Contemporary women have many options and little marriage pressure within their twenties; a fact that continues to change lives of American women in respect to marriage. Taking freedoms with alacrity, American women reach their adulthood before getting married thus causing an increase in the number of single women within the society. In societies, the choices made by individuals are within a big spectrum.
Scholars within the social and psychological domain continue to explore the possible reasons behind the influence of social factors on individual decisions with respect to outcomes on pre/married lives. Evidently, there has been proof that social factors significantly influence the decisions of individuals besides impacting significantly on outcomes in pre/married lives.
Studies continuously point a blaming finger to social factors for the increase single life amongst women in the American society. Scholars continue to assert that social factors determine the selection of life partners amongst the women in the American society. Favorable social factors will influence women towards picking a life partner.
On the other hand, unfavorable social factors discourage women from picking their life partners. Unfortunately, there are claims that the prevailing social factors within the American society have been unfavorable thus preventing women from choosing their life partners thereby leading to an increase in number of single women in America.
Prevailing unfavorable social factors have created an environment where relationships cannot blossom. This leads to many women getting discourage about further relationships in their future lives. Most women who date in their teens end up heartbroken thereby instill in them the fear of such experiences in the future.
With such fears, women are unlikely to get married. Many believe that men break women’s hearts during their relationships in their teens. However, there are instances when they (women) chase the perfect men away based on their misplaced priorities. In most cases, it is true that women have misplaced priorities. Once abandoned, women fear entering into other relationships in the future.
It is normal for people in relationships to disagree. However, women tend to carry along grudges and disagreements within their relationships too far. Carrying a grudge or disagreement is likely to affect not only the current relationship but also future relationships. With such grudges and disagreements in mind, women always create a perception about men.
For instance, if previous relationships failed due to infidelity then it is most likely that women will brand all men infidels. As a result, they may go into a new relationship with such notions and perceptions. Creation of a negative perception within a relationship reduces the chances of the relationship blossoming. Based on these aspects, many women fear getting married due to fear that they might be cheated on once more. Therefore, the number of single women in America continues to increase.
Lastly, unfavorable prevailing social factors are due to increasing dynamism within America. Contemporary American society continues to exhibit a scenario where the interest of men and women vary significantly. For instance, while men struggle to be financial strong women are interested in gaining gender equality. The fight for equality amongst the women continues to cause serious uproar amongst the men who now consider women as their rivals.
With such creations in the mind, women and men barely rhyme in their interests even when they are in relationships. Such dynamism continues to cause serious incongruence between men and women as a result, leaving many people unmarried. Therefore, there is no doubt that social factors play a significant role in defining individuals’ decisions especially in relation to marriage life.
In her article The Magic of the Family Meal, Nancy Gibbs discusses the importance of family meals. In particular, the author argues that they can improve the relations between parents and their children. Overall, it is possible to agree with this argument; however, one should bear in mind that family meals bring benefits only in those cases when children sense that parents genuinely care about them. Provided that this feeling is not present, they are not likely to affect the wellbeing of families.
Overall, Nancy Gibbs provides convincing evidence that confirms the importance of family meals. The writer believes that they can be viewed as civilizing moments during which children learn behavioral norms and values. Moreover, in this way parents can learn more about the possible problems that children can face in school. So, these experiences can be important for every member of the family. The main role is that they help to promote communication between parents and children
Nevertheless, this effect can be achieved provided that parents know what their children value and what they need. For instance, such meals may not necessarily help families in which domestic violence takes place very often. Similarly, they will be useless in those cases, when parents constantly quarrel with one another or vent their spleen on children. Under such circumstances, children will only avoid family meals in every possible way. This is the main issue that parents should keep in mind.
So, family meals are important for the socialization of children and their wellbeing. Yet, they may not bring any improvements if there is certain conflict between parents. So, people should not assume that such events will automatically help families.
