Category: Family

Schaefer contributed greatly to the field of sociology because he coined several terms that are mostly used in explaining the social phenomenon. He analyzed the views of various prominent scholars in the field, as well as the major ideas of great theorists, such as Karl Marx, Durkheim, Merton, and Max Weber. For instance, he revisited the ideas of Robert Butler on ageism, which is a coined to discuss the prejudices and all sorts of discriminations directed towards the older people in the community.

The author invented the term agrarian society meaning the technologically advanced pre-industrialized society that depends on simple machines in the production of goods and services. He also looked at the validity of Durkheim’s ideas on anomie whereby he observed that when people lose direction, the problem has to be explained by understanding the dynamics of society instead of attributing the behavior to an individual.

Based on this, social problems are explained after a comprehensive analysis of the social structure, which includes the various agents of socialization such as the family, the school, the polity, the peer, and the media. The most important term that the author formulated was the egalitarian family, as it presents a new issue of concern in many societies because the role of women in the industrialized society is yet to be recognized.

He proposed that the community should embrace an egalitarian family whereby the contributions of women should be taken into consideration instead of assigning them inferior and degrading roles, such as housekeepers, secretaries, nurses, and caregivers.

Under the new arrangements, the adult members of the family unit should be regarded as equals meaning the views of each person should be incorporated into the decision-making process. Traditionally, only men were allowed to design and implement policies, even those that affected women. For instance, it was a man who determined the number of children to be reproduced while women were expected to obey the men’s authority.

In his analysis, the author noted that social changes had facilitated the emergence of complex family relations whereby the father is no longer regarded as the head of the family. Some scholars refer to these new developments as alternative families or postmodern family arrangements, which explain the changing forms of relationships, partnerships, and companionships.

Unfortunately, the scholar was quick to note that the society is reluctant to accept the new changes because intensive struggles for power and gender identifies have always been witnessed, which prevent the attainment of the new dreams. According to Giddens, the social transformations in family life have generated conflicts in the way patriarchal authority is expressed.

An egalitarian family arrangement is one of the major threats to the patriarchy, according to the author because it opposes the tenets of the traditional family that insists on the male power and authority in marriage. In the new family arrangement, partners are always focused on striking a balance between family life and professional commitments with an attempt to construct a harmonious, democratic relationship (Maume 860). For several scholars, an egalitarian family is simply an ideal type since it is inapplicable in real life.

The author wondered why western societies are always insistent on the egalitarian family, yet individuals are unwilling to apply it in their relationships. Western governments have bowed to pressure from feminist organizations to the extent of facilitating egalitarianism in the labor markets through the formulation of stable policies and adequate measures to ensure that women are hired into powerful positions in various organizations. However, the idea is yet to be applied at the family level.

The number of families willing to embrace egalitarianism is in the increase in the western countries, but they are inconsiderable given the extensive campaigns. In a study conducted in the United States, the author reported that young professionals are more willing to embrace equality in the family as compared to the elderly who are reluctant to change family relations.

In an attempt to classify egalitarian families, the author discussed the other two forms of family relations, including traditional and neo-traditional associations at the family level. In the traditional family type, the father is often considered the sole breadwinner while the mother is expected to take care of the activities of the home, including cooking for the family, caregiving, and reproduction (Nordenmark 236).

In other words, the mother is involved in the unpaid work of the home. In his view, this form of family relations is in the decrease in western society even though it is rampant in the third world societies. Classification of the neo-traditional family relations is interesting since it proves that women do not enjoy their rights and freedoms in modern society.

While both fathers and mothers are expected to engage in paid work, as well as sharing family chores, the mother is still subjected to inhuman treatment in the sense that the distribution of housework is uneven.

Women work part-time, but the family responsibility is solely theirs because they are to provide the basic needs for the members while fathers are to accomplish the long-term objectives of the family. He concluded the debate on the egalitarian family by arguing that it is difficult to evaluate whether the family is egalitarian or neo-traditional because the mother will always tend to have additional responsibilities.

Works Cited

Maume, David. “Gender Differences in restricting Work efforts Because of family responsibilities.” Journal of Marriage and Family 68.11 (2006): 859-869. Print.

Nordenmark, Mikael. “Does gender ideology explain Differences between countries regarding the involvement of Women and of men in Paid and unpaid Work?” International Journal of Social Welfare 13.1 (2004): 233-243. Print.

Schaefer, Richard T. Sociology: A Brief Introduction. Dubuque, Iowa: McGraw-Hill, 2013. Print.

There is no doubt that practices applied in the field of social work are strictly connected to changes that take place in human society. Taking into consideration the fact that they can be of different nature, it is possible to suppose that the impact that they produce remains one of the primary forces shaping and changing attitudes to work of those people related to social work. If we speak about such country as Australia that is often regarded as an example of a stable society, it is extremely important to understand that changes related to notions of family and childhood also take place there. This paper is devoted to discussion of changes related to technology development, demographic shifts, cultural diversity, and ideals and their connection with social work.

As for the particular cultural changes in the last fifty years that have influenced the world and social work as well, it can be important to divide them into a few groups. To begin with, a lot of things and people’s assumptions seem to have changed due to quite rapid development of modern means of communication (Partridge, 2014). People in Australia and in other countries have been given access to a large amount of information due to the development of the Internet and a wide range of devices allowing to consume information and tell other people about something important related to their life. As for the connection between this global trend and social work, it can be stated that it has both positive and negative impact on certain practices used by social workers when they have to deal with young people, children, and families. On the one hand, modern children and families, in general, have access to any information due to these inventions, and this is why it can be often regarded as an opportunity that they can use in order to solve problems on their own (Dezuanni, Dooley, Gattenhof, & Knight, 2015, p. 12). On the other hand, it can be said that a lot of people tend to use these opportunities in the wrong way. Furthermore, ideas that people want to take example by also tend to change, and social workers have more clients whose values and attitudes differ markedly from ones supported by people from previous generations.

