
Print materials needed (invitations, written consent forms, reports, and the like)
2,000
3
Laboratory tests
15,000
4
Data Analysis Software and Laptop
1,000
5
Researcher expenses during the project (trips to laboratories and retail units, meetings with recruiters)
20,000
Ethical Issues
This research is not associated with any considerable ethical issues as all precautions will be taken. The participants will be informed about the goals, methodology, and implications of the study. They will be informed about their rights. No vulnerable populations will be included, and the participants will sign written consent forms. Data confidentiality and anonymity will be ensured with the help of standard procedures.
Impact
The major impact of this study is its wide-scale outreach due to the sample size. The relationship between the use of antibiotics in farming and people’s behaviour will be identified or rebutted. The research may become a starting point for a larger project as the methodology can be used in other countries.
Reference List
Economou, V & Gousia, P 2015, ‘Agriculture and food animals as a source of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria’, Infection and Drug Resistance, vol. 8, p. 49-61.
Lee Ventola, C 2016, ‘The antibiotic resistance crisis: part 1: causes and threats’, Pharmacy & Therapeutics, vol. 40, no. 4, pp. 277-283.
Sandoiu, A 2018, ‘Drug resistance: does antibiotic use in animals affect human health?’, Medical News Today. Web.
Watkins, RR & Bonomo, RA 2016, ‘Overview: global and local impact of antibiotic resistance’, Infectious Disease Clinics of North America, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 313-322.
Agricultural-based enterprises have higher risks and can be influenced by a variety of socio-economic factors. Kimango Farms is an organization which consists of two organic farms located in Morogoro, Tanzania. They grow a number of crops, teas, and spices which are sold locally and exported to European markets. Kimango Farms is an investment into the country’s agricultural sectors, as well as ecology and tourism as the owners have introduced water conservation technology and expanded eco-tourism on the farms (Kimango Farms, n.d.). This report will investigate the business environment influencing operations of Kimango Farms in Tanzania.
Economic
The agricultural sector is Tanzania’s primary economic driver. It contributes nearly 30 percent of the country’s GDP at 13.9 billion USD and represents 67% of the total employment. Meanwhile, crop production has risen by 44% and represents over 318 million USD worth of exports annually (Tanzania Invest, n.d.). Tanzania has prominently exceeded other countries in the region in agricultural production. Some main crops of export include tobacco, tea, coffee, cotton, and nuts. Many of these are grown on Kimango Farms.
The agricultural sector has continued to demonstrate value-added output in the last decade as new crops are being added. Furthermore, economic agreements such as the Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania (SAGGOT) and the East African Economic Union, both of which contribute to the free movement of agricultural goods and provides financial support for the sector. It is particularly relevant for small farmers such as owners of Kimango Farms that can use these opportunities to strengthen foothold in the area and acquire necessary boosts for income and job-led growth.
Some economic issues that can affect the agricultural sector is a high production price volatility and a limitation on incentives to invest. Price volatility strongly affects export crops as domestic prices fluctuate based on international prices of the commodities. However, this impacts supply chain segments that are largely underdeveloped and unstable to volatility in Tanzania, creating sufficient risks (Arce & Caballero, 2015).
Political
Recognizing the importance of agriculture in Tanzania, the government is strongly supporting the sector, both small and larger farms alike. In 2015, the government established the Tanzania Agriculture Development Bank (TADB) which is focused on assisting in developing the agricultural sector and assisting in the implementation of policies. One aspect is the mobilization of financial resource to provide low-interest loans to small-scale farmers (Tanzania Invest, n.d.). Overall, the Tanzanian domestic politics are stable and demonstrate an interest in the country’s growth and ensuring food security is assured for the population.
The current presidential administration is attempting to curb corruption, reform public service, and ensure government efficiency as well as provide infrastructure. While these reforms are potentially beneficial, the government has indicated intentions to industrialize the country. This may result in loss of workforce, increased prices, and a shortage of food for farmers. Nevertheless, significant progress is made in regard to agricultural policy instruments including liberalization of the market, the introduction of non-traditional crops, and removal of state enterprises while encouraging private farms. The primary objective is to transition to export agriculture.
Social
Most of the social aspects are indirectly related to the agricultural sector, but rather serve as the consequences of the ongoing factors in the country. Some of the major shocks to household consumption patterns are based on the agricultural sectors struggling with drought and plant diseases or pests. This often results in high food prices. There are many vulnerable populations affected by high food prices including many daily workers and small-scale farmers growing the crops.
Farmers are affected by lack of material well-being and poverty due to farmers often hemorrhaging money and expenses of land and farming gear. Kimango Farms is facing social risks because the general population may lack the funds to purchase organic crops that the farm produces. Furthermore, there may be little interest in the farms expanding eco-tourism initiative. Socially, the country is stable but not affluent that makes it a priority for Kimango to seek international importers which would import the crops.
Ecology and Technology
Ecology and environmental factors impacting the agricultural sector in Tasmania are largely dependent on climate. Rainfall is unreliable, occurring mostly during the months of October through December which is one the primary crop production occurs.
Drought is a severe risk in the region, although it is infrequent that water scarcity is evident at high levels. Other environmental factors are pests which can cause lower yields and begin crop disease outbreaks which cause extensive damage. The country is divided into seven agricultural zones which are utilized for different crops depending on weather patterns. The agro-ecological adverse events can cause significant impacts on yields, ranging from 15 to 56 percent depending on region and year, but pose a definite risk for farms (Arce & Caballero, 2015).
Small-scale farmers in Tanzania utilize low and purchased-input technology that often results in small yields and production problems. The small-scale farms lack the necessary infrastructure and reliable access to information. Furthermore, many are not granted financial credits or services necessary to stabilize or expand their growth and operations (Misaki, Apiola, & Gaiani, 2016). This results in food insecurity as decision-making and productivity are compromised without proper access to information and infrastructure.
Recommendations
Kimango Farms as a small to intermediate scale agricultural entity will face both benefits and challenges investing in Tanzania. On the one hand, strong government support, possibilities of funding from the TADB, and other tax incentives make the business environment welcoming from a political and economic perspective. However, challenges of price volatility, lack of infrastructure, limited internal market, agro-ecological challenges, and increasing costs of operations all create an uncomfortable level of risk. While some risks can be mitigated, others such as drought cannot be influenced.
Even aspects such as price drop, exchange rates, and price variations are difficult to manage in the context of the Tanzanian economy, particularly for the agricultural sector. There is little room for risk transfer or diversification for Kimango Farms, while other stakeholders will most likely delay payments to farmers in case of any arising problems. Overall, Tanzania creates a better environment for investing in the agricultural sector than most other countries in the East African region.
In the long-term proper risk management for key export crops should be implemented to ensure the supply chains are organized and protected against any adverse events. As the economy develops with an appropriate understanding of macroeconomic fluctuations, policies, and infrastructure development, it is possible that there would be the necessary stability. Currently, investing in Tanzania for Kimango Farms is a high-risk enterprise that should be approached with great consideration.
Conclusion
Kimango Farms is an eco-friendly farm in Tanzania that is focused on export crops and eco-tourism. The economic, political, and social factors indicate a minor level of stability and support for the agricultural sector in the country. However, there are a number of barriers and challenges with mitigating risk. Investment for Kimango Farms is a high-risk endeavor since the business environment in the country faces so many challenges in this sector.
Misaki, E., Apiola, M., & Gaiani, S. (2016). Technology for small scale farmers in Tanzania: A design science research approach. The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, 74(4), 1-15.
Expanding business to global operations is a complex and challenging procedure. It is vital to consider all aspects of business and economic environment, including influential factors such as culture, politics, and regulations. The agricultural sector in which the chosen company of Kimango Farms Enterprises conducts business is particularly volatile, requiring a careful assessment of risk. For this scenario, the selected country for expansion is Tanzania, which will be thoroughly analyzed from the perspectives of cultural and business viability for expansion.
Company Background and Expansion
Kimango Farm Enterprises Ltd. consists of two farms located in the Morogoro region. The farms were established by Kim and Simone Axmann, German immigrants to Tanzania. The company began its origins in 1992, building its infrastructure from scratch. The farms grow a variety of crops including avocado, zucchini, mango, and lime. However, its most recognized output is tea that includes ingredients such as hibiscus and lemongrass in the product line.
Over 40% of the farm area is dedicated to an ecological reserve with planted trees and cottages, allowing to offer rustic eco-tourism options. Furthermore, the farms are organically certified by the Institute of Market Ecology in Switzerland. The primary motivation and purpose of the company is to grow healthy and organic foods through sustainable farming techniques and to offer the world a piece of Tanzania (Kimango Farms, n.d.).
The company should expand as it has built a viable and strong business in the area. It has existed for more than 25 years and has built successful relationships, trading networks, and critically understands the business. Therefore, driven by its economic prosperity and ideology which is becoming relevant in the global context, the company has the tools to expand its operations.
Economic Background
Tanzania is a rapidly developing country that is experiencing a 6-7% annual GDP growth (approximately 44.5 billion USD) and infrastructural development. Its fastest growing sectors are agriculture, petroleum production, and banking. The priority sector is industrialization which includes large infrastructure, transportation, and energy projects. Currently, 75% of the population depends on agriculture for employment and livelihood as it compromises 31% of the GDP (Netherlands Enterprise Agency, 2018). The recent government policy has continued to improve the country’s economic state. Inflation has been reduced to single digits on par with most developing nations, and the trade deficit is decreasing. The net inflow of foreign direct investment has increased by 13% to over 2 billion USD (TanzaniaInvest, 2018).
Customs
Tanzania is a conservative and traditional country, with many customs applicable to business etiquette. Tanzanians value trust and respect, and usually conduct business dealings with only individuals they know on a friendly level. Therefore, it is expected to attend social and family functions with your co-workers and business partners. Also, Tanzanians do not like to decline or say no. Instead, they reply with the word for “tomorrow.”
Proper respect for elders and power is vital in Tanzania. Therefore, greetings and overall communication should be done in accordance with the hierarchical order of a family or organization. Direct confrontation and public criticism of someone is strongly discouraged due to the risk of insulting or hurting their reputation. Tanzanians are also much slower at decision-making, choosing to evaluate every option and avoid irrational situations (Ravindran, n.d.).
Education and Income
Tanzania has experienced a poor education level amongst its population similar to many African nations. The educational sector faces numerous challenges in the country including underfunding, large student to teacher ratios, lack of professionals and resources. Basic education is low as only 8% of students can read at grade-level comprehension (USAID, 2017). The Tanzanian government realizes the problem and has dedicated significant policy tools and resources to education. This includes lowering barriers to education for rural and female students. Education is a primary sustainable goal for the country.
Despite poor education, the country maintains a large labor force. However, there is a persistence shortage of skilled labor and specialists which commonly require post-secondary education. Wages in Tanzania vary according to the industry. The majority of the population works in agriculture, receiving an average of 100,000 Tanzanian shillings per month which is equal to $45. Other industries such as mining offer higher salaries of 400,000 Tanzanian shillings which is approximately $180 per month (State Department’s Office of Investment Affairs, 2016).
Hofstede’s Factors
Tanzania has a high score (75) on the power distance dimension, indicating that there is an acceptance of hierarchy in business and organization. Centralization and subordination are common with an autocratic management style. Tanzania scored 25 for individualism, which demonstrates the country is strongly committed to collectivism. In this society, loyalty and adherence to social rules are prevalent which strong fosters relationships. Surprisingly, Tanzania scored 40 on the masculinity indicator which shows it is a more feminine society. The is also an indicator of equality and solidarity, with an increased quality of life being a primary desire. Conflicts are resolved through negotiation and compromise (Hofstede Insights, n.d.).