Drug dependency is an emotional, physical and financial strain on both the individual involved and his or her family. Whereas many studies have been done to prove the mental and physical state of drug addicts, little has been done regarding understanding the feelings of their families. This paper is a review of a study done by Rodrigues, Sanches, de Oliveira, de Pinho, and Radovanovic (2018) to determine the different emotions and feelings families of drug addicts go through.
The researcher started the study by observing the identified drug addicts in their daily life without interfering. Afterward, the families were interviewed about their experiences and feelings. The study observed 15 drug addicts in nine families. This means that there were families that had more than one drug addict to take care of at the time. However, the researchers do not show any link in regards to the feelings harbored by family members and the number of addicts in the same household.
Purpose of the Research
The general purpose of the research is to figure out what families go through right before and after drug dependence. Rodrigues, et al. (2018) work on the assumption that there should be a specific reason that has ideally built up over time that encourages people to take and continue indulging in drugs to a point of dependency. Whereas the researchers do not include the impact of dependency and drug addiction in the article, the concern is highlighted in several parts of the paper. Rodrigues, et al. (2018) argue that even though drug abuse is an individual activity, it affects the whole family in various ways.
They do not provide a clear research question. However, one can denote that the primary question is what do families go through before and after drug dependence? Interestingly, Rodrigues, et al. (2018) also do not provide a hypothesis.
Theories
The researchers based their arguments on the theory of modernity and postmodernity by Michel Maffesoli (Meynert 2015). The school of thought suggests that modernity is the actualization of a certain culture at that time. Meynert (2015) explains that Maffesoli views the evolution of culture as the reassurances of all the things that culture always thought important and plausible. Towards this end, the concept of postmodernity refers to a time when the most valued aspects of the culture are kept dormant in favor of other elements.
It is important to point out that Maffesoli’s school of thought has been widely used and accepted in sociological studies. The authors took time to explain the link between the objective of the study and the chosen theory due to its broad nature. Rodrigues et al. (2018) explain that they have taken some concepts of Maffesoli’s view on sociology that apply to their study. The elements that were picked were feelings, emotions, imagery, and stigma. Again, the researchers assumed that challenges that would drive a family member to abuse drugs were mainly emotional. All the aspects that the study analyzed (feelings, emotions, imagery, and stigma) affect the individual and the family before, during, and after the drug dependency.
This is crucial to note since the study focused mainly on the before and after drug dependency and not during. Indeed, other sociological and psychological theories could have also been used. For example, the drug self-administration model is a psychological theory that suggests that there are two main reasons why many people become drug addicts. The first is through the direct reinforcement of a part of the brain that cannot then function without the drug (Meynert, 2015). The second way is through the impact of the drug on other reinforcers of the brain that then cannot work without the addiction (Meynert, 2015).
Research Method
Sample/subjects
The research targeted families that were availed by the Psychosocial Care Center for Alcohol and Other Drugs in one of the municipalities of the state of Panama-Brazil. One of the key characteristics of these families was the narrowing of family ties with other members due to the addiction. Due to the highly specific nature of the sample, the study was able to include 15 members only. The researchers gave a disclaimer that one of the family members recruited for the study was dependent on alcohol but had abstained during the study. There were no biases recorded.
Data Collection Method and Procedure
Data were collected in two ways. The first was through observation. Researchers were allocated individuals they would observe without any further engagement. At the end of this first phase, the observer met with the individual in their household where they had a verbal discussion with the family. The second phase of the data collection was through interviews. The researchers do not provide specific details on whether the research questions were open or close-ended.
Ethical Issues
Due to the sensitivity of the research, the study was approved by the Permanent Committee on Ethics in Research with Human Beings of the Universidade Estadual de Maringá. Additionally, all participants signed an informed consent form. There is no mention of any right to privacy and protection from harm.
Measures/Variables
The authors do not mention any variables that were tested or controlled.
Results
Rodrigues et al. (2018) divided the findings into four categories. The four categories were in the form of statements are were: My life has changed a lot because of drugs (Class 1); I fear leaving him alone (Class 2); I trust and have faith in God (Class 3), and I am always worried in my own house (Class 4). The authors found that there were feelings of embarrassment, pity, and anger in Class 1. Many of the participants were also scared for their family member that was an addict.
Interestingly, a significant number were also scared for their safety in the presence of the addict. In Class 3, some family members sought to find solace in religion. Thus, they believed that they would pray for their loved ones to get better. The last category proved that family members felt some form of insecurity around their loved ones who were dependent on drugs. Since there were no hypotheses one cannot state whether it was proved right. However, the findings are in line with the theory used.
Summary
The authors go further and analyze the findings and state that family members bear a complex combination of feelings before, during, and after a member becomes an addict. It is important to note that the researchers failed to fully bring out the feelings of the families before the addiction, which is part of their objective.
References
Rodrigues, T. F. C., Sanches, R. N., de Oliveira, M. L. F., de Pinho, L. B. & Radovanovic, T. A. C. (2018). Revista Brasileira de Enfermagem, 71(2018): 2272-2279.
Meynert, J. M. (2015). Conceptualizations of childhood, pedagogy and educational research in the postmodern: A critical interpretation. London, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishers.
One of the post-modernity’s main aspects is that fact that, as of today, the growth of the human population has attained a clearly defined exponential momentum. This raises certain concerns about whether the human civilisation will be able to maintain its resource-related sustainability in the future.
After all, unlike what it happened to be the case with ‘human resources’, the natural ones are not self-renewable, which in turn implies that, despite its politically incorrect sounding, the notion of overpopulation is indeed legitimate. What also adds to the sheer acuteness of the earlier mentioned issue is that there are no universally accepted discursive explanations as to what can be considered the actual causes of the exponentially defined process, concerned with the planet population’s continuial growth.
Moreover, there are no thoroughly comprehensive explanations as to the fact that there are a number of unmistakably phenomenological overtones to the issue at stake. The main of them is that some countries, formerly associated with the skyrocketing birth rate among their citizens, were nevertheless able to reduce this rate by 60% within the matter of a decade (Cohen 161). In this respect, Iran stands out as the perfect example.
However, there is a good reason to believe that, contrary to what it is being commonly assumed, there is nothing ‘mysterious’ about the ongoing ‘demographic boom’, on the one hand, and the fact that this process appears to be thoroughly manageable, on the other. In this paper, I will explore the validity of the above suggested at length.
There will be two consequential phases to how I intend to address the task: a) outlining the most relevant theoretical approaches to tackling the issue of high/low fertility, b) utilizing the obtained insights, in order to come up with the suggestions, as to the discourse-related implications of the current demographic situation in Iran.
Literature review
As of today, the most commonly deployed approaches towards dealing with the fertility-related issues can be generalised as ‘neo-Malthusian’, ‘phenomenological’ and ‘neo-Marxian’. The origins of the first of these approaches date back to the late 18th century, when Thomas Malthus published his famous Essay on the Principle of Population.
In this essay, Malthus promoted the idea that whereas the accumulation of a ‘surplus product’ increases in the mathematical progression to the flow of time, the simultaneous growth of the population, which makes the production of this product possible, occurs on an essentially geometrical (exponential) basis. As he pointed out: “The only true criterion of a real and permanent increase in the population of any country is the increase of the means of subsistence…
There must be periods when population increases permanently, without an increase in the means of subsistence” (Malthus 41). What it means is that people’s enthusiasm in ‘baby-making’ is a strongly counterproductive category as the more populous a particular society happened to be, the higher are the changes for it to collapse due to overpopulation.
There is one more implication to this Malthusian suggestion: the assumption that it remains well within the range of just about every government’s executive authority to exercise a control over the demographic dynamics within the concerned society (Yew 52).
Malthus was able to illustrate the validity of the earlier mentioned idea mathematically, therefore there is nothing odd about the fact that throughout the first part of the 20th century the Malthusian outlook on the humanity’s grim future (due to overpopulation) used to be shared by many prominent intellectuals/social activists of the time. In this respect, we can well mention the name of Margaret Sanger – one of the early proponents of birth control and eugenics as the instruments of ensuring a high biological quality of a nation.
According to Sanger, the birth-control policies, enacted by the government, cannot be solely concerned with addressing the dangers of overpopulation. Rather, they should reflect the fact that after having realised themselves in the position to exercise a rationale-fueled control over their destiny, as the representatives of Homo Sapiens species, people are now thoroughly capable of applying a conscious effort into increasing the extent of their evolutionary fitness: “We must first free our bodies from disease and predisposition to disease.
We must perfect these bodies and make them fine instruments of the mind and the spirit” (Sanger 270). Nevertheless, the Germany’s defeat in 1945 has effectively ended the popularity of Sanger’s idea in this respect. The reason for this is that ever since the end of the WW2, the very concept of eugenics had become strongly associated with the notion of ‘Nazism’.
As time went on, more and more Western sociologists were becoming increasingly aware of the fact that there is a link between the rate of fertility, exhibited by a particular society, and the measure of this society’s socio-cultural advancement. Such awareness on their part became the conceptual premise, upon which the proponents of neo-Malthusianism base their view on what accounts for the actual significance of what happened to be the spatially localized rate of people’s self-reproduction.
This premise is concerned with the assumption that unlike what it happened to be the case with people who reside in large cities, the well-being of rural dwellers overwhelmingly depends on how successful they are while tending crops. Hence, the explanation to the phenomenon of the rurally-based people’s high fertility: by conceiving as many babies, as possible, these people simply try to survive physically, as even young children can be well turned into the agricultural helpers.
In its turn, this implies that the rate, with which people go about ‘making babies’, is consistent with these people’s place on the hierarchical ladder of evolution. The more complex a particular society happened to be, the fewer are there the objective preconditions for the society’s members to preoccupy themselves with procreation.
What is being rarely mentioned in this respect is that in the technologically advanced Western societies, the Darwinian laws of natural selection no longer work, which in turn sets these societies on the path of degradation and extinction. The currently endorsed Western policy of encouraging mentally inadequate citizens to ‘celebrate uniqueness’, even at the expense of allowing them to pass their defective genes to the representatives of next generations, illustrates the validity of the earlier suggestion perfectly well.
Partially, the above-mentioned provides us with the insight into the causes of the recent rise of neo-Malthusianism (commonly associated with the name of Paul Ehrlich – the author of The Population Bomb) – a theory that forecasts the eventual collapse of the human civilisation due the effects of overpopulation (Ehrlich 130).
The reason for this is that, as the mentioned book implies, it is not the rising level of poverty (assumed to have been caused by overpopulation) among people in the Third World, which concerns Westerners the most, but rather the fact that while continuing to increase in numbers, the ‘poor and needy’ from these countries will begin to pose an acute danger to the Western civilisation’s continual well-being.
The full soundness of this statement can be well illustrated in regards to the fact that, for example, within the matter of the last sixty years, the population of Ethiopia has tripled, despite the fact that throughout this time Ethiopians continued to suffer from the never-ending civil war and famine.
On the other hand, it is not only that, throughout the course of recent decades, the rate of the White people’s fertility has been reduced down to its all-time minimum, but they have also grown increasingly incapable of addressing even the most basic challenges of life (McArdle 35).
Nevertheless, the apparent biasness of the neo-Malthusian (positivist) assumption that the less there are children ‘per woman’, the better, and that the more there are children in a particular family, the greater is the measure of this family’s technological/cultural backwardness, can also be shown in regards to a number of the assumption’s methodological inconsistencies. For example, there appears to be very little rationale in associating the high rate of fertility with the high rate of illiteracy.
As Motavalli noted: “Education usually does produce smaller families, but there are exceptions. Tanzania had achieved 90 percent female literacy by the early 1990s, but parents in 2002 had an average of 5.3 children” (3). Also, there are no good reasons to believe that the strength of people’s sense of religiosity always positively relates to the strength of their taste for ‘baby making’.
Even though the total rate of fertility (TRF) among religious women in the Second and Third World countries has always been much higher, as compared to the TRF among the perceptually secularized females in the West, as time goes on, there appears to be more and more exemptions from this rule.
The most striking of them is concerned with the phenomenon of the annual birth rate in Iran having been reduced rather drastically throughout the course of the recent decade and a half, despite the fact that just as it was the case fifteen years ago, the Iranian society continues to remain strongly religious (Vahidnia 260).
This explains why it is namely the ‘phenomenological’ outlook on the significance of the fertility rate in a particular society, which nowadays affects the dynamics of the ongoing fertility-related public discourse to an ever-higher degree. According to the advocates of a ‘phenomenological’ sociology, it is utterly inappropriate to refer to the TRF in a particular region of the world as being reflective of the concerned people’s socio-cultural development alone.
For example, according to Bongaarts and Watkins, the essence of the fertility-dynamics in the society cannot be discussed outside of what accounts for the phenomenological subtleties of how the society’s members socialise with each other. As the authors pointed out: “Development alone is insufficient to account for the observed variations in the timing of the onset of transitions (in fertility)…
Before the transition onset, social interaction can inhibit fertility change” (Bongaarts and Watkins 669). Nevertheless, just as it happened to be the case with neo-Malthusians, ‘phenomenologists’ tend to regard the notion of high fertility in largely negative terms.
This stance, is being challenged by the so-called ‘neo-Marxian’ sociologists, who believe that it is namely the workings of the greed-fueled ‘free market’ economy, which legitimise the idea that there can be no ‘room under the Sun’ for all on this planet. According to these sociologists, it is in the very nature of Capitalism (as an economic system that goes about optimizing its functioning by means of reducing the affiliated operational costs) to seek out the ways to have as few people employed, as possible (Malakoff 545).
What it means is that if the Capitalist society continues to function ‘unattended’, it becomes only the matter of time before it begins to exhibit the signs of being demographically stagnant. After all, there is simply no other way for such a society to be able to maintain the adequate standards of living among the citizens, other than by means of preventing them from being able to reproduce in sufficient numbers.
This explains the actual origins of the process of Western societies growing progressively ‘aged’ (Herrmann 28). This is also the reason why the main challenge of Capitalism has always been the overabundance of workers, whereas the Socialism’s main problem has been the permanent shortage of the available workforce.
The above-mentioned suggests that the ‘problem of overpopulation’ cannot be referred to as being thoroughly objective, as it is only Capitalism that creates the situation when, as time goes on, more and more people realize that they represent the world’s ‘human burden’, regardless of the rate of these people’s fertility (Von Eschen 420).
The earlier provided theoretical considerations as to what can be deemed the actual forces behind the fluctuations of the TFR in a particular country should prove rather enlightening within the context of discussing the specifics of the demographic situation in Iran.
The case of Iran
Probably the main feature of the modern history of Iran is the fact that through the years of 1986-1996, the country’s population of 60 million was enlarged by 10 million, hence, becoming to account for 70 million ‘strong’ by the beginning of 1997. In its turn, this implies that the total rate of fertility in Iran throughout the mentioned period was 6 births per woman. However, during the course of the next decade (1996-2006), the Iranian TRF was reduced down to 2.8 births per woman.
Moreover, as time goes on, the total rate of fertility in this country continues to decline rather rapidly: “The own-children estimates of fertility for Iran based on the 2000 Iran Demographic and Health Survey show that the TFR has declined further and reached replacement level (2.26) during the period 1998-2000.
The figure for the year 2000 is 2.17” (Abbasi-Shavazi 425). The main reason behind the earlier mentioned reduction of the TFR in Iran was the fact that ever since 1985, the government started to implement the policy of ‘family planning’, the main objective of which was to slow down the uncontