Even now, scholars have not come to a consensus as to the root causes of the so-called Great Potato Famine. There are a great number of theories, but it seems that none of them fully reflects all the complexity of this phenomenon. The main problem is that very often many historians tend to be partial and even prejudiced while interpreting the factors, which contributed to starvation. What we know almost for a fact is that this tragedy diminished the countrys population by approximately twenty percent. Some people died from starvation, some were forced to leave the country in order to save their own lives and the lives of their children.
There is a widely held opinion that the famine sprang from the so-called late blight, a potato disease, which destroyed virtually all harvests of 1845. Certainly, such explanation may appear very plausible, but it does not acquit those people, who could have averted this calamity. It is often argued that that the inaction of the British government aggravated the effects of the famine. In addition to that, several historians believe that the Potato famine can be considered as an act of genocide, committed by the British government against the Irish people. It stands to reason, this statement has always been a subject of heated debate; many British scholars state that the then British government must not be turned into a major culprit, they did pursue the policy of non-intervention or laisser-fair policy yet it does not necessarily mean, that they deliberately let thousands of people die.
Probably, it would be more prudent to discuss this famine as a consequence of several socio-economic factors. In his book The Great Irish Potato Famine , the prominent British historian James Donnelly analyzes this issue from several standpoints. The author puts forward an argument that it is impermissible to regard the famine only from one perspective. More likely, it was triggered by a number of factors, particularly, inadequate actions of the then British government, the failure of crops, and the economic policy of the country. In this essay, we need to compare the views on famine, which were expressed by James S Donnelly, and those ones, found in various newspapers.
As regards the initial stages of these events, James Donnelly states that the authority might have taken more urgent measures. Particularly, several attempts were made to suppress that outbreak of famine in Ireland. James Donnelly believes that if the government had chosen to make the facts public the number of victims could have been reduced to a minimum (James Donnelly, 25). Nonetheless, according to the famous Irish nationalist John Mitchell, this suppression was deliberate. Although, it is not explicitly stated we may deduce it from his argument it is almost a premeditated murder (John Mitchell, 12). Naturally, at this moment, one may say that Mitchells words were mostly driven by emotions but it should be taken into consideration that he was an eyewitness of those events, thus we cannot altogether reject his interpretation of the Potato Famine.
In this regard, it is worth mentioning that London newspapers, Times, in particular, stated that the famine was caused mostly by the failure of crops (Ranelagh, p 116). Apart from that, it was argued that this famine was Gods vengeance on the Irish people. It appears that John Mitchells allegation may not be very far from the truth, because at this point, the relationships between the ethnic groups were extremely tense, and the famine only enhanced this animosity.
Additionally, James Donnelly says that ruinous taxation policy, especially several legislation acts also contributed to the great famine. In the middle of the nineteenth century, the overwhelming majority of Irish peasants were living beyond the poverty level. Every failure of crops might have easily resulted in famine; it was just a matter of time. In 1845, no one could predict such a scenario, but it has to be admitted that under certain circumstances, the famine could have been avoided (James Donnelly, 44). Overall, we may say that bad harvest is too convenient of an excuse because it enables some people to disclaim responsibility. Nevertheless, it is impermissible to blame only the British government, which could have done more.
Therefore, it is quite possible for us to arrive at the conclusion that the Great Famine should be viewed as an outcome of several factors: namely impudent economic policy, inappropriate actions of the British government, and the failure of crops. Furthermore, it should be pointed out that the views on this tragedy have always been ambiguous and even controversial. In the overwhelming majority of cases, the interpretation of these events depends upon the authors partiality or impartiality. Scholars and journalists often pay attention only to those aspects, which are most suitable for them. In this case, it is of vital importance to rise above personal prejudices, because otherwise, it is hardly possible to get a good notion of the Great Potato Famine and its causes.
Bibliography
D. Ranelagh. Famine in Ireland The Times, 1846.
James S. Donnelly. The Great Irish Potato Famine Sutton, 2001.
Historically, North Korean policy has long stressed on feeding its population. This has been illustrated through various initiatives the government has taken over the years. The aim of these initiatives is to increase food production and make the country be a self-sustaining society.
However, lack of clear strategies by the government has seen this objective not being achieved. Thus, the country has noted severe food decline culminating into famine as witnessed in the nineties.
Statistics indicate that ten percent of the population lost their lives. As the food disaster persists, it is estimated that over six million North Koreans will continue to face starvation. The question that most people are asking themselves is: why is famine so widespread in North Korea?
This essay seeks to explore the contributing causes to North Korean famine. This essay assesses the current food scenario in North Korea and explains the contributing causes to prolonged famine the country is experiencing.
The essay notes the agricultural practices, external shocks, ecology, farm policies, increasing farmland, altering grain composition, politics and political changes and food diplomacy among others were root causes of North Korean famine.
Introduction
Why famine in North Korea? Traditionally, famine is an old and most traumatic test of humanity. Famine, as in previous times, has had far-reaching implications within the society. It has continued to threaten human populations across the planet.
For North Korea, economic breakdown has been noted owing to the threat caused by famine. For many years the country has been facing food decline since the nineties contributing to prolonged famine of unknown severity (Jung and Brownwn 548).
As per the US congress report, from 1995 to 1998, it is estimated that about 2.4 million people had died of hunger connected diseases and starvation with death climaxing in 1997 (Natsios 45). Also, non-governmental organization exhibits from interviews on the ground and North Koreans refugees in China illustrates that death from famine stood at 2.8 – 3.5 million (Lankov 858).
Discussion
The joint report of WFP/UN FAO of 2004 justifies that North Korea had better harvest in the last 9 years (United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization). This favorable harvest was credited to efficient climactic conditions, low diseases and crop pests, and availability of fuel and other agricultural inputs which increased agricultural production.
Despite the recent gains in attaining food production, the country cannot produce enough food to sustain its 23 million populations. The UN, FAO and WFP joint report released in 2004 further demonstrates the extent of famine in the country (United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization).
It affirmed that about 6.4 million North Korean children, elders and women comprising one-quarter of North Korean population, will need foreign intervention on food relief.
Further, the report showed that inadequate production, lower incomes, rising food prices and a poor diet as a justification of more foreign food aid dependency. These challenges underline the principal challenges that North Korean government faces currently as it tries to counter famine menace in the country.
The economic reforms, which government introduced in 2002 entailed increasing prices, wages and fixing a new brand of urban poor. These reforms have increased starvation to millions of people in the country.
Although these reforms were tailored in containing famine faced in the nineties, liberalizing, decentralizing and fixing an open agriculture atmosphere, they have continued to encourage famine in the country.
Sung Wook offers an example, before 2002, the cost of rice was 0.9/Kg, however, presently it is being sold at 46 won/kg (44). The costs of agricultural inputs such as pesticides, electricity and fertilizer have conjointly increased.
Famine in North Korea has been worse than war. In the 1990’s, it is estimated that more than two million, about ten percent of the total population, was killed (Cumings 178). The famine endured from 1994 to 1998.
However, severe food crisis prevails as millions of people continue to feel the scourge of the catastrophe of famine. The question that many authors ask themselves is how did North Korea, once an industrialized country and a role model of socialist development in Asia, come to experience such a disastrous famine?
North Korea’s shift towards famine during the 1990s started with a decrease in grain production in the late 1980’s. Compared to South Korea, North Korea produced enough food to sustain its population in late 1980’s. North Korea claimed pride in this; it was a country which produced about seven tons of rice per hectare in the world.
The surplus in rice production granted it opportunity to respond to crises in other countries where food shortage was common. For example, in 1984, the country dispatched seven thousand tons of food to South Korea when the country was severely affected by floods decreasing harvests (Lankov 869).
However, in 1987, the country’s food production began to decline as the soil fertility weakened because of decades of industrial agriculture on marginal lands.
Natsios illustrates the preceding periods of food shortage – 1945 to 46, 1954 to 55 and 1970 to 1973 resulted in institutional changes in agriculture, the pile of which was connected to the famine witnessed in the Nineties (36). Since 1946, the North Korean regime sought measures to prevent any avenues of food shortages by supporting grain production; this was through initiatives such as the five policy plan.
Under this policy, the government improved land used for food production, altered crop composition to favor better yielding grains, increased agricultural inputs such as farm machines and fertilizers and introduced solid planting methods (United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization). However, this policy proved futile in 1987 because it decreased grain production.
External shocks have also contributed to North Korean famine. The collapse of the Soviet Union and successive separation of socialist trading block further disoriented North Korea’s Agricultural systems. In 1990 North Korea imported about 18.3 million barrels of oil from Iran, China and Russia.
However, by separating from the Soviet Union, North Korea suffered heavily because it did not import enough oil to run farm machinery such as tractors. Similarly, in 1992 to 1996, the country’s energy consumption decreased by eleven percent annually. This was because it had stopped oil imports from Soviet Union.
The North Korean farmers relied on imported oil to power farm machineries. Sung Wook notes that fertilizer supply declined by 15.9 percent between 1987 and 1997 (66). Hence, the decline in imported oil contributed to North Korea agriculture decline contributing to food crisis in the country.
Besides, the abrupt disruption in trade hampered North Korean farmers to buy farm tools such as tractors, threshers and pumps. North Korea’s food production was deeply affected by its reliance on industrial agriculture. In 1992 to 1996 the country realized sixty percent food decline (Natsios 58).
In mid 1990’s, North Korea was hit by an ecological catastrophe beginning with classic floods in 1995 and 1996. These were the worst floods experienced in North Korean history, basing on the official government statistics. The heavy rainfall prompted high tides to flood and back up rivers in some parts of the country.
This disrupted agricultural production and domestic energy. Besides, in 1996 the rains displaced more than 5.4 million people and destroyed 330,000 hectares of farmland (Natsios 87). In addition, it is estimated that more than 1.9 million tons of grain were damaged. The grain damaged in 1996 was about 17 percent of the preceding year’s production.
The ecological catastrophe provoked the government to unveil an international appeal for food aid. The heavy rains followed the worst famine in the North Korean history. In 2000, with only one harvest, North Korea was adversely affected by famine. Consequently, in the year 2001, another harsh famine dried the earth, damaging the irrigation networks and exhausting reservoirs.
When the climate was favorable in 1998, the North Korean production level did not experience notable recovery.
Woo-Cumings (24) affirms that this was because the country suffered from soil erosion, environmental degradation, riverbed silting, flooding and abuse of marginal lands because of deforestation. Hence, severe weather played a major role in contributing to North Korea’s famine.
According to Natsios the socialist nature of North Korea’s system of agriculture is a cause of famine crisis (95). He argues that socialism lacked incentive to produce more food for the country. The collective farm policy restricted agricultural production because it denied farmer’s innovative efforts and production enthusiasm.
The collective farm policy allowed farmers to be treated as workers who were supposed to meet their required labor needs. However, this compromised the quantity and quality of their work. Also, division of labor on collective farms was less effective. This was because it allowed one person to perform various phases of work.
This was in contrast in the manufacturing field where specialization was highlighted. After separation, the North Korea had a history of policy that stressed industrial agriculture. As suggested earlier, these policies failed or proved unsustainable thus, fixing a long-term structural problem to North Korean food production.
Being a former colony of Japan, 1910 to 1945, North Korea embraced industrial agriculture which was widely practiced by the Japanese. The Japanese brought new breeds of seeds in North Korea during the early 1900s. The seeds introduced augmented yields, however, North Korean agriculture reliance on fertilizer and pesticides exhausted the soil fertility.
Various researchers link North Korean famine to income disparity and systemic crisis. The government policy, overtime, has neglected the vulnerable groups by not creating policies which favor or defend food production. While the population has a right to access food through various distribution channels, the government provides a single point where the population can access food.
One example of this policy is the Public Distribution System (PDS) (Marcus et al., 35). This policy has been discriminative. It allows only workers on government and cooperative farms to benefit. The policy fixes a uniform measure in which these categories of individuals receive.
However, what is puzzling is the government has never fulfilled this policy to populations’ satisfaction. Thus, failure of the government to decentralize distribution of food policies by involving other means such as market forces has contributed to famine in the country.
The North Korean government was in the view of increasing grain yields by altering crop composition from a diversity of grains towards maize and rice. They view that these crops were high yielding. In 1946 the total area under rice cultivation was twenty three percent and maize occupied ten percent.
By 1973 the land under rice cultivation increased to thirty seven percent whereas maize was forty percent. This trend signaled that North Korea was in the right direction for attaining food efficiency. However, the challenges of pursuing rice and maize cultivation were diverse.
First, the mountainous landscape hampered the country to effectively expand paddy fields for rice production. Secondly, the existing farming methods made farmers to be reluctant in intercropping maize with other crops. This was because intercropping was significant in preventing soil exhaustion.