Tanzania is neutral in uncertainty avoidance according to the Hofstede’s Factors, but historically, the society is strongly conservative and does not support rapid change, believing it endangers their livelihood. This leads into the next dimension of long-term orientation where Tanzania scores 34, indicating that it is a culture focusing on short-term objectives. There is also significant respect for traditions, but also causing impatience and lack of incentive to save. Finally, the indulgence indicator is scored a 38 that demonstrates restraint. These societies can control instant gratification and do not focus as much on leisure. However, there are tendencies towards cynicism and pessimism as well (Hofstede Insights, n.d.).
Justification
Tanzania is a viable location for expansion in the East African region. The country values agriculture, as a primary sector of growth and large amounts of land available for cultivation. It offers economic incentives and an affordable workforce to sustain farms. The country’s primary exports are similar to the products which Kimango Farms grows and specializes in. Tanzania maintains a very business friendly and supporting culture with communities valuing loyalty and collective approach which can be vital for working in agricultural and aligns with Kimango Farms as a family-owned enterprise.
The country is socially and economically table and provides a significant opportunity for economic development. The population, government, and business sector are well-versed in agriculture and foster an environment that is welcoming for investors. The country maintains good relationships with global trade partners and is a member of various international organizations that could be beneficial to developing networks for organic farming and tourism (Netherlands Enterprise Agency, 2018).
Conclusion
Kimango Farms Enterprises is a successful and rapidly growing organic farming and eco-tourism company. Cultural and economic factors support their expansion through Tanzania. With the population that is mostly employed in agriculture, numerous specialists, and relatively low cost of operations, Tanzania is an ideal location for the company. Hofstede Factors indicate that the local society is collective, loyal, hard-working, and non-indulgent which fits well with the profile of the company is a family-owned farm.
References
Hofstede Insights. (n.d.). What about Tanzania? Web.
Kimango Farms. (n.d.). About us. Web.
Netherlands Enterprise Agency. (2018). Doing business in Tanzania. Web.
Ravindran, N. (n.d.). The role of culture in doing business in Africa. Web.
State Department’s Office of Investment Affairs. (2016). Tanzania – Labor.Web.
Understanding agriculture is crucial for understanding society. The invention of agriculture in the Neolithic age gave rise to the first civilizations and ever since the development of agricultural technologies has been closely linked with human progress determining the way of life. The history of the attempts to control the means of production in that industry is just as old as the industry itself. Although it has been playing an important role in the development of civilization and the improvement of life, the practice of food production is also associated with multiple challenges for society. This essay will discuss the history of vegetable farming in California in the context of technological progress in the world from the colonial era to the twenty-first century. The main goal of this paper is to study the development of agriculture in California and take a close look at the attempts made by the US government to control different aspects of that industry.
The age of colonial empires brought about a significant change to the economy. It led to the situation when colonial powers produced finished manufactured goods, and their colonies provided resources and raw materials for the industry and the division of labor became international (Guptill et al. 354). The emergence of this new network and growing trade increased the interdependence of different regions of the world.
After it had won independence from the British Empire, the United States stepped on its way of industrial development that was different from most other nations. The situation in California in the second part of the nineteenth century can be characterized by increasing immigration. This process gave rise to the emergence of problems regarding ethnicity, language, and class among people of European, Asian, and Latin American origin (Garone 243). The American government made multiple attempts to control the flow of immigrants to the county and the degree of their involvement in work in the agricultural industry. It led to the creation of legal acts that influenced the situation in vegetable farming in California. The Chinese Exclusion Act is an example of such legislation. It was passed in 1882, and the main goal of that act was to limit the number of working-class Chinese people entering the country and the labor force (Alkon and Agyeman 66). Similar laws concerning Japanese citizens were passed in the following years (Alkon and Agyeman 72). These laws the situation in agriculture that allowed discrimination against workers of Asian origin.
The land is one of the main factors of production in agriculture. Several laws that aimed to control land ownership were created in the first part of the twentieth century. The Alien Laws passed from 1913 to 1927 barred immigrants from Japan from land ownership. In California, it made it possible to expropriate land from Japanese farmers, who by that time had been already established in the state as farm owners. (Alkon and Agyeman 70). Thus, the legislation of that time allowed to disposes of the right to own land-based on nationality.
The time of the Great Depression brought new challenges for people in agriculture. American farmworkers were not included in the National Labor Relations Act, which meant that they were not allowed to form labor unions. As a result, the exploitation of agricultural laborers continued (Gottlieb and Joshi 19). That time also saw a pick of the violent confrontation between growers and farmworkers in California (Gottlieb and Joshi 19). Thus, severe working conditions and the legal status of the people working in agriculture made the time of the Depression especially difficult for them.
New attempts to control the flow of immigrants were made in the 1940s in the face of World War II and continued after the war. The Bracero, also known as the Mexican Farm Labor Program was started in 1942. It was initiated to increase the number of workers and meet the need for manual labor during the war. The program brought hundreds of thousands of workers to agriculture, the majority of whom were involved in seasonal work in Southern California. The participants of the program primarily cultivated labor-intensive vegetables such as lettuce or tomato (Gottlieb and Joshi 19). In most cases, the Bracero and similar programs focused on the poorest counties with a significant number of people living below the line of poverty.
Immigrant workers had to work in bad conditions, and their legal status was often uncertain, and the living conditions were poor as well (Gottlieb and Joshi 19). Studies have shown evidence that a massive number of children from ethnic minority families were involved in physically damaging work in the fields (Gottlieb and Joshi 19). The regulations that aimed to provide the agricultural complex with cheap labor together with a lack of control over working conditions in the field created a difficult situation. Without proper protection of their rights, many immigrant workers were made easy targets for abuse and exploitation.
The use of chemicals in agriculture became a significant issue in the second part of the past century. Lack of regulation in that regard led to a spread of usage of fertilizers, pesticides, and other chemicals without proper control. Such practices had severe environmental and demographic consequences (Gottlieb and Joshi 22). Many instances of contamination of the environment and exposure of workers to dangerous chemicals were widely discussed in public and media (Gottlieb and Joshi 23). In response to the growing crisis, the government took actions to take the production and usage of chemicals in farming under control. Many toxic pesticides that had been allowed for use were banned by the government agencies, but they did not fully solve the problem (Gottlieb and Joshi 23). Several accidents with poisonous chemicals took place in California after those measures were taken, and resulted in damage to the environment and public health. Moreover, evidence was found that usage of some of the chemicals that were still allowed hurt the health of the consumers (Gottlieb and Joshi 25). Thus, despite the attention of the government, the problem remained unsolved.
People have been practicing trade and agriculture for many centuries and control of technologies, rights of workers, land, cost, and the means of production has always played a big role. Studying the development of vegetable farming in California in the context of American and world history provides a better understanding of the impact that the situation in agriculture has on culture and the economy. History provides multiple examples of exploitation, oppression, and discrimination associated with the food industry and the attempts to control it. Despite technological and cultural development, there are still many such problems. Some of them have been around for centuries, and others are new for our time.
Works Cited
Alkon, Alison Hope, and Julian Agyeman. Cultivating Food Justice: Race, Class, and Sustainability. MIT Press, 2011.
Garone, Philip. “The Nature of California: Race, Citizenship, and Farming Since the Dust Bowl. By Sarah D. Wald.” Environmental History, vol. 23, issue 1 2018: pp. 243-244.
Gottlieb, Robert, and Anupama Joshi. Food Justice. MIT Press, 2010.
Guptill, Amy E., et al. Food and Society: Principles and Paradoxes. John Wiley & Sons, 2017.
The dairy meal is an important concentrate used to supplement pastures in dairy cow farming. These feeds are fed to dairy cows at any stage in their development. The number of times that the dairy meal is fed to cows depends on the management regime of the cow. Dairy meals are highly palatable and highly digestible for ruminants just like other categories of feeds.
Dairy meal concentrates contain ingredients such as fish meal, molasses, cottonseed oil cake, sweet lupine, and urea. These ingredients vary in concentration, which is determined by the inclusion of raw material used in its preparation. The major nutritional elements of dairy meals include proteins, urea, minerals, and some vitamins. Calcium, phosphorous, and Mendelevium are the important minerals contained in dairy meal ration. The dairy meal provides a dairy cow with the essential ingredient, which helps meet its nutrient requirements. The content of dairy meal protein varies from 9% to 33%.
The dairy meal provides dairy cows with ruminal degradability. For instance, the inclusion of a concentrated in the ruminant diet provides “ruminal protein for microbial protein synthesis and ruminal ungraded protein” (Pathak 2). Additionally, an amino acid is a good source of nitrogen requirement that facilitates maximum microbial protein synthesis. The proportion of calcium varies from low, medium, and high concentrations, which reduces postprandial lipidemia. This is more important than the supplemental calcium in feed additives. A dairy meal is a good source of animal protein, which is essential in enhancing body weight and body fat.
The high digestibility and palatability of a dairy meal play a significant role in increasing the milk production of dairy animals. Other non-protein nitrogen compounds are thought to be cost-effective in dairy production. However, the dairy cow’s performance cannot be enhanced by these feeds. This leads to a preference for a dairy meal. The mineral components of the dairy meal are essential in reproduction, growth, as well as enhancing the bodily functions of a dairy cow.
Compared to other concentrates, dairy meal contains low vitamin supplements. The other concentrates have vitamin A, D, and E though percentage levels may be toxic. On the other hand, the dairy meal is as expensive as other concentrates, which may not be constantly affordable to small-scale farmers. The dairy meal is one of the feeds that guarantee better productivity to the farmer. The rich nutritive value is due to high nutritious components that are utilized in the manufacture and preparation of the feed. The dairy meal is also advantageous to the farmer because it can be fed to the cows at any stage of the cows’ cycle.
Opinion
The preparation of dairy meals should also incorporate vitamins. Though the feed is highly nutritious, it should also include important hormones and additional minerals such as manganese, sodium carbonate, and potassium. This will ensure that a good balance of minerals is provided especially for lactating cows. In my opinion, the dairy meal should fatten and enable the cow to regain its weight without getting supplements from other concentrates like seed cake and oil cakes.
Works Cited
Pathak, Anuj K. “The various factors affecting microbial protein synthesis in the rumen”. Veterinary World, 1.6 (2008): 186-189. Print.
The farmers markets, which are often organized as non-commercial organizations, play an important role in the emerging of the alternative food network. The impact of these organizations on the development of the food network partially can be explained by the processes of the regional clustering1.
The farmers market in this particular case fulfils the function of the food distribution from the agricultural to the urban environment. With the rapid growth of the urban population, the need for the food supply is constantly increasing. At the same time, many products are produced in the suburban areas.
Together they form the chain that plays an important role in the food supply.
“Allegedly the tradition of direct agricultural markets was brought to North America from Europe and spread across the continent with European settlement” 2
The first reported case of the farmers market appearance in America took place in the seventeenth century. However, the real boom of the farmers markets was observed beginning from the 1970. The existing popularity of this AFN may be explained by many factors.
These are not only the producers wish for the attaining benefits and the consumers interest in the fresh foods, but also the specific friendly atmosphere on the farmers market. The importance of this sphere for the American food system can hardly be overestimated.
The benefits of the farmers market are obvious as for the consumers as well as for the farmers. The consumers are attracted by the fresh and healthy products, and by the great variety of them, as compared with the supermarket chain.
Consumers patronize farmers markets first and foremost because of the superior quality of the produce relative to that which may be found at regular large-scale supermarkets. 3
Low prices are another benefit of the farmers markets. It goes without saying, that the quality of the products is better than in the supermarket.
For the farmers the benefit lies in the cost saving of the production transportation and in the ability of the wholesale with the large grocery companies. Moreover, sometimes the farmers are attracted by the simplicity of the trade process and the absence of the bureaucratic acrimony, as it often happens with the large companies.
Not only the freshness of the products, but also the direct contact of the consumer with the farmers were the main factors, which guaranteed the farmers markets popularity. Moreover, this AFN profited the development of the local agricultural sector and for the development of the local economy.
Qazi and Selfa in their research found out that the major part of the customers were attracted by the freshness of the products and by the great possibility of choice, rather than money economy. 4
At the same time, it must be admitted that there are several definite problems with which the producers of the agricultural products face. Industrialization is one of them.
Historically the structure of agriculture in America was organized on the basis of the hereditary system which was “a powerful and effective form of economic organization”5. Such a structure was not only the basis of the economic wealth, but also the “important social and political value to the development of our nation”.6
Last time, there is a tendency for changing of this agricultural structure. In the present time, the circumstances force farmers to increase the output of the production. It leads to the industrialization and the commercialization of the agricultural structure.
According to the statistic research the amount of farms are constantly decreasing. Such a tendency constitutes a menace to the existing of the farmers markets.
The problem is not only in reducing the amount of farms. At the present day, a great deal of farmers in order to be competitive use the modern technologies. The industrialization of the agricultural sector often leads to the usage of the genetic engineering in farming.
Many researches state that the industrialization possesses a definite threat to farming. In spite the fact that the influence of it on the global economy of the country is doubtful, Hamilton proposes several ways to sustain it at least in the agricultural sphere.
First, it is necessary to reignite the debate over the industrialization7 in order the society to understand all its consequences. Secondly, it is necessary to regulate some economic relations, such as the use of the contract production in the cattle breeding.
Moreover, there must be implemented a certain regulatory environment for the farmers protection.
In spite all these negative factors, it is necessary to mention some positive events in the sphere of the farming. Not so long ago, there appeared several farming independent organizations such as the American Farm Bureau Federation, or the National Corn Growers Association.
Though the tendency for the industrialization of the agricultural field is still high, the consumers’ interest for the fresh agrarian products does not subside. With the development of the industrialization, the price for the natural products becomes a less significant factor for the consumer.
The interest to this AFN will promote the appearance of the new markets.
Bibliography
Hamilton, Neil. “Agriculture Without Farmers? Is Industrialization Restructuring American Food Production and Threatening the Future of Sustainable Agriculture?”. Northern Illinois University Law preview 14. (1994): 613-657
Porter, Michael. “Location, Competition, and Economic Development: Local Clusters in a Global Economy”. Economic Development Quarterly 14, no. 15. (2000): 15-34.
Taylor, Davis and Chad Mille. “Rethinking local business clusters: the case of food clusters for promoting community development”. Community Development 41, no.1. (2010): 108-120.
Spitzer, Thomas and Henry Baum. “Public Markets and Community Revitalization”. The Urban Land Institute and Project for Public Spaces 10. (1995):29-69.
Qazi, Joan and Theresa Selfa. “The Politics of Building Alternative Agro-food Networks in the Belly of Agro-industry”. University of Exeter in Cornwall, and Utah State University 14. (2004):46-71.
Footnotes
1 Davis Taylor and Chad Mille, “Rethinking local business clusters: the case of food clusters for promoting community development”, Community Development 41, no.1, (2010): 114.
2 Thomas Spitzer and Henry Baum, “Public Markets and Community Revitalization”, The Urban Land Institute and Project for Public Spaces 10, (1995):41
3 Michael Porter, “Location, Competition, and Economic Development: Local Clusters in a Global Economy”, Economic Development Quarterly 14, no. 15, (2000): 16.
4 Joan Quazi and Theresa Selfa, “The Politics of Building Alternative Agro-food Networks in the Belly of Agro-industry”, University of Exeter in Cornwall, and Utah State University 14, (2004):52.
5 Neil Hamilton, “Agriculture Without Farmers? Is Industrialization Restructuring American Food Production and Threatening the Future of Sustainable Agriculture?”, Northern Illinois University Law preview 14, (1994): 614
Cato’s “On Farming” (a translated part of his famous treatise “De Agri Cultura”) is of considerable historical interest. This text, or, more precisely, a practical guide to agriculture, depicts the life of a large Italian economy in republican Rome in the 2nd century BC. Cato himself was a landowner and wrote his treatise in the way that a man with a good knowledge of agriculture could write. No wonder his favorite saying was: “Rem tene verba sequentur” – “know the matter, the words will come by themselves.” Cato’s description of the natural estate in “On Farming” shows a pragmatic, almost capitalist approach to farming. In fact, in this chapter, he seeks to give recommendations on the organization of developed commodity production in order to obtain the highest possible monetary income. Therefore, his advice on how to cultivate such an estate – uti quam sollertissimum habeat – is translated from the idea of the involvement of an agricultural estate in developed commodity-money relations: “so that it is as profitable as possible” (8.2). At the beginning of the chapter, it indicates that the owner can sell not only grown products but also firewood and brushwood from a suburban estate. Based on personal experience, he argues that the estate owner should strive to sell rather than buy. Strict frugality is observed when managing a rural villa: money should be treasured and spent sparingly after careful calculations. Cato recommends receiving income not in pursuit of profit but by minimizing unnecessary expenses.
The same views underlie the so-called scale of property profitability as an essential feature of an ideal estate. Cato lists the plots of certain crops in the following order: “If you ask me what would make a farm the first choice, I will say this: varied ground, a prime position and a hundred iugera; then, first the vineyard (or an abundance of wine), second an irrigated kitchen garden, third a willow wood, fourth an olive field, fifth a meadow, sixth a grain-field, seventh a plantation of trees, eighth an orchard, ninth an acorn wood ”(1.7). If, when considering the issue, we proceed from his views on the management of the family economy, it becomes clear that this passage was written not at all in order to show how the house owner can earn more money. This appears to indicate which industries on the estate generate the most savings and avoid unnecessary spending. From this point of view, Cato’s recommendations are ideal: the location of the willow tree immediately after the vineyard and the garden is not accidental, since in this passage a scale of the main and auxiliary industries is given, with the help of which the owner of the estate can collect, preserve and process the crop with the least loss.
Application-specific advice on housekeeping is also abundant in Cato’s text. Further, he gives brief recommendations for the arrangement of a suburban economy. First of all, he recommends cultivating, as in an ideal estate, all sorts of grapes (7.1), although for the owner, who is accustomed to counting every ass, the most profitable is a vineyard where the vines wind through the trees (arbustum). Moreover, in general, one needs to approach this issue reasonably and grow everything that suits (7. 1). The suburban economy should have an orchard where apple trees, several varieties of pears, pomegranates, table varieties of quince (7.3), and several types of fig trees (8.1) grow. Olives are good to have two varieties – for pickling and fresh consumption (7.4) and several types of nuts, including almonds (8.2).
In addition, the presence of the leading agricultural industries provided food for the staff of the estate, the housekeeper, and his city name. Cato explicitly states that the owner will not only easily sell the products and firewood obtained from arbustum in the city, but he will also be able to use them for his own needs. The vineyard produces many wines of the most varied quality, both for the daily rations of workers and the owner. An irrigated vegetable garden, which can bring several bountiful harvests of vegetables per year, serves the same purposes. The olive garden provides the necessary amount of olives and oil in the family’s diet. The meadow is needed for grazing livestock, primarily for oxen and sheep. Without a harvest from a grain field, the daily ration of a slave family is unthinkable. Leaves from the forest are used to feed sheep, from whose milk cheese was prepared, consumed in large quantities by all strata of Roman society. Grapes climbing trees produce the best wines at the lowest cost. Finally, the acorn forest supplies both pig feed and materials for work and crafts. The presence of such a set of industries allowed the owner to save his money significantly.
If there is also a prosperous city, a navigable river, a sea, or a trade route nearby (1.3), then the homeowner has ideal conditions at minimal cost to provide everything necessary, and as soon as the surplus remains, on occasion, it will be possible to sell it profitably. Thus, according to Cato, with such a set of industries and in the order in which they are listed, the ideal estate allows one to lead a zealous and frugal lifestyle in the spirit of the covenants of the ancestors and even receive an income that will be the purest and most faithful. Thus, the idea of frugality for the sake of the development of the family economy and the expansion of property was reflected in Cato’s speeches and deeds and formed the basis of his treatise “De Agri Cultura.”
Background on Author’s Methodology
To reconstruct Cato’s views, first of all, it is necessary to take into account the time of compiling “De Agri Cultura.” There is no consensus on the account in science, although the dominant idea is that the treatise was written in the middle of the 2nd century. BC. (Astin). Following Plutarch, historians distinguish two stages in the life of Cato. In his youth, he was actively involved in the arrangement of estates, and at that time, he had only two sources of income – agriculture and thrift, and at the second stage, rural work gave him a pleasant pastime, but he began to receive income from various commercial and financial transactions, sometimes of dubious nature (Cornell). This testifies to the evolution in the economic worldview of Cato – the attitude towards agriculture as the primary source of income was replaced by the attitude towards it as an occupation with different goals. Thus, the spirit, ideas, character of the treatise correspond not to the time when Cato already considered the countryside a place of rest and entertainment, but to the first stage of Cato’s life, when agriculture was the most important source of income for him. The idea of frugality for the sake of developing the family economy and expanding property was not only reflected in the speeches and deeds of Cato but also formed the basis of his treatise. Therefore, it is no coincidence that only two chapters are devoted to the suburban estate in the treatise. It did not fit well into the economic views of the author.
In chapters 7 and 8, attention is drawn to the terms in which the author describes the estate designated in 7.1 as fundum suburbanus. In chapter 8. 2, he talks about the economy, using the term sub urbe, “under the city.” And just below, he calls ownership not suburban, but urban – fundus urbanus. The fact that Cato considers his estate to be suburban or urban is quite remarkable and indicates the location of this site. Dionysius of Halicarnassus noted that numerous and extensive suburbs adjoined Rome on all sides since the era of the kings. Houses with rural plots wedged into the territory of the city, and it was impossible to determine “to what extent the city stretches and where the suburban area begins from.” Thus, the city and the countryside merged together, and the impression was that the city stretches endlessly (Hollander). This passage expressed the prevailing view of the Romans in the mass consciousness about the situation in the suburban area, which was reflected in the terminology of Cato.
The list of many fruits grown for sale in ripe form, processed or harvested for future use for sale, to which firewood was added at the same time (7.1), shows that the listed products turned out to be goods that can significantly diversify the table of various strata of urban dwellers, as on weekdays, and on holidays, as well as something that could not be done without during family and social celebrations. In the treatise, Cato in chapters 7 and 8 just advised the householder, who already has a medium-sized estate and is familiar with the practice of its processing, how also to cultivate a garden plot directly adjacent to the city or even located on its outskirts, and what to give there preference. After all, a simple set of vegetables on a peasant plot has long been well known to every Roman farmer. All this shows that Cato recommends an ingenious approach to solving the problem of choosing crops cultivated in a suburban garden area to get away from the traditionally narrow range of crops in the peasant economy (Bonner). Therefore, the sollertissimum in Chapter 8. 2 in the context of all of the above should be translated as “most skillfully,” i.e., differently than it was traditionally done in the peasant economy, taking into account new knowledge and opportunities.
Discussion
The treatise was written in a short time immediately after Cato’s return from Greece in 191, but until 187 BC, when denarii began to be minted, which, however, is not mentioned in the treatise. It was then, at the turn of the 3rd and 2nd centuries. BC. in Italy, rural villas of the classical type are spreading, and the question of how to equip them in the best possible way arises before the owners of the estates. In this situation, after the end of the Hannibal War, Cato, having familiarized himself with the advanced agricultural knowledge of the Punians and Greeks and having accumulated rich personal practical experience, established the optimal forms of functioning of his own estates in the shortest possible time. He presented the results of his activities in a treatise intended for contemporaries who, in economic practice, followed the same path and were in dire need of advice of this kind. During this period, Cato still considered it possible to obtain a reasonably high income from agricultural activities. Besides, the ambitious Cato, having published the treatise, also pursued political popularity and fame, which he needed in the early 180s when he was preparing for the elections for the post of censor (Reay). Therefore, the treatise “On Farming” was based, in addition to the author’s own experience, also on the precepts of the ancestors.
In the Late Republic era in ancient Rome, a particular type of rural estate developed – a suburban economy (suburbanum). Its description has come down to us in the treatises of the learned agriculturalists of that time – Cato and Varro. Researchers of the economy of ancient Rome, both domestic and foreign, approaching the classification of the various types of estates that arose at that time, primarily from the standpoint of the marketability of the economy, classify the suburban estates described by the authors mentioned above to one type (Hollander). The main criterion, in this case, is the level of connections with the market and the possibility of obtaining high incomes through the sale of grown products in a nearby city.
Cato speaks of a suburban estate, suburbanum, in only two chapters, 7 and 8, and the middle-sized villa rustica is central. This imbalance does not seem to be accidental. Such little attention paid to the suburban estate by a learned agriculturalist indirectly indicates its minor importance in the economic structure of a noble Roman family (among senators and equestrians) at the beginning of 2 BC (Astin). This was due to the ideas of Roman society’s highest social groups about the priority of mos maiorum in motivating economic activity, about the nature of the prestigious property, and worthy forms of activity (Foxhall). In contrast to a medium-sized estate, the suburban estate had few opportunities to demonstrate the owner’s high status since a large part of it was occupied by a garden where various fruit trees (7.3) and flowers (8.2) grew. Cato wrote his work, the guarantee and personification of the high social status of the Roman elite were located, as a rule, in Italy’s central regions, a medium-sized estate based on the labor of slaves. The suburban estates of the nobility, located under the walls of Rome in the neighborhood with small plots of ordinary citizens and not much different from them in terms of the set of cultivated crops, did not play such a role (Astin). Thus, in the treatise, one can see the contradictory views of Cato during the period of writing the treatise. On the one hand, he already knows how to calculate profit and knows how to get it in the best way. However, on the other hand, he is a bearer of civic values based on the mos maiorum, with an attitude towards land as a status value.
The book of Cato has long served as a rich mine for anyone involved in the economics of the second century BC. The facts reported by “On Farming” are both essential and eloquent. However, no less than the reported facts, the order in which these facts are located tells us about ancient Italy’s economic situation. The composition of Cato’s book allows us to look further and penetrate the country’s economic life more profoundly than it can be done based on the reported data alone. This circumstance is both curious and methodologically critical: the source illuminates the past not only by what it says but also by the way it speaks.
Works Cited
Astin, Alan Edgar. Cato the censor. Oxford University Press, 1978.
Bonner, Stanley. Education in ancient Rome: From the Elder Cato to the Younger Pliny. Vol. 91. Routledge, 2011.
Cornell, Tim. “Cato the Elder and the origins of roman autobiography.” In: A. Powell, Ch. Smith (Eds.), The Lost Memoirs of Augustus (2008): 15-40.
Dalby, A. (1998). Cato on farming-De Agricultura-A modern translation with commentary. Prospect Books.
Foxhall, Lin. “The dependent tenant: land leasing and labour in Italy and Greece.” The Journal of Roman Studies 80 (1990): 97-114.
Hollander, David B. Farmers, and agriculture in the Roman economy. Routledge, 2018.
The book The Fight in the Fields traces the history of the United Farm Workers (UFW). It focuses on the life and work of the founder of this organization named Cesar Chavez. The reading reveals the story of his life starting from birth to creation of a collective struggle for the rights of farm workers. The purpose of this paper is to review the first chapter of this book called “The Last Family Farm”.
Authors’ Approach
The book is a biography; therefore, the authors have chosen a non-fictional approach. The time period encompasses the birth of the main character in 1927 and all the major events in his life that are relevant for the modernity (Ferriss & Sandoval, 1998). The focus of the reading is on the identity of Chavez and the evolution of the United Farm Workers, which is also the major event in the book. The geographical scope is comprised of various US states; however, Chavez’s story begins in Yuma (Arizona).
The starting date and place had been chosen intentionally to exhibit the way the views and values of the future leader were cultivated in him when he had to work on a farm. The chapter also tells the story of Cesar’s father who grew a farm with other 15 siblings who were working in agriculture since early childhood.
Argument
The major argument in the first chapter centered on the idea that child labor was a norm in society, and underage children were forced to work in unfavorable conditions. The structure of the chapter enhances the main argument since it allows the reader to track the destiny of Chavez’s parents and siblings, as well as his own, and make personal conclusions regarding the conditions of working in agriculture (Ferriss & Sandoval, 1998).
The argument is based on narrative data, which help to build the general construct of the book and its further justification. The evidence used is quite convincing, and it is simple in character. For instance, the first chapter clearly articulated the way Chavez and his family became immigrants when they were dispossessed of their farm and moved to another place (Ferriss & Sandoval, 1998). In addition, the description of his background had served as a platform for building an understanding that he truly wanted to improve the lives of the poor. Such clear explanation of the first major period of his life has assisted in supporting the thesis.
Sources and their Relation to the Argument
Importantly, the authors actively rely on various primary sources. In the chapter, it is possible to observe that the authors utilize elements of the public discourse of the leader and his supporters (Ferriss & Sandoval, 1998). Apart from that, they resort to secondary sources to explore the subject more comprehensively. For example, the writers reference the works composed about the lives of farm workers (Ferriss & Sandoval, 1998).
The use of diverse resources has allowed making the main argument more convincing and strengthening the claims made about Chavez. In addition, the use of different materials provided the authors with an opportunity to build the setting for the future debate in the book (between Chavez and his opponents). In terms of weaknesses of the first chapter, no element breaks the argument down since this block of reading prepares the reader for exploring and comprehending the identity of Chavez. The book can be recommended to anyone interested in the history of UFW, as well as to the representatives of the scientific community since it explores the evolution of the union comprehensively but the manner of narration is quite understandable.
Conclusion
Thus, it can be concluded that the chapter helps to understand the identity of Chavez and form a wider historiography of the events. The uniqueness of the argument lies in the fact that it assists in comprehending the emergence of UFW readily. It has been achieved through the revelation of a broadly documented portrait of Chavez and the explanation of the socio-political setting.
Reference
Ferriss, S., & Sandoval, R. (1998). The fight in the fields: Cesar Chavez and the farmworkers movement. D. Hemree (Ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Chapter 3 of the book by Barger, Reza, and Velásquez (1994) is dedicated to the history of the Farm Labor Organizing Committee (FLOC) and the movement associated with this labor union and the promotion of immigrant farmworkers’ rights. In their analysis, the authors rely on available historical documents as well as secondary studies of other scholars. In the chapter, the focus is placed on labor, migration issues, and the relationships among laborers, growers, and other participants of the agricultural industry, such as labor contracting companies. The historical analysis presented by the authors is aimed at explaining the way agriculture in the United States changed largely due to the FLOC movement.
Main body
Barger et al. (1994) primarily argue that the movement supporting farmworkers’ rights to proper working conditions resulted in a better, more efficient pattern of cooperation among the participants of the agricultural industry. Immigrants working on farms had been a vulnerable group because their rights had been ignored and violated, and they had to work in poor conditions. Creating a movement to protect their labor by organizing boycotts and strikes and demanding better conditions resulted in the redistribution of roles: farmworkers became able to work with growers directly and to “have an active and effective role in determining their conditions” (Barger et al., 1994, p. 49-50); this initiated a reform in the American farm labor.
The events described in the chapter are arranged chronologically. The authors adopted this structure to show how specific activities carried out by the FLOC movement led to the changes in the way processes, interactions, and modes of cooperation in agriculture in the United States had been organized and practiced before. Also, this structure allowed introducing background information to allow readers to understand the historical context of the events.
Instead of generalizing and relying mainly on concepts, the authors provide specific examples, in which farmworkers went on strikes and persuaded particular food-producing companies with which they worked to improve working conditions and ensure that relevant labor rights are respected and fulfilled. Moreover, the chapter contains a timeline of the FLOC movement’s development and achievements that outlines the process of the union’s interaction with growers and companies. It stresses the authors’ point and shows the gradual development of the changing agricultural industry. For example, the inclusion of farmworkers in the National Labor Relations Act’s regulations is convincing evidence of the movement’s achievements that supports the authors’ claim.
Barger et al. (1994) use both primary and secondary sources; primary sources are related to the times the FLOC movement was founded and began its development, and secondary sources discuss the movement’s achievement and impacts. Primary sources include reports on the FLOC’s activities, and these sources are important in documenting the movement’s progress. For example, statistical data on the general public’s opinion about boycotting illustrates the authors’ point that “external support has been effective in counterbalancing the relative powerlessness of farmworkers” (Barger et al., 1994, p. 50). The authors lean on secondary sources, too, to show that other researchers provided supporting evidence and came to similar conclusions.
Conclusion
Overall, the argument is convincing, and the only weakness that can be identified is that the perspective of labor contracting companies is not fully presented; i.e., it may not be clear to readers why the conditions against which the FLOC fought were the way they were and why some stakeholders were interested in preserving the status quo. The descriptions of specific achievements are the strongest evidence the authors used. Finally, I would recommend the chapter to undergraduates specifically because it reveals crucial and basic mechanisms of changes in labor relations in the 20th century.
Reference
Barger, W., Reza, E., & Velásquez, B. (1994). The farm labor movement in the Midwest: Social change and adaptation among migrant farmworkers. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
Pre-industrial societies are those where the means of mass production of goods had not yet been developed by humanity. People used hand labor to create products, and this imposed certain limitations on the development of their societies. Moreover, many nations shared the same model for a community. Below is the comparison between modern research and the primary source of the pre-industrial era.
Similarity of Patterns
Patricia Crone has created a work where she discusses the trends and elements of pre-industrial societies in the world, particularly those that existed in the West. She discusses several elements that served as reasons for all these societies to be similar, having much to do with the speed of production and the satisfaction of fundamental human needs.
For instance, she mentions that most people in the pre-industrial era were occupied in the agricultural industry. This is explained by the fact that the amount of food that could be produced without the help of various machines, plants, and chemicals was small and insufficient. Food resources were scarce, and it took a lot of human effort to satisfy everyone’s needs. This consequently affected the size of the population. There were not enough means to sustain growth, as an increasing population would face famine. Nevertheless, farmers were not considered poor despite the scarcity of resources. Of course, rulers were the most privileged class, yet people of all professions were regarded as a necessary part of the society’s model.
Another widespread profession in all pre-industrial societies was the military. From the time people chose farming over gathering and hunting, there were those who wished to use force instead of agricultural effort. It was necessary to protect crops from invaders wishing to take them away. Even though many rulers chose to wage war against their neighbors to expand their power in those territories, there was no real need for collecting more agricultural lands.
Primary Sources
Hammurabi’s Law Code is one of the oldest documents to survive to the present time. It features the laws created by King Hammurabi during his rule in Mesopotamia, a country with a classic pre-industrial society that existed nearly two thousand years before Christ. The Code offers evidence supporting Crone’s findings of limitations for that period.
Hammurabi’s Code provides much information about how farmers were to be treated in cases where they broke the law and, specifically, if they did any damage to crops. Any loss of food was reimbursed with money. For instance, if farmers were too lazy or careless regarding the condition of fields they maintained and if this resulted in the loss of crops, then they would have been required to pay money to compensate the damage. If they did not have the means to pay the government, their property was to be taken away. Moreover, damaged fields were distributed among other farmers who would take better care of them. This measure was implemented due to the scarcity of resources as mentioned by Crone. The fact that so much attention is paid to farming underlines the importance of this labor, as well as serves as evidence that most people were working in this arena.
Conclusion
Farming was a key element in the pre-industrial era and shaped the model of the societies of those times. The limitations of hand labor determined the size of populations along with the rules and regulations imposed on farmers. The scarcity of resources, combined with the slow rate of production, served as reasons for similarities in all pre-industrial societies.