Apart from that, there are a lot of sociological changes that take place and encourage social workers to implement newer concepts into their work. To begin with, there is no doubt that the majority of people in Australia and other countries suppose intercultural communication to be very important for the further development of human society. Therefore, it may be stated that growing cultural diversity is an important tendency that may also influence social workers (Rubin & Babbie, 2016, p.116). Thus, the number of families whose members belong to different races has increased during the past fifty years, and this tendency encourages specialists related to social work to extend their knowledge on characteristics of different cultures in order to be ready to provide such families with proper assistance (Sue & Rasheed, 2015).

Due to the increasing number of cultures, social workers in Australia and all over the world have to improve cultural competence as it becomes a very important skill. What is more, there are certain demographic shifts that also influence the experience of social workers. They include an increasing number of single parents and the overall aging of the population (Biggs, Carr, & Haapala, 2015). Besides, the number of married couples becomes lower whereas the rates of cohabitation tend to increase. These changes have a strong influence on the notion of family in general, and social workers are supposed to take them into consideration while providing their clients with assistance. In the end, such tendencies related to modern society as demographic changes and the growth of cultural diversity cause the necessity of additional education for social workers.

Social and cultural changes discussed are supposed to be factors influencing social workers’ attitudes to work practices they use. Nevertheless, another thing that is extremely significant in this context is the personal experience of a social worker connected with family relationships (Wayne, Casper, Matthews, & Allen, 2013). As it is clear from the author’s personal experience, the family should be seen as the community where people are united not only by the proximity of blood but also by common values, traditions, and cultural assumptions. At the same time, the author has no children yet and this fact also needs to be taken into consideration. Therefore, it can be supposed that these ideas will have a strong influence on his future working practice. In fact, such experience is likely to encourage social workers to do their best in order to help those clients who have urgent problems related to the family. As for the second idea concerning children, it may sometimes be a barrier making it more difficult for social workers to communicate with children that need their help. Therefore, it can be stated that the personal experience of the author may have both positive and negative effect on his future practice.

Speaking about social work with children, families, and young people in connection with personal experience of the author, it is also necessary to single out strong points related to it that may help the author in the future. To begin with, it is necessary to consider certain characteristics of the author such as young age and great experience of communication with young people. It is necessary to understand that such experience significantly increases the effectiveness of measures implemented by social workers when it comes to working with particular categories of the population. As for the work with families and children, it can be supposed that another strong suit of the author is related to ability to defuse conflicts caused by the value that he attaches to family relationships.

Apart from strong points, it is also important to consider the areas that the author will need to develop in order to improve his work performance. In the first instance, it may be necessary for the author to do his best in order to extend knowledge related to child psychology paying increased attention to specific problems that may occur in children. Due to the fact that the author has no children, it may be a very important measure. This group of population is quite difficult to work with as divergent approach may be needed and respecting the identities of a child is also essential (James & Prout, 2015, p. 45).

In the end, there are a lot of factors causing cultural and social changes in Australia and other countries related to technology development and intercultural communication. It is hard to overestimate their role as they influence many spheres of activity such as social work. Besides, personal experience related to family relationships also predetermines the strengths and weaknesses that specialists in social work have.

References

Biggs, S., Carr, A., & Haapala, I. (2015). Work, aging, and risks to family life: the case of Australia. Canadian Journal on Aging, 34(03), 321-330.

Dezuanni, M., Dooley, K., Gattenhof, S., & Knight, L. (2015). iPads in the early years: Developing literacy and creativity. New York, NY: Routledge.

James, A., & Prout, A. (2015). Constructing and reconstructing childhood: Contemporary issues in the sociological study of childhood. New York, NY: Routledge.

Partridge, P. H. (2014). Society, schools and progress in Australia. New York, NY: Elsevier.

Rubin, A., & Babbie, E. R. (2016). Empowerment series: Research methods for social work. New York, NY: Cengage Learning.

Sue, D. W., & Rasheed, J. M. (2015). Multicultural social work practice: A competency-based approach to diversity and social justice. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Wayne, J. H., Casper, W. J., Matthews, R. A., & Allen, T. D. (2013). Family-supportive organization perceptions and organizational commitment: The mediating role of work–family conflict and enrichment and partner attitudes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98(4), 606.

Introduction

Families are responsible for bringing up children until the time they will be able to start their own families. As they grow up, many changes take place in their life, physically, emotionally, psychologically and even financially, in preparation to begin new families.

The events are sequential and skipping one of them may be reverberated later in life, although it does not mean that one cannot improve and mend the outcomes of the skipped stages. Every stage is vital and it is important to go through all the stages if possible. This essay discusses the sequence of events that finally lead to beginning of family life.

Events leading to the beginning of Family life

Everyone has a family of origin, and each family is unique with unique experiences and lifestyles. The first stage thus is living in the family of origin with all the rules and regulations, and complying with them. Majority at this stage are still under taking or completing their schooling.

The major tasks here are “maintaining relationships with parents, siblings and peers…involves developing the foundations of a model of family life” (Carter & McGoldrick, 1999, p.67). This is an important stage since it defines what one will be in the future family. Many do not know that there are being prepared to bring up their families. Research has shown that people who come from happy families build happy families and vice versa, although there are always exceptional cases which violate the aforementioned rule.

The next stage is leaving home. The single young grown-up develops more close associations with peers and adult-to-adult relations with parents than earlier on. Emotionally, this person accepts his or her personal financial and emotional responsibilities and separates him or herself from the family of origin.

One becomes self-reliant in relation to employment and economic independence. This individual can make decisions without involving the parent. One gets the opportunity to interact with many people at friendship levels. Majority of friendships established here move on to the future, and often times one of the friends becomes the future marriage partner.

Pre-marriage stage then follows. The individual is engaged in looking for and selecting a marriage partner. He or she establishes a relationship, which would lead to marriage later on. It is at this stage that one may decide to establish own home with someone (Carter & McGoldrick, 1999, p.72).

The duration that this stage takes depends on the individuals, their cultural background, and the era in which they are living. These two friends become acquainted to one another and develop strong bonds. A desire to get married, company and having children contributes to moving towards establishing a family.

The next stage is marriage, which marks the beginning of family life. The couple major in “developing a way to live together both practically and emotionally, adjusting relationships with families of origin and peers to include partner” (Carter & McGoldrick, 1999, p.75). It is then after this that they bear children and the family becomes complete and full family life starts.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the sequences of events that lead to beginning of family life begin at a very tender age, by how ones parents bring him/her up. Separation from the family and establishing oneself both emotionally and financially follows.

The evidence of this is the physical separation from one family to live alone or away from the original family, where one makes closer and more intimate relationships with peers. Getting a marriage partner and being acquainted to one another brings the sequence close to the end. Marriage marks the climax of the preparation and the beginning of family life.

References

Carter, B., & McGoldrick, M. (1999). The Expanded Family Lifecycle. Individual Family and Social Perspectives (3^rd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

A family formation with respect to its composition comprises of a complete or nuclear family, childless couple formation and lone parent formation. A complete family is composed of two companions who could be cohabiting or living as spouses with at least one youngster. It is also described as the traditional family and the most basic institution in child care. Here, women have a major role of managing house chores. Childless couples have an option of either living together as spouses or just cohabit.

These two family forms consist of partners who make decisions on crucial family matters. In modern times, there are instances where the partners belong to the same sex or homosexuals. On the other hand, a lone parent family formation basically has one parent either a father or a mother having one or more youngsters. With the rising cases of divorce and the declining fertility rates, lone parenthood is on the rise. Women are considered the most critical players in raising children and maintaining these families.

Family forms have changed especially due to the dynamics in the women’s workforce which renders them independent and hence, they opt to be single parents. The shift in the role of women from a homemaker to a wage earner has contributed to raising socially exclusive and emotionally detached children in the society since they spend less time with their children (Golombok, 2000).

A child requires the presence of both parents for his or her wellbeing. When such lacks, there arise inadequacies in the family. A complete family consisting of both parents and their children allows for diversity in exchange of ideas and in sharing social roles. It offers a nurturing surrounding in upbringing the children since there is more emotional reinforcement and more economic stability.

It is the ideal family setup to raise children to become socially responsible adults. Children could rely on both parents for moral guidance which helps to reinforce the social values. Moreover, this family formation aids in extensively building a child’s knowledge and skills learnt from each parent. There is a shared responsibility of raising the children as well as mutual support which is emulated by the children. This not only raises socially attached children but also ones who are emotionally fit to be accommodated comfortably in the society.

Childless couples’ family formation involves partners’ choice or their inability to have children. In most cases, couples always desire to raise children together but this might not be so due to major reasons such as infertility. Those who lack children by individual choice reflect selfishness which is not a norm in the children oriented world. However, there are advantages to this family formation.

First, the couple may be having busy schedules in jobs or businesses and having to raise children may prove tricky for them. Therefore, they personally decide to boycott parenting roles to favor other activities. Second, it is the ideal family for those people who are well aware of their advanced age, ill health or lack of nurturing qualities which may not be conducive for raising children.

Lone parenting or modern family form overburdens one party with the responsibility of raising and offering supportive care to the child thus, parental inefficacy. This result to financial constrains which may even affect the family’s health. Lone parenting may be accompanied by isolation which causes frustrations and can be transmitted to the children.

This is problematic in child’s development since it results to societal ills such as violence. In addition, these children become psychologically affected and eventually, their education is as well affected. It may arise as a result of surrogate maternity, child adoption, separation or even impregnation by artificial insemination (Golombok, 2000).

Reference

Golombok, S. (2000). Parenting: What Really Counts? New York: Routledge Publishers.

Feminist’s theory has changed the way of figuring out the family through sociological examination on females’ undertakings within a family with more emphasis on gender roles in these family formations. It portrays the family as not able to handle the requirements of each member equally and hence, an institution which harbors social conflicts. Feminist theories advocate for gender equality and women’s rights and fall into four main categories.

These include the Marxist, liberal, socialist and radical feminism. Liberal feminists ascertain that there are transformations within the society that have advantaged the females since they are enhancing their social rank and their welfare. In a family, the male and female roles are being symmetrical since the males have become active in family engagements. In addition, women are also aiding in feeding the family which eases the burden on males.

Therefore, there have been diversified family activities such as recreation unlike the traditional norms initially undertaken by the family. Conversely, radical feminists’ points out that there is a general central force attributed to female subjugation referred to as patriarchy. In such families, males always outdo the females in most activities.