Lastly, other types of grains were easy to plant and cultivate as they did not need significant amount of fertilizers compared to maize. In addressing these challenges, the government deprived farmers the choice in selecting which crops they would grow (Woo-Cumings 24).
The government supported local agricultural agencies in embracing regional self-sufficiency through appointing agricultural areas as flat, intermediate or mountainous. Flat lands were designated for rice, intermediate land for maize and rice and mountainous lands with other grains.
Despite these measures by the government, food production declined because the land degraded in fertility. Besides, intercropping practices such as cropping barley and wheat after maize and rice contributed to depletion of soil fertility.
The political standing of North Korea has been perplexing. Over the ages, the country has relied on socialist countries in its history. For example, during the Soviet occupation, the country depended on it for relief. The Soviet provided North Korea subsidy on fertilizer, petroleum, energy and manufactured goods.
Besides, the Soviet would, at times, consent North Korean goods and permit to pay later when it could. This was to grow their economy. Perhaps, the support of the Soviets helped model the North Korean economy during the early stages of its existence. After Soviet Union crumpled, China assisted North Korea temporarily. The Chinese government increased its exports commodity to North Korea to a tune of $ 0.66 billion but was still lower than what the Soviet Union exported to the country before.
President Kim II Sung’s government continued receiving aid from the US despite the increased negative publicity from the media and the international community. The death of President Kim, international aggression and domestic governance challenges further compounded the food crisis in the country in 1994. Political changes happening in the country further weakened North Korea.
This hampered the country’s efforts to focus on basics needs of its population. The government has also channeled its resources in equipping the military, thus, North Korea upholds the most militarized society in the world.
The military has more than 1 million men and women. It is estimated that 25 percent of the country’s GDP is devoted towards military spending, hence, giving food security a minor thought.
The North Korean famine is a product of unclear policies driven by political deliberation. The government failed to take responsibility by embracing sufficient measures to prevent natural forces that were obvious in causing famine.
Hence, rather than preventing the forces, the government established famine through a sequence of premeditated policies and insinuated famine by failing to recognize sufficient counteractive action. According to Cumings North Korean famine was an intentional choice of the government (76).
Cumings contends a public address by Kim Jong II in 1996 demonstrated that 30 percent of the total population was needed to reconstruct a stable society (54). Also, floods, to a larger extend decreased food production, although earlier statistics had indicated that the country had steady produce of grains in nineties. From the survey carried out in 1998 it was reported that most children’s were malnourished (Cumings 76).
Early warnings signs were obvious. The government would have easily recognized the probable start of famine if they had responded to the signs. However, the government was reluctant to respond until when the situation was worse. The government stepped in when the famine had swept through many areas in the country to request for foreign relief.
For more than forty years after liberation from Japanese rule, and partition from South Korea, the North Korea government embarked on continuous efforts to increase the land available for growing grains. North Korea is a country with rugged landscape, with about fourteen percent of its land viable for agriculture. In 1946, the country initiated a New West Coastline Land Expansion Project.
In subsequent decades, the project was followed by mountain cultivation projects. These policies increased land under cultivation by over thirty percent. Similarly, in 1974, the government launched the terraced field cultivating campaign.
This was aimed at transforming mountainous areas to terraced fields and ultimately solves the issue of food crisis. Although these measures were aimed at containing famine, they increased it as they increased soil erosion, deforestation and decreased food production.
The crowning responsibility for North Koreas’ predicament has been connected to Pyongyang. However, the international community has also surged politics with famine situation in the country. The international community has treated North Korean famine as an avenue to extort political concessions from the North Koreans.
Hence, food crisis having a technical ingredient has been a major diplomatic issue. In 1994, the government admitted food shortage; hence the World Vision secured permission from South Korea and US government to raise money for humanitarian shipment of food to the North (Cumings 65).
As the food situation got worse, the North Korean state approached Japan, a former colonial master. Japan had substantial reserves of grain stock. However, all these initiatives were thwarted by Kim Young Sam of South Korea. Kim warned Japan of sour relations if Japan went ahead and provided aid without South Korea’s participation (Natsios 61).
Observers were optimistic that these measures would dramatically improve diplomatic relations between donors and the US which had established closer ties. However, this optimism was forced to rest.
North Korea infringed the agreement entered when they compelled the ship delivering the first consignment of rice from South Korea to fly a North Korean flag and later seizing a crew of another relief vessel. Thus, North Korea’s failure to recognize the goodwill of international donors contributed to severe famine in the country (Sung Wook 69).
Famine has had widespread repercussions to economic growth of North Korea. Once a distinguished country in Asia with socialist ideals, North Korea had a stable economy, hence food security was a guarantee. Some factors attributing to severe famine have been manmade, whereas, others have been as a result of natural happenings.
However, the government has played a significant role in enhancing famine in the country. The government has failed to streamline policies which can stir agricultural activities; rather, it has concentrated in shaping its military power.
Though, food diplomacy has been successful, the government’s lack of goodwill in recognizing this assistance has also played a role in prolonging famine in the country.
Works Cited
Cumings, Bruce. North Korea: Another Country, New York: The New Press, 2004. Print.
Jung, Kyungja and Brownwn Dalton. “Rhetoric Versus Reality for Women of North Korea”. Asian Survey (2006): 742-760. Print.
Lankov, Andrei. “North Korean Refugees in North eastern China”. Asian Survey (2004): 856-873. Print.
Marcus, Noland, Sherman Robinson and Monica Scatasta. Modeling North Korean Economic Reform. Journal of Asian Economics (1997): 15-38. Print.
Natsios, Andrew. The Great North Korean Famine, Washington: U.S. Institute for Peace, 2001. Print.
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. North Korea Has Bigger Harvest, 2004. Web.
Sung Wook, Nam. Food Security in North Korea and Its Economic Outlook, Seoul: Korea University, 2004. Print.
Woo-Cumings, Meredith. “The Political Ecology of Famine: The North Korean Catastrophe and Its Lessons”. Asian Development Bank Institute (2002): 24.Print.
That by 1845 the population of Ireland had increased and was increasing there is no doubt whatever. But any attempt to discuss the rate of, or the reasons for this increase is seriously handicapped by deficiencies in the statistical material at our disposal. For the numbers of the Irish population in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries all we have are estimates, which range from earnest computations based on imperfect materials to wild and biased guesses.
Poverty and destitution were widespread in Ireland in the first half of the nineteenth century. The rapid industrialisation of Great Britain in the early nineteenth century provided a multitudinous and miscellaneous variety of openings for Irish labour and cheap and fast transport between the islands. By 1841 there were over 400,000 people of Irish birth resident in Great Britain, most of them being settled in London, Manchester, Liverpool and Glasgow.
Given a scrap of land the Irish peasant could throw up a cabin to shelter his family and grow the potatoes which formed their staple diet. Now the Irish land system permitted a man to obtain with delusive ease the basis of a meagre and uncomfortable life. The easy-going and unenterprising methods on which most Irish estates were managed, the desire for quick returns during the great war at the beginning of the nineteenth century, the wish of the Irish farmer to secure labour without bothering about money wages, and the anxiety of many landlords to increase their political prestige and pull by multiplying freeholders on their estates, encouraged sub-division (Foster 1990).
If the most productive use was to be made of the soil, it was clear that Irish rural economy required to be reorganized. And only two forces, the state or the Irish landowners, could be expected to undertake the task. The former was inhibited partly by lack of the requisite machinery and knowledge, and partly by respect for the dominant laissez-faire outlook which assumed that if the state intervened in economic affairs it would probably blunder badly and certainly interrupt the healthy and harmonious play of natural forces.
The ramshackle, ill-balanced Irish agricultural system not only failed to provide a satisfactory and productive economic existence for the majority of those engaged in it, but in addition it exercised a crippling effect on Irish industrial development (Tuathaigh, 2007). The Irish textile industries just before the famine present a series of contrasts. Silk, after a long struggle, was almost dead, and wool which had been declining seemed to have stabilized itself at a low level, cotton after a period of feverish expansion had fallen into an intensifying depression from which it was never to emerge, and the securely established linen industry, while undergoing painful changes in organization, was at the opening of an age of expansion and success.
The Poor Law improved the situation and gave support to the population. Despite the prevailing poverty there was no poor law system in the country until 1838. A statute passed in that year divided the country into poor law unions and provided for the election of a board of guardians and the erection of a workhouse in each union. Ireland, unlike England which had a system dating from Tudor times, was looked on as an unspoiled field where a poor law in complete accord with prevailing economic theory could be introduced.
As a result a rigid system was imposed which in no circumstances allowed assistance to be given to any but those who became inmates of the workhouses. Residence in the workhouse was made ‘as disagreeable as was consistent with health’ lest anyone should desire to depend on public assistance (Morash, 1995).
The system was in operation in practically all parts of Ireland by 1843, but it lacked elasticity and was incapable of dealing with a major crisis. There was accommodation in the workhouses for little more than 100,000 people and this was the maximum that would be assisted in any way under the scheme. Private individuals were not satisfied that the government was taking sufficient precautions and on October 31 a committee was formed at the Mansion House in Dublin to examine the extent of the loss and to propose remedies. The government’s enquiries had been kept secret and it was feared that no preparations were being made to meet the danger of famine (Gallman, 2000).
The conflicting reports of the extent and effects of the potato disease in Ireland in the late autumn of 1845 complicated the problem facing Sir Robert Peel’s administration. In taking steps to meet the situation, the prime minister had no accurate estimate of the possible food deficiency to be expected. A crisis was imminent but its dimensions were unknown. It was realised that the existing poor law system could not meet the impending disaster.
That system was in operation in all but four poor law unions but relief, under the 1838 act, could be given only to inmates of workhouses. The government considered the provision in the poor law which prohibited the granting of relief outside the workhouses fundamental. To make the system capable of meeting a general scarcity it would have been necessary to change, perhaps only temporarily, the principle but it was feared that any change might (Gallman, 2000).
The main task of the relief committees, besides preparing lists of those needing employment, was the provision of food. In the instructions issued at the end of September this food was to be sold and no provision was made to allow gratuitous relief to the infirm. In the regulations laid down for the inspecting officers the principles governing the committees’ duties were more clearly stated. The regulations regarding the sale of food were, however, not relaxed and the system was unable to meet the conditions which prevailed in the closing months of 1846 (Gallman, 2000).
The dependence of families on regular wages raised the problems also of what should be done during bad weather. It was foreseen from an early stage that the people would have to be paid or fed but the government failed to give any decision on the matter. The question became serious during January and February 1847, but despite the pressure of enquiries for a direction in the matter from instance the jury agreed that as Lord John Russell and Sir Randolph Routh had combined to starve the Irish people by not taking adequate steps to meet the crisis they were both guilty of wilful murder.
The failure of the system of relief by public works was gradually made clear to the government, and a new scheme was introduced during the spring of 1847. The numerous deaths by starvation and the fact that labourers deserted agricultural employment in favour of roadwork were factors in bringing about the change.
In sum, the actions and strategies adopted by the British Government were unsuccessful and ineffective; they lacked coordination and did not respond to needs and problems of the population. The schemes were poorly introduced because of their unproductive character, and it has been suggested that all the famine works were useless. The improvement of road communications, however, was as important a part of economic development as railway building, but the limitation of this type of work meant that many useless and ill-considered projects were commenced and quite a number of them were left unfinished.
Their effect would have been felt in subsequent years and the millions of pounds which were wastefully expended would have been diverted to increasing the production of the country. The opportunity to improve the country was lost, and the effect was to increase the demands on already heavily mortgaged property by leaving a heavy debt to be repaid out of rates.
Bibliography
Foster, R. Modern Ireland, 1600-1972. 1990, Penguin Books Ltd; New Ed edition.
Gallman, M. J. 2000, Receiving Erin’s Children: Philadelphia, Liverpool, and the Irish Famine Migration, 1845-1855. University of North Carolina Press.
Morash, Ch. 1995, Writing the Irish Famine. Clarendon Press.
Tuathaigh, G.O. 2007, Ireland before the Famine 1798-1848, Gill & Macmillan Ltd.
Even now, scholars have not come to a consensus as to the root causes of the so-called Great Potato Famine. There are a great number of theories, but it seems that none of them fully reflects all the complexity of this phenomenon. The main problem is that very often many historians tend to be partial and even prejudiced while interpreting the factors, which contributed to starvation. What we know almost for a fact is that this tragedy diminished the country’s population by approximately twenty percent. Some people died from starvation, some were forced to leave the country in order to save their own lives and the lives of their children.
There is a widely held opinion that the famine sprang from the so-called late blight, a potato disease, which destroyed virtually all harvests of 1845. Certainly, such explanation may appear very plausible, but it does not acquit those people, who could have averted this calamity. It is often argued that that the inaction of the British government aggravated the effects of the famine. In addition to that, several historians believe that the Potato famine can be considered as an act of genocide, committed by the British government against the Irish people. It stands to reason, this statement has always been a subject of heated debate; many British scholars state that the then British government must not be turned into a major culprit, they did pursue the policy of non-intervention or laisser-fair policy yet it does not necessarily mean, that they deliberately let thousands of people die.
Probably, it would be more prudent to discuss this famine as a consequence of several socio-economic factors. In his book “The Great Irish Potato Famine”, the prominent British historian James Donnelly analyzes this issue from several standpoints. The author puts forward an argument that it is impermissible to regard the famine only from one perspective. More likely, it was triggered by a number of factors, particularly, inadequate actions of the then British government, the failure of crops, and the economic policy of the country. In this essay, we need to compare the views on famine, which were expressed by James S Donnelly, and those ones, found in various newspapers.
As regards the initial stages of these events, James Donnelly states that the authority might have taken more urgent measures. Particularly, several attempts were made to suppress that outbreak of famine in Ireland. James Donnelly believes that if the government had chosen to make the facts public the number of victims could have been reduced to a minimum (James Donnelly, 25). Nonetheless, according to the famous Irish nationalist John Mitchell, this suppression was deliberate. Although, it is not explicitly stated we may deduce it from his argument it is almost a premeditated murder (John Mitchell, 12). Naturally, at this moment, one may say that Mitchell’s words were mostly driven by emotions but it should be taken into consideration that he was an eyewitness of those events, thus we cannot altogether reject his interpretation of the Potato Famine.
In this regard, it is worth mentioning that London newspapers, Times, in particular, stated that the famine was caused mostly by the failure of crops (Ranelagh, p 116). Apart from that, it was argued that this famine was God’s vengeance on the Irish people. It appears that John Mitchell’s allegation may not be very far from the truth, because at this point, the relationships between the ethnic groups were extremely tense, and the famine only enhanced this animosity.
Additionally, James Donnelly says that ruinous taxation policy, especially several legislation acts also contributed to the great famine. In the middle of the nineteenth century, the overwhelming majority of Irish peasants were living beyond the poverty level. Every failure of crops might have easily resulted in famine; it was just a matter of time. In 1845, no one could predict such a scenario, but it has to be admitted that under certain circumstances, the famine could have been avoided (James Donnelly, 44). Overall, we may say that bad harvest is too convenient of an excuse because it enables some people to disclaim responsibility. Nevertheless, it is impermissible to blame only the British government, which could have done more.
Therefore, it is quite possible for us to arrive at the conclusion that the Great Famine should be viewed as an outcome of several factors: namely impudent economic policy, inappropriate actions of the British government, and the failure of crops. Furthermore, it should be pointed out that the views on this tragedy have always been ambiguous and even controversial. In the overwhelming majority of cases, the interpretation of these events depends upon the author’s partiality or impartiality. Scholars and journalists often pay attention only to those aspects, which are most suitable for them. In this case, it is of vital importance to rise above personal prejudices, because otherwise, it is hardly possible to get a good notion of the Great Potato Famine and its causes.
Bibliography
D. Ranelagh. “Famine in Ireland” The Times, 1846.
James S. Donnelly. “The Great Irish Potato Famine” Sutton, 2001.
The Horn of Africa, a region that includes Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia is known for constant conflicts famine and other human crisis. In 1980’s this region experienced extreme drought and famine that led to death of many people. Surrender or Starve: travel in Ethiopia and Eritrea written by Kaplan gives a detailed account of the famine during the period. As journalist reporter in this region, Kaplan had close experience of situation. The account made in the book draws attentions to this region, which had been neglected, by the world during the conflict. The main theme in the book, famine, is a major threat to human existence and development not only in the region but also in many parts of Africa. Famine can be viewed from more than one perspective; ecological, political, cultural and technological effects have great influences to famine. The accounts in the books explore the influence of religious, ethnic and class conflicts in the region to the famine. The accounts also give details on influence of political instability to famine, and, how the famine influence current crisis in the region.
Technological and Ecological Perspective to the Famine
In history, the Horn of Africa has a record of frequent and persistence droughts. The geographical positions of the region, unstable rainfall and prolonged dry period have been a major factor in famine in the region. The severe famine experienced in 1980’s could be explained, in one perspective, as resulting from frequent drought in the region.
Due to landscape and geographical location, Ethiopia has unstable rains that lead to frequent drought. The temporal and spatial distribution of rainfall has led to three main seasons. The three seasons differs from typical two seasons observed in tropical region. The three main seasons are dry season, long rains season and the short rains season. These seasons provides the basic framework for agricultural structures of the country (Kaplan, 2003, p 131). The long rains season in the main planting season for major crops in the country. The short rains seasons is used for planting main short-term food crops for most communities. The dry season provides the right conditions for harvesting both the short and long-term crops. Due to the nature of seasons, divergence in climate results to major loss of crops with little chance for recovery. For survival of the livestock, it is imperatives that limited rainfall should be received during the dry season.
During the period between 1975 and 1990, Ethiopia and the other regions is the horn of African received unstable rainfall. Rains in the long and short rains seasons were not enough to sustain full of food crops. As most communities were pastoralists, frequent drought led to loss of livestock due to famine. The dry seasons were extended and recorded hardly any rain. As a result, communities lost most of animals and shifted to other region in search of fodder and water for their animal.
Reliance on natural rains and failure to use technology in agriculture contributed to severity of famine in the regions. Failure of either short or long rains meant that the communities lost any hope for harvest. In livestock, the dry seasons were coupled with pest attacks, which led loss of many animals. As one drought was followed by another, families lost seeds and reduced animals for reproduction after the drought. Diseases and deaths followed from the drought with little attention of the government and non-governmental agencies.
Political factors
Political influences the famine in Ethiopia is evident from the book. Both local and international politics had influence to the famine. Ethiopia’s internal political instability led to growth of conflicting groups that wedged war against the government. The relationship between Ethiopia and countries involved in the east-west conflict influenced how famine was handled.
The government of Ethiopia was ineffective; marred with corrupt officials and politicians. The ruling political class struck political alliance with the east. The Soviet Union pumped money to the country in support of the rulers’ political agendas. The USSR also brought in armies and weapons to the horn in orders to safeguard their interest in the region (Kaplan, 2003, p47). The money and weapons led to further splitting of the already conflicting region. The government removed peasant farmers and pastoralists from their farms and took them to regions with limited water and food supplies. This government interference to natural way of live of communities led to destruction of cultures, decimation of villages and effects to family lives. Dues to this influence, effects of drought, diseases and deaths went along without the notices of international communities.
Conflict between the government and guerrilla armies had effect to the famine. The government used the money received from the east to sponsor militia groups that fought against guerrilla armies (Kaplan, 2003, p127). Resources that could have been to support useful economical programmes were used to fight an unending war. Region that supported gorilla fighters fighting against the government did not receive assistance from the government during the drought. Food and other aids intended for the regions were either diverted to politically friendly regions or embezzled by corrupt government officials. The fight between guerrilla armies and the government led drove families from their farms into refugee camps where they were faced with severe drought and deaths.
Cultural and Ethnic Differences
Ethnic and cultural differences are a major factor in conflict in Ethiopia and other regions of the horn of Africa. Before any conflict between Ethiopia and Eritrea is reviewed, cultural and ethnic elements are observed. The major cause of conflict across boundaries in the Horn of Africa is the ruling classes attempt to create national states identity within international boundaries created by the colonial rulers. The historical scrabble for the region led to strong divisions in the country. The ethnic groups in Ethiopia include the Tigrayan, Oromo, Afars and Somalis. These ethnic and cultural groups led to growth of conflicts between the groups (Kaplan, 2003, p67). Each ethnic group tried to have influence to political activities in the country. Constant conflict between the groups led to in most regions. With constant conflict, agricultural activities were severely affected. The constant conflicts between the grown made effective provision of aid to be impossible. Aid workers feared to go into conflict prone regions leaving starving families with necessary aids.
Conclusion
The famine in Ethiopia and other regions on the Horn of Africa will be remembers for its severity and thousands of lives lost. Although the drought that affecting the region contributed significantly to the famine, political negligence led to the high number of deaths lost. Robert Kaplan’s account of the famine in his book: Surrender or Starve shows political influences of Mengustu rule as the major reason for the famine. The Ethiopian government failed to respond appropriately to the famine leaving helpless families without the necessary help. Relationship between the Ethiopian government and USSR led to influx of weapons and money that were used in conflicts. Information about the famine was revealed to the international community very late after severe effects had been experienced.
Reference List
Kaplan, R. (2003). Surrender or Starve: travels in Ethiopia, Sudan, and Eritrea. New York: Vintage.
The US debt limit has sharply come under scrutiny in the recent past and is considered a significant issue due to its impacts. The legislatures need to take an immediate action to avert a situation which would lead to the whole of the US economy being negatively affected.
Currently attempts are being made to ensure that the debt limit is raised to avoid possible defaults being realized as this will certainly negatively impact the economy. The only challenge is the arm twisting being witnessed between the two parties with each of them turning down the proposals of the other. Despite this challenge, officials from both parties “have expressed cautious optimism about the chances of raising the US debt limit by Tuesday and averting possible default” (BBC 1).
This issue of US debt has literary been covered by all media houses due to the significance it holds. President Barrack Obama is doing all he can to ensure that debt default does not occur. Different views have been aired with different people making suggestions through television channels as well as radio stations. The issue is current as its effects will be felt immediately if a solution is not found by Tuesday i.e. second of August.
It can be argued that the issue is associated with a lot of emotions and suspense significantly because of the way it will likely impact the economic. Literary every sector of the economy is likely to be affected if the legislatures failure to raise the debt limit in time. It should be noted that the value US dollar will likely lose value to foreign currencies and this will adversely affected business people especially those engaged in international business.
The Kenyan Famine
The Kenyan famine is another piece of news which has hit the international headlines in a significant way. It is reported that Kenyans in a region called Turkana have been dying of hunger while the government is said not to be doing enough about the situation. The local newspapers and media houses have comprehensively covered the event with some of the images shown been quite emotional.
Officials from various developed countries have visited the region and have expressed much concern about the event. Local corporate bodies have joined hands and started a project dubbed Kenyans for Kenyans whereby citizens of the country including the corporate bodies are making an attempt to raise 500 million Kenyans shillings for food purchase to feed people in that region (Ngumo 1).
The government leadership has been sharply accused of laxity. This was especially triggered by the government spokesman who claimed that no person had died of hunger in Kenyan as there was no documentary evidence to show that.
It is quite contradicting that in the same country there are regions which have realized huge harvests of potatoes and cabbages that the same are being fed on animals because there is no one interested in buying them. The Kenyan famine has evoked a lot of emotions especially among the citizens of the country who strongly feel that their country has a huge potential agriculturally to feed its people only that the nation’s leadership has been quite selfish and non –visionary.
This case of famine has depicted Kenya in a very negative way at the international level. It has continuously being viewed as a big shame that such a fertile country is unable to feed itself while nations located in deserts such as Israel and Egypt are able to feed themselves and even export excess of the agricultural produce (Ngumo 1).
The present brief is devoted to the famine that was declared in South Sudan on February 20 of this year (Ombuor 2017, para 1). It is an unprecedented event for South Sudan with roughly 42% of the country’s population (4.9 million people) being “severely food insecure” (Integrated Food Security Phase Classification [IPC] 2017, p. 1). The term presupposes the presence of phases 3, 4, or 5 of acute food insecurity, which corresponds to the cases of crisis (“high or above usual acute malnutrition”), emergency (“very high acute malnutrition and excess mortality”), and catastrophe (starvation, high mortality) (Integrated Food Security Phase Classification n.d., para. 10-12).
The region of Greater Unity experiences the most significant strain with some of its counties experiencing phase 5 classification in January 2017 (IPC 2017, p. 2). However, the issue of malnutrition has become acute for the entire nation (Famine Early Warning Systems Network [FEWS] 2017). The situation is expected to deteriorate without an appropriate response (IPC 2017). The latter should not be limited to humanitarian aid: the primary causes of the issue, which include the ongoing conflict in the region, need to be investigated and addressed before more than a half of the population of the country is affected by the famine (Clooney & Prendergast 2017; FEWS 2017).
Analysis
The current crisis, while unprecedented, was predicted by the WHO (2016, p. 1) that reported growing food insecurity in the region, which coincided with unfavourably dry weather conditions. Indeed, the recent drought, which affected certain areas of Africa, contributed to the problem, resulting in agricultural difficulties and increases in food prices (IPC 2017, p. 4; World Health Organization [WHO] 2016). However, the famine proves to be a result of a more complex combination of issues (BBC News Team 2017).
One of the primary causes of the famine are the armed conflicts of the ongoing civil war, which started in 2013 (Ombuor 2017; Quinn 2017). It is apparent that war can have multiple negative consequences, and one of them is disruptions in the economy caused by destruction, looting, and violence (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights [OHCHR] 2016; WFP 2017).
In particular, IPC (2017) shows that armed conflicts in South Sudan have a tendency to disrupt agricultural activities (p. 5). It is noteworthy that the tactics of the warring parties include attacking civilians (in particular, raiding communities and depriving them of cattle, food, and money), which has greatly contributed to the famine (Clooney & Prendergast 2017, para. 3). Moreover, there are reports of humanitarian aid, including food trucks, being hijacked or blocked by both sides of the conflict (Gettleman 2017, para. 19). The aid could have prevented the drought-related food insecurity or reduce its severity, but the strategy of the warring parties prevented this outcome (Clooney & Prendergast 2017).
In the end, the growing food insecurities and conflicts created a combination which set in motion various contributing factors, including a tremendous loss of lives, health crisis, hyperinflation, changes in the Terms of Trade, the lack of access to healthcare, and others (BBC News Team 2017; FEWS 2017; IPC 2017; OHCHR 2017; WFP 2017).
It is noteworthy that the previous famine, which Bahr El Ghazal region experienced in 1998, was caused by similar issues, including the fight for the independence of South Sudan and a drought (BBC News Team 2017, para. 19; Ombuor 2017, para. 15). Indeed, famine was used by the government as a part of its strategy against the rebels (Clooney & Prendergast 2017, p. 5). Coupled with unfavourable weather conditions, the strategy caused immense food insecurity, which was the most devastating one experienced by Sudan before the events of 2017. The recent famine, however, proves to be more destructive (Ombuor 2017, para. 15).
Famine is a major issue, and officially declared famines are particularly dangerous (BBC News Team 2017, para. 12; Clooney & Prendergast 2017). As of January 2017, the following classifications of the situations in South Sudan regions were made by IPC (2017, p. 13).
Over 50% of the population of Greater Unity and Northern Bahr el Ghazal were classified as experiencing phase 3, 4 or 5 of acute food insecurity. In Jonglei, more than 40% of the population experienced phase 3 or 4, and more than 30% of the population of Central and Eastern Equatoria were shown to suffer from the same levels of acute malnutrition. The remaining regions had less than one-third of their population experiencing phases 3, 4, or 5, but only the population of Western Equatoria showed no signs of phase 4, remaining classified as suffering from the three first phases of acute malnutrition. An illustration of the classifications can be found in the Image below. Thus, it is apparent that the situation is dire across the country, and action needs to be taken to avoid deterioration and ensure improvements.
South Sudan.
Conclusion
The officially declared famine in South Sudan has already affected over 40% of the country’s population, which means that hundreds of thousands of people are in direct danger of starving to death while the quality of lives of several millions of people is incredibly and increasingly low (Clooney & Prendergast 2017). IFSPC (2017, p. 1) expects the situation to proceed to deteriorate between February and July, eventually affecting about 5.5 million people, but the organisation does not attempt to make predictions for more extended periods of time.
The analysis demonstrates that multiple issues have contributed to the development of food insecurities and famine. However, certain officials of the World Food Program are reported to call the famine “man-made” (WFP 2017, para. 10; Ombuor 2017, para 2). While seemingly one-sided, this comment also implies that humans have a greater opportunity to control the issue by investigating and addressing human-made problems that have led to food insecurities.
Given the fact that the famine is the result of a complex of issues, a complex of interventions is required to improve the situation. Humanitarian aid (including direct provision of food, water, and medications as well as help in restoring agriculture) has been shown to have a positive impact, and it is expected to be beneficial in the future as well (Quinn 2017; WFP 2017). However, WFP (2017) states that humanitarian aid is only a part of the solution, predominantly because it does not affect the human-related reasons of the famine. The latter are likely to be affected through governmental efforts.
In particular, FEWS (2017, para. 1) insists that a noticeable improvement of the situation is only possible if the conflict is ended, and calls for attempts to reduce violence while directing the efforts of the government towards emergency management and saving lives. Similarly, Clooney and Prendergast (2017) point out that war crimes, including looting, should not be overlooked; they need to be punished to prevent them from occurring. They also suggest that the war crimes must have resulted in wealth for some of the leaders of the conflicting parties, and they recommend anti-money laundering measures which can help to make such a form of property acquisition less attractive. Thus, it can be concluded that the resolution of food insecurities in South Sudan is only possible with a direct, active, and meaningful cooperation of the government of the country.
The Asian continent is the world’s largest and most populous located mainly in the eastern and northern hemispheres. The population in Asia is estimated at about 4 billion people representing a whooping 60% of the world’s total human population as it currently stands (Lee 500).
The Pacific Ocean borders Asian to the east while India is to the south of Asia. Asia is also bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean. There are several independent states in Asia with China as the single largest country. It is these many countries that define Asia’s varying distribution of wealth.
It is also characterized by its immeasurable size and magnificent range of different cultures, historical backgrounds, environmental orientation, natural resources and different government systems.
The paper seeks to primarily focus on the effects of famine in North Korea. It will highlight its background information, the cause of famine in detail as well as the role of its government system in influencing economic development.
North Korea is a one of the countries in the larger Asia. It is also referred to as the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) (Lee 513). Pyongyang is the largest and capital city of North Korea. It is divided from South Korea by The Korean Demilitarized Zone.
North Korea borders China to its western region and Russian to the North-east. In 1948, North Korea declined to participate in an election that was held in the south which was supervised by the United Nations. This refusal led to the creation of the current independent governments of North and South Korean states (Lee 517).
Continued tag of war for the sovereignty over the whole of Peninsula resulted in the Korean War in the year 1950. The war ended three years later with armistice but no peace treaty was ever signed which implies that the two states are still at war on book. The two states joined the UN in 1991 with North Korea withdrawing unilaterally from the armistice in May 2009.
As far as politics is concerned, North Korea has been a single-party state. Its united front is steered by the Korean Workers’ Party and is governed by the ideology of self-reliance known as Juche which was advocated by North Korea’s late “Eternal President” Kim Il-sung.
The ideology was made official in 1972 when the state adopted a new constitution. Juche had been used all along by Kim Il-sung to develop policies since mid 1950s. North Korea is officially a socialist republic but its operations have made other outside countries to regard it as a totalitarian Stalinistic characterized by dictatorship.
Kim Jong-il, Kim Il-sung’s son, is the current leader of the armed forces and secretary of the KWP Central Committee Secretariat. Kim Il-sung is the only president since he was never replaced when he died in 1994, but instead he was the given the name, “Eternal President”.
The ceasefire of 1953 marked the end of the Korean War but since then the relationship between the government of North Korea and America, Canada, Japan, Europe, the European Union, as well as South Korea has been tense (Eberstadt, Marc, & Albina 86).
This has been fueled by North Korean program of enriching uranium. North Korean legislature is the Supreme People’s Assembly which is currently being led by Kim Yong -man
North Korean climate is also of notable importance. It has four major seasons across the year. Long winter season comes with biting cold. This country experiences snowfall of 37 days on average during the winter season.
It ha s also been established that the northern mountainous regions have a tendency to experience particularly harsh weather which in turn may negatively affect cultivation (Noland, Sherman, & Tao 437). The period during which summer occurs is relatively shorter.
It tends to be hot, humid, and rainy as a result of the southern and southeast monsoon winds that blow moisture from over the Pacific Ocean. It is during summer that the Peninsula is affected by typhoons with a frequency of once every summer. The third and the fourth seasons are the spring and autumn respectively.
They are transitional periods which are characterized by mild temperatures and varying winds which bring forth pleasing weather.
Moreover, there are natural hazards that occur in North Korea which include; drought experienced during the spring season and later occasionally followed by destructive flooding. Typhoons, on the other hand, are experienced mostly for the period of the early fall.
North Korea has experienced disasters of varying magnitudes that have impacted negative on the country’s general development. In 1995, North Korea was hit by devastating famine and by 1997; the damage was at its peak.
The famine’s origin was traced by the country’s authority to the extraordinary floods coupled with the collapse of the Soviet Union in the mid-1990s (Noland, Sherman, & Tao 459).
The losses caused by starvation and hunger-related illness have been estimated, according to North Korea’s Public Security Ministry, to be between 2.5 million and 3 million lives. This was during the period between 1995 and March 1998, which represents about 12 % of the country’s total population in 2009 (Eberstadt, Marc, & Albina 94).
Prior to the famine, North Korea could provide food to all its citizens following the massive industrialization program of agricultural production in the preceding decades. The economic system had been relatively stable due to healthy relationship with the Soviet Union as far as trade and pricing was concerned.
The economic development has always been directly under the control of the state. The dawn of the unfortunate fall of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s impacted negatively on the economic growth of the country due to loss of ready market (Eberstadt, Marc, & Albina 97).
There was a significant decrease in productivity in the country’s agricultural and industrial sectors. These events were to set the pace for the then looming crisis in North Korea.
It was in the year 1992 and 1993 that the media in North Korea started advocating for regulation of daily meals by the citizens (Smith 98). The media requested people to reduce the meals per day to two rather than the usual three, claiming that excessive eating was unhealthy for the body.
People in some regions started experiencing food shortages and they could go for days without food despite the government’s concerted efforts to supply the rationing coupons. Food distribution started going down in the later months of 1994 and this implied that the shops had nothing to offer then.
In 1994, the North Korean media officially admitted that hunger existed in the country (Niksch, 11 April, 1996). A year later, the North Korean government gave in to the fact that there was a national food shortage.
This admission triggered negotiations for external food aid and in June, the government in Pyongyang reached a consensus with the governments of Japan and South Korea.
The following month, government announced to its citizens that the country will receive foreign food aid, though the authorities did not mention the role of the South in the emergency rescue.
While still reacting to the national hunger crisis emanating from the failure of trade and production systems, North Korea was yet to experience another equally devastating disaster that only helped to enhance the existing disaster (Smith 107).
It was in the months of July and August, 1995 that the country experienced catastrophic floods that brought North Korea crumbling. The effects were overwhelming. According to government sources, it resulted in the displacement of 5.4 million people as well as the destruction of about 330, 000 hectares of land used for crop production.
Furthermore, about 1.9 million tons of grain had been completely lost in the havoc (Eberstadt, Marc, & Albina 101). The damage accruing from floods alone, as reported by the government, was estimated at about $15 billion.
The impacts of the floods were immensely huge. At the end of 1995, reports from reliable sources estimated that about 2.1 million and 500,000 pregnant women were at risk of dying due to starvation, especially in the following months (Noland, Sherman, & Tao 467).
In July 1996, floods, though of lesser severity were experienced resulting in renewed call for help in anticipation of more devastating effects in the form of famine.
In March 1997, North Korea started reporting cases of malnourishment caused by famine. The claims of a major famine were, however, disputed by other observers on the ground. It is imperative to note that famine in North Korean is a product of so many other factors characterized by systematic crisis and continued decline in income generation (Smith 106).
Entitlement of vulnerable groups has also helped in escalating the problem due to starvation. Decisions by the government to regulate supply of food through the Public Distribution System (PDS) exposed the entitlement groups to starvation more than the market forces did. PDS as a system has been used for some time to supply subsidized food rations to about 62% of the country’s population (Smith 110).
Apart from the ray of other structural problems in North Korea, the organizational problems in the agricultural sector have added to the crisis. The over-centralization of decision-making as well as over-reliance on state farms has been identified to be part of the major causes of famine (Smith, 112).
Most of the country’s crisis, therefore, does not arise solely from natural disasters but government policies and operations have helped in courting trouble for the North Korean people.
Immediate reforms to the government system should be made as well as the restoration of the country’s global image since even after a decade into the 21st century; the country has sour relations with most partner states like South Korea and the US.
The essay has briefly discussed North Korean as a country. It has elaborated on the causes and effects of famine which include poor trade systems, and catastrophic floods resulting in the deaths of millions of North Korean people.
Government policies have been identified as playing a major role in thwarting economic development in North Korea and that a lot need to be done to save the country from further devastation.
Works Cited
Eberstadt, N., Marc, R., & Albina, T. (2005). Impact of the Collapse of Soviet and Russian Trade with the DPRK, 1989-1993. The Korean Journal of National Unification. 4 (2) 86-103
Lee, H. (2009). Korea and World Affairs: Supply and Demand for Grains in North Korea. Journal of Policy Reform. 14 (3) 500-52.
Niksch, L. (1996). North Korean Food Shortages: U.S. and Allied Responses. CRS Report to Congress, Washington, 11 April.
Noland, M., Sherman, R. & Tao W. (1999). Rigorous Speculation: The Collapse and Revival of the North Korean Economy. Working Paper Series No. 99-1. Washington: Institute for International Economics. 435-67
Smith, H. (2000). The North Korean Food Economy: Catalyst for Collapse? In Economic Integration of the Korean Peninsula. SPECIAL REPORT. Washington: Institute for International Economics, 97-112