Therefore, the family harbors exploitation where children and their mothers are domestically violated through violence and labor. Radical feminists views that for the female oppression to be resolved, the family institution has to be abolished. (Code, 2000)

Similarly, Marxist feminists points out that a family is an oppressive institution which transmits capitalists ideologies to the juvenile generation. Women are the source of workforce and the only solution for their independence lies on conquering the capitalism and initiating socialism to achieve gender parity. Marxist’s thought fails to point out the distinct role of women in the family workforce.

On the other hand, socialist feminists say that conquering capitalism will never be a solution to achieve gender parity in the family setup. They insist that patriarchy is attributed to male supremacy and therefore should be challenged to achieve gender parity in the family institution. The socialist feminists’ disregards capitalism since it renders females subordinate and when challenged, the females will enhance their overall social status (Code, 2000).

The class stratum of a parent is influential on nurturing bad habits in children. For instance, when it is the male figure that is awarded the role of earning income in the family, while the women are left to be homemakers, there is the formation of a paternalistic family. Male dominance arises and becomes instrumental in the running of the family. As a result, the children emulate this and it is therefore transmitted to the incoming generations.

Some ideologies discussed by the feminist theories regarding domestic violence result from the fact that male dominance renders women subordinate since the males can easily contact power and the rightful resources to suppress women. In family life violations from a close partner is common and conventional. Moreover, women incidences are disregarded since male domination overshadows them in all activities.

Therefore, from a feminist’s perspective, gender parity is recommended not only in the family setup but also in the wider society as well. To achieve an egalitarian family where gender roles are shared evenly it is therefore crucial to have gender parity in every aspect of life, be it political, social or economic. This is followed by autonomy, flexibility and accomplishment in the family where no child is favored and every child is treated equally as reflected in lone parenthood.

Reference

Code, L. (2000). Encyclopedia of Feminist Theories. New York: Routledge.

Introduction

The 1960’s Cultural Revolution in the American history saw a decline in family cohesiveness. In the U.S, the aspect of capitalism continues to disintegrate the family institution to such an extent that it has greatly lost its significance. This can be attributed to the economic, political, scientific and technological advancements, which have suppressed the social development. The profit oriented society has continued to deinstitutionalize the family.

Initially, the European colonies suppressed the Native Americans while they continued to import the blacks as slaves to work in their farms. As a result, there occurred a cultural revolution that accelerated segregation of the American society along racial lines. A counterculture wave erupted as evidenced by the transformations in the music industry, civil rights movements and sexual revolution.

Counterculture

Commercial Entertainment

Racial differences played a great part in marginalizing the blacks together with their music, which excluded them from the American popular. Therefore, the Cultural Revolution saw creation of new genres in the music industry as well as the rising of the African American music. The political and economic atmosphere that followed created a crisis as the African Americans were transiting from blues to hip-hop genres.

This was followed by migration from the farms to the urban centers. Racial consciousness triggered a cultural revolution that caused a distinction between the blacks’ music- the modern jazz and the American popular which marks a time of reconfiguration in the American society. Popular music and the pronunciation of racial gaps had detrimental effects on the family setup.

The rapid growth in the recording industry continued and was followed by commercialization of television and new genres of music came up. Every household owned a television set which offered entertainment and this acted as the focal point for all family members. The family especially the youths, now concentrated on entertainment, which declined their attention towards other important family values.

The Civil Rights Movement

From 1950’s many Americans were gaining confidence and saw a need to reject global communism. The traditional aspects had to be discarded; the blacks established the civil rights movement which offered hope for them to achieve equality. John F Kennedy was at the forefront in the anti-communist campaigns to achieve social reforms for blacks, which were characterized by upheaval as the youths were rejecting the conservative values.

Materialism characterized this period, which helped to form a counterculture that triggered a social revolution in America. This was to oppose conservatism and engagement of the American military on the Vietnam unrests (Mintz & Kellog, 1988). The Vietnam War ultimately called for the military assistance where many American troops died and this triggered antiwar movement. Many citizens criticized engagement of U.S in Vietnam as many continued to lose their lives.

This triggered civil upheaval and the public’s minds were all drifted toward opposing the war rather than on the family. Antiwar movement was established under the 1950’s peace movement, which was deeply rooted in churches and public institutions of higher learning. Rise of lone parenthood could be attributed to the fact that many Americans men died in the war while others were imprisoned.

The social movements invested efforts in liberalizing the nation and also contributed to the sexual revolution which more importantly, inquired women’s rights. The media was growing vastly which not only aided in enhancing the counterculture but also in growing the music industry. As a result, family households reduced in size, with individuals opting for single parenthood or living without children. Divorce rates increased dramatically and illegitimate children rose in number.

The traditional family setup of father, mother and children started being replaced. In 1960, for instance, “The average number of persons in a household was 3.3, and average family size was 3.7 persons; in 1990, the comparable figures were 2.6 persons per household and 3.2 per family. Most households are still family households, but this household type has steadily decreased as a portion of all households, from 87% in 1960 to 70% in 1990” (Kamerman & Kahn, 1997).

Effects on Family Cohesion

In nineteen sixty when the Cultural Revolution was at its best, seventy percent of families in the, U.S were composed of the father as a source of the family income, the mother as the home maker, with their dependent kids. Since the Cultural Revolution, a lot of things transformed where family ties continued to loosen. This could be attributed to the intense shift of cultural norms where approaches towards the family. Before then, marriage was a necessity for the welfare of the family, for social fitness and helped to define gender roles.

Single men and women were observed as neurotic since the source of family happiness lied in embracing the traditional family norms. Cultural Revolution has led to self realization and a sense of independence where the traditional family is no longer regarded as a source of happiness.

Nevertheless traditional family was regarded important in offering economic security and showing emotional care to the children. Marriage vows which signified a lifetime commitment were then obvious while non-marital births and divorce cases were an uncommon occurrence. The family continued to shift attention to sexual satisfaction, companionship and closeness as the core values (Mintz & Kellog, 1988).

The nineteen sixties counterculture movement is marked by the pop culture where many musicians were involved in drugs which affected their lives negatively and some even died of overdose. A new era of pop music was at hand since the radios favored the music for it had many recordings. Many youths felt a need to modify and therefore they started listening to other genres such as Soul Music and Rock and Roll. The film industry was not left behind either since the counterculture movement changed the face of entertainment.

Movies and music started to depart from social norms such as sex and women oppression which was faced with a controversy. Sexual Revolution was inevitable especially in the entertainment industry which became more sexually explicit, put emphasis on the drug culture at the time and aided in the rise of feminism in America. Before then, women were homemakers and were not part of official jobs. Feminists opposed publicly the oppression of women socially, economically and politically.

They questioned the place of women and this was embraced by women who initiated the women liberation movement. Women as a result became aware of their sexuality and this was marked by a change of fashion from more conservative modes of dressing to a modern and more revealing one such as the bikini and miniskirts. They transformed their hair styles and this enhanced their looks (Ellwood &Jencks, 2002). This had a detrimental effect of the family cohesiveness since there has been a notable reduction in two parent families from then.

More lone parent families, which were headed by women started to emerge. Women started engaging in premarital sex showing that the traditional norms about the issue had drifted. These resulted due to more cases of divorce and non-marital births increased. This was opposed to the initial attitude that couples had to marry if they bore children out of wedlock.

Additionally, Sexual revolution may have come with use of contraceptives thus decreased births and higher social collisions. Premarital and extramarital cases started being condoned, which declined the marriage rates. Permissiveness regarding non-marital sex significantly increased the rates of lone parenthood (Ellwood &Jencks, 2002).

Conclusion

All these cultural changes diverted the attention paid to the family and this decreased the family cohesion. Every member of the society was actively engaging in the new events such that less time was available for the family to bond. The social pressures for instance, were so intense for the youths to handle. Many became victims of the situation e.g. drug abuse, which accelerated misunderstandings within the family. Youth’s culture transformed in the communist society as the young intellects aimed to drift from conservatism.

Crucial movements established such as radical feminism and liberated youths. This led to sexual immorality as the youths became liberalized from the hands of their parents to conform to the changing American lifestyle. However, more detrimental effects of the Cultural Revolution emerged where drug culture cropped in the society and traditional norms such as familism were neglected. Instead, a new era of individualism was introduced marked by attitudinal shifts, the reason behind the current family trends.

References

Ellwood, D. T. and Jencks, C. 2002. The Spread of Single-Parent Families in the United States since 1960. John F. Kennedy School of Government: Harvard University.

Kamerman, S. B. and Kahn, A. J. (1997). Family Change and Family Policies in Great Britain, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States. New York: Oxford University Press Inc.

Mintz, S. and Kellog S. (1988). Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life. New York: The Free Press.

During the nineteenth century industrial revolution in the United States, the medieval family had to be modified to other formations. The American society had to assist in the readjustments which, inevitably had to be done on the traditional family setup. The responsibilities awarded to women and children transformed drastically. The Revolution led to economic developments which affected the family institution by reducing its size and structure.

Women were a great source of workforce for the thriving industries where they earned their wages. The young women where enticed by the urban areas that were cropping up which allowed them to become less dependent to their families. This shifted the American families which became fragmented as each member sought jobs in the industries. The working patterns for women changed in that they were no longer home makers but breadwinners from the factories.

Women gained knowledge that was essential in improving their social status which helped them oppose gender disparity and claim their rights in the American society. The families no longer operated as independent units but they were incorporated in the vast growing economic sector. Family ties were neglected especially in the cities and many children were continually abandoned (Williamson, 2008).

Industrial revolution led to capitalism which segregated the society into classes. Some of the rich people had long-term investments and opted for wasteful living standards. As a result, it was extremely difficult to maintain their families. Moreover, there was a likelihood of specific people to copy the rich which resulted to a corrupt moral sense.

The industrial revolution created a need for professional workers who needed specialized training.Consequently marriages were postponed to latter ages when a person could establish a family. This proved hard for these individuals to become accustomed to family life. Low income earners found it difficult to establish a family and even when they did, financial constrains overburdened them in such a way that they could not maintain their families properly.

The income earners who looked upon daily wages to sustain the families were faced with problems. There was no consistence because of factors such as work misfortunes, work-related ailments, strikes and job losses. As a result of these mishaps, poverty augmented which triggered the increase of child labor, poor nutrition, inadequate education which facilitated strain in the families. Eventually, the society saw a need to safeguard children and their rights.

Education was the main aim and child labor was reduced due to passage of labor laws. Industrial Revolution accelerated disregard to the traditional families since it developed items that could be made at home. Home activities declined while those done outside increased and this drew the parents further from their children thus, destroying the family interdependency and enhancing fragmentation. Social bonding among family members declined and family values were scattered (Williamson, 2008).

The Industrial Revolution became the foundation for women to acquire their rights. This has improved their social status since women have rights to politics and enjoy economic and social freedom. They are able to legally claim their rights notably, in securing divorce. Unfortunately, this has facilitated their neglecting the families to pursue other goals thus, creating individualism in the American society due to their financial independence.

This is also a major contributor to their choice of becoming single mothers. Furthermore, divorce cases have increased in the United States due to domestic instability. The only remedy that is seemingly applicable to the family institution in U.S is reversing the adverse effects of industrial revolution such as poverty, congestion, individualism among others.

Reference

Williamson, T. R. (2008). Problems in American Democracy. United States of America: Forgotten Books.

Introduction

In the American society, motherhood has for long been considered as legitimate only if the woman is married. Marriage has been the ideal nuclear family relationship with one wife one husband structure. Most Americans were brought up in nuclear families composed of a heterosexual couple together with their biological children (Hertz, 2006). This being the case, whatsoever deviation has been handled with negativity and suspicion, and in most cases unwed motherhood has deemed to be immorality.

During the industrialization age, the woman was perceived as a primary caregiver and her domain would be domestic confinement. However, this social construct has been replaced with time and women are increasingly involving themselves in economic activities which have ‘let them loose’ from domestic confinement. This change of perception of motherhood has been more real to the white women than to women of other cultures (Davidman, 2000).

Social construct of motherhood in American families

Currently, a good majority of single mothers hail from middle-class backgrounds and their motherhood status is a matter of personal choice rather than victims of circumstances. In fact these women do not feel compelled to acquire the role of womanhood due to becoming mothers as expected in the American society.

The social construct of motherhood as being in the confines of a heterosexual marriage context has over the time been challenged with increasing cases of single parenthood, more so single mothers. The circumstances surrounding single motherhood have been varied with reproductive technologies adding up to cases of single mothers.

Nowadays, women can bear children through assisted reproductive technologies and as long as they are financially stable, they take the role of child upbringing without seeking the input of a man. In a different perspective, there has been a class of women who purposely decide not to marry but through whichever means (e.g. adoption), the acquire children and take the role of motherhood.

Confinements of motherhood

This has equally challenged the social view of motherhood as only legitimate if conducted within a heterosexual nuclear marriage (Hertz, 2006). Some mothers are even seeking to have a child and create a relationship with the child without necessarily bringing the father in the picture. This has not been received well by adherents of the social construct of motherhood.”Accidental” pregnancies have also enhanced single motherhood and have caused a deviation in what defined motherhood in America.

Single motherhood is on increase

A rising controversy regarding motherhood has currently risen up as the rights of lesbians and gays regarding parenthood have become more recognized. The eligibility of lesbians and their capability of taking the role of motherhood have been questioned since this form of relationship is a clear deviation of constituents of ideal motherhood.

The social construct of motherhood in American families was perceived to result to an upright and wholesome upbringing of children (Hertz, 2006), which has been questioned among lesbian mothers. Civil rights movements have spearheaded the acknowledgement of bisexual and lesbian women as legitimate mothers. Single motherhood as a choice and a matter of circumstances

Single motherhood as a choice and a matter of circumstances

With motherhood deviating, day-by-day, from the social construct of motherhood in America, it has become vivid that the family structure has changed immensely. Single mothers, by choice or by circumstances, are becoming bold to take the mother and father role. Initially detestable family constituents, more so lesbian families, are on an increase. This has undoubtedly challenged the social construct of motherhood and family constitution in American families.

Conclusion

Motherhood has ceased to become a necessary component of the family equation as stigma related to single motherhood is waning. Nevertheless, it should be identified that the social construct of motherhood is still well rooted in the American society despite its perceived threats, otherwise, there would not be any outcry on the changing concepts of motherhood.

References

Davidman, L. (2000). Motherloss. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.

Hertz, R. (2006). Single by chance, mothers by choice: How women are choosing parenthood without marriage and changing the American family. New York, Oxford University Press.

Thesis: It is obvious that men and women have different social roles that influence their behavior and attitude to the process of getting the education, family relations and social life (for instance, the life within student communities).

Although some of the researchers indicate the presence of women’s violence in domestic life, the reinforced notions, domestic violence and control of the partner are peculiar to men.

1. Peculiarities of gender aspect within the education system and labour market
2. Attitude for marriage of men and women as one of the major aspects within the analysis of gender roles
3. Family relations as a significant ground of the different gender roles
4. Fraternities and sororities as the student communities where they can feel more protective and free
5. Grinding dance as an example of different gender roles

Analysis of gender roles is very popular nowadays. The researchers investigate this issue, analyzing the peculiarities of gender roles of men and women in the modern society. Gender roles can be investigated in different ways.

For instance, Ronen (2010) analyzes dance grinding attended campus parties with students in order to see the peculiarities of students’ behavior, being immersed into student environment. In order to explore a self-perception of the members of fraternities and their self-perception within those communities, Boswell and Spade (1996) analyze the examples of students.

Sharp and Ganong (2007) investigate the self-actualization of non-married women. Green (2010) analyzes gender peculiarities within same-sex married couples. Anderson and Umberson (2001) analyze how gender roles cause the domestic violence.

Andres and Adamuti-Trachek (2007), Foschi and Jerilee (2008) and Demaiter and Adams (2009) indicate that men and women have different responses on labour market. It is obvious that men and women have different social roles that influence their behavior and attitude to the process of getting the education, family relations and social life (for instance, the life within student communities).

Although some of the researchers indicate the presence of women’s violence in domestic life, the reinforced notions, domestic violence and control of the partner are peculiar to men.

Current tendency of the education system and labour market demonstrate that although women have good educational gains, statistics show that “labour force participation by women in Canada is low at around 60 percent (compared to 73 percent for men) and the average gender pay gap remains high at 72 percent of men’s average earning” (Andres and Adamuti-Trachek 94).

Andres and Adamuti-Trachek indicate that “many of the gains in labour market participation and a reduction in the gender wage gap have been attributed to increased postsecondary participation by women in general and, specifically, to increased participation in non-traditional fields of study” (94).

The types of programs in which men and women are traditionally enrolled have the significant differences: women are overrepresented in the social sciences, household science, nursing and education and presented less in such fields as physical sciences, mathematics and engineering.

However, Pelak says that gender ideology changes and, as the result one can notice the structural transformation and “the rise of women’s participation and visibility in sports during the past 30 years” (94).

On the other hand, Demaiter and Adams (2009) say about the successful experiences of eleven women who built a good career in the male-dominated field of the information technologies. The authors indicate that “respondents have a tendency to downplay the significance of gender, even as they provide evidence that gender has shaped their careers” (Demaiter and Adams 31).

Although gender roles cause various social roles and behavior, the results of the research conducted by Kane and Kyyrö indicate that “most Americans reject strict segregation by roles (for gender) or spatially (for race)” (719). In the political fields, women also started to play more significant role, being represented in the various political structures (Paxton 2007).

However, at the same time, this statement is true with regard to the developed countries. The situation in the developing countries and, especially, in Asia is different. Foschi and Jerilee (2008) indicate that male and female candidate who applies for a job and have highly similar professional qualifications demonstrates different self-presentation styles.

Thus, the authors emphasize that “the majority of the subjects yielded to social pressure to favor the female applicant in spite of their beliefs in men’s overall task superiority” (Foschi and Jerilee 1035).

One of the major aspects within the analysis of gender roles is attitude for marriage of men and women. Sharp and Ganong analyze the life of a woman “in her late 20s or early 30s who has never married”. The authors say about in-depth reflections of woman who demonstrate different attitude to this issue.

Thus, one of the woman interviewed within this investigation indicated that for her, “being never married as ‘‘living in the gray’’ – that is, being ‘‘in the middle’’ or like all or nothing” (Sharp and Ganong 836). Women consider this period of their life as a challenge when they have to wait what will happen.

Obviously, such position is absolutely different than man attitude to marriage in this age. Moreover, often, men want to wait more and do not get married until 30. They do not feel like they waste time, while many women suppose that they have to get married as soon as possible in order to make their life more stable. Moreover, women plane their life and career reflecting about future family.

Some of them even choose college major which can be more appropriate in the future life as a spouse and mother (Sharp and Ganong 837). However, it would be wrong to conclude that women consider their social life’s position as a lower than men’s one.

Thus, according to Green, in case of same-sex spouses, “some feminists extend this indictment to same-sex marriage, regarding it as a “sell out”, incapable of rehabilitation and unworthy of queer struggle (406). Nevertheless, in case of the same-sex marriage, men and women demonstrate similar attitude, indicating that this step can guarantee them stable life (Green 411).

Family relations are also a significant ground of the different gender roles. Exploring gender roles within the problem of domestic violence, Anderson and Umberson indicate that “men use violence to punish female partners who fail to meet their unspoken physical, sexual, or emotional needs” (359).

In this context, “masculine identities are constructed through acts of violence and through batterers’ ability to control partners as a result of their violence” (Anderson and Umberson 359). Men rather demonstrate male power and privilege, considering this as a natural and normal behavior.

Additionally, gender can be considered as a part of a system of relations that sustains heterosexual male privilege through the denigration or erasure of alternative (feminine/gay/lesbian/ bisexual) identities” (Anderson and Umberson 359). Analyzing money, gender and power in marriage, Tichenor (2005) supposes that the violent behavior toward woman can be caused by the fact that wife earns substantially more than her husband.

Fraternities and sororities play significant role in students’ life. Gathering within universities, men and women demonstrate the same positive attitude to the collective culture and principles of support and mutual aid. However, in some situations, being a member of fraternity, man feels more powerful and protective; therefore, one can do a crime, being sure of getting the protection of one’s fraternity.

Boswell and Spade analyze collegiate rape culture within fraternities and indicate that such places can be more dangerous places for women.

The physical and normative aspects of the relations between men and women cause a gender script that is based on the opinion that “sexually active men are positively reinforced by being referred to as “studs”, whereas women who are sexually active or report enjoying sex are derogatorily labeled as “sluts” (Boswell and Spade 134).

A good example of the different gender roles can be seen in dancing when both man and woman try to draw the attention of the opposite sex. Analyzing “grinding”, sexualized dance common for many students parties, Ronen indicates that “men initiated more often and more directly than women, whose behaviors were shaped by a sexual double standard and (hetero-) relational imperative” (355).

Therefore, one can notice that in this situation men demonstrate their social role of initiator and their higher status. This kind of dance is associated with club culture and demonstrates the current tendencies of gender roles among teenagers and students.

According to the researchers, grinding is more than just erotic dancing and can be considered as “a social gathering to be more than merely fun sociation” (Ronen 356). On Ronen’s opinion, “the heterosexual grinding script enacts a gendered dynamic that reproduces systematic gender inequality by limiting women’s access to sexual agency and pleasure, privileging men’s pleasure and confirming their higher status” (355).

Concluding, one can say that although men and women have the same rights, the influence of gender roles is significant. Gender has the serious impact on the behavior and attitude to the process of getting the education and choosing profession, family relations and social life.

Men demonstrate a predisposition to the violence in domestic life due to their natural will to control the situation. In this context, gender can be considered as a part of a system of relations where men are privileged.

Works Cited

Anderson, Kristin L. and Debra Umberson. “Gendering Violence: Masculinity and Power in Men’s Accounts of Domestic Violence.” Gender and Society, Vol. 15, No. 3 (Jun., 2001), pp. 358-380. Print.

Andres, Lesley and Maria Adamuti-Trachek. “You’ve Come a Long Way, Baby? Persistent Gender Inequality in University Enrolment and Completion in Canada, 1979-2004.” Canadian Public Policy / Analyse de Politiques, Vol. 33, No. 1 (Mar., 2007), pp. 93-116. Print.

Boswell, A. Ayers and Joan Z. Spade. “Fraternities and Collegiate Rape Culture: Why Are Some Fraternities More Dangerous Places for Women?” Gender and Society, Vol. 10, No. 2 (Apr., 1996), pp. 133-147. Print.

Demaiter, Erin I. and Tracey L. Adams. “I really didn’t have any problems with the male-female thing until …”: Successful Women’s Experiences in IT Organizations.” Canadian Journal of Sociology/Cahiers canadiens de sociologie 34(1) (2009): 31-52. Print.

Foschi, Martha and Valenzuela Jerilee. “Selecting job applicants: Effects from gender, self-presentation, and decision type.” Social Science Research 37 (2008): 1022–1038. Print.

Green, Adam Isaiah. “Queer Unions: Same-sex Spouses Marrying Tradition and Innovation.” Canadian Journal of Sociology/Cahiers canadiens de sociologie 35.3 (2010): 399-436. Print.

Kane, Emily W. and Else K. Kyyrö. “For Whom Does Education Enlighten? Race, Gender, Education, and Beliefs about SocialInequality.” Gender and Society, Vol. 15, No. 5 (Oct., 2001), pp. 710-733. Print.

Paxton, Pamela , Sheri Kunovich and Melanie M. Hughes. “Gender in Politics.” Annu. Rev. Sociol. 33 (2007): 263–84. Print.

Pelak, Cynthia Fabrizio. “Women’s Collective Identity Formation in Sports: A Case Study from Women’s Ice Hockey.” Gender & Society 16 (2002): 93-114. Print.

Ronen, Shelly. “Grinding On the Dance Floor: Gendered Scripts and Sexualized Dancing at College Parties.” Gender & Society 24 (2010): 355-377. Print.

Sharp, Elizabeth A. and Ganong Lawrence. “Living in the Gray: Women’s Experiences of Missing the Marital Transition.” Journal of Marriage and Family 69 (2007): 831–844. Print.

Tichenor, Veronica. “Maintaining Men’s Dominance: Negotiating Identity and Power When She Earns More.” Sex Roles, Vol. 53, Nos. 3/4 (Aug. 2005): 191-205. Print.

Introduction

New economic conditions have moved major world economies, including the United States, from a major basis on manufacturing to a dependence on services that require specialized skills. As a result, it is becoming less important to discriminate against women in the workplace because an increasing number of jobs are now created that do not require excessive physical stains that characterize the manufacturing industry.

A large-scale embracement of division of labor has also made routine factory tasks easier thus breaking the barriers of entry for women to these industries. Scott, Treas and Richards (2004) state that as the rate of women employment increases and demand for specialized skill increase, more women are opting to delay marriage to cope with the increasing responsibilities facing them.

Feminine Employment

Feminine employment has significantly contributed to an increase in disposable household’s incomes of families in cases where the employed young person still lives with their parents. Employment of a young woman reduces the need for her parents to provide for her basic needs like food and transport as well as purchase of personal products.

Young women coming from economically disadvantaged families are likely to contribute to the family expenditure budget thus enabling the family to purchase more necessities and investments. Feminine employment is a major reason why most single mothers prefer to raise their children alone, however single parenthood has also been associated with child poverty as the parent is unable to compensate fully for gaps in child support that would otherwise come from the income of two parents.

As the economy creates more demand for specialized labor, people have to study and train more, leaving them with little time to pursue personal interests. In addition, rapid urbanization has created population explosion that has surpassed the rate at which infrastructure development catches up leading to chronic delays within that force individuals to allocate extra time to meet deadlines and appointments.

Time scarcity has necessitated the spending on premium goods and services that are reliable and facilitate timely engagements at work and at personal social space. It has also increased the need to have virtual engagements to compensate for distance barriers that require adequate time allocation to cover. The new expenditures necessitated by time scarcity has force individuals to reduce their spending on other items or tap more into their savings.

Time Crunch

Lack of adequate time also limits the individual’s potential of obtaining an income increase through an additional job or workload. As individuals accumulate more responsibilities, their engagement on the existing responsibilities decline and their work is no exception. Eventually, when lack of full engagement compromises work, individuals suffer income loss due to sacking or suspension.

Positive effects of time crunch on family income are in the form of the increased value of hourly based work that the time scarcity presents. Individuals working in service industries that measure productivity in relation to the time committed to a task are able to charge more for their services and thus boost their family incomes.

Delayed Marriages

Delayed marriages are economically favorable for working young people living with their parents, as they are likely to increase the disposable income of the family. However, when delayed marriage happens in cases where the young person is depending on their parents for their livelihood, the disposable income in the family depreciates.

In addition, delayed marriages caused by the need to pursue more education and training for an unemployed young person presents an increasing drain on household incomes that might lead to a depreciation of living standards (Scott, Treas, & Richards, 2004).

Reference

Scott, J. L., Treas, J., & Richards, M. (Eds.). (2004). The Blackwell companion to the sociology of families. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Limited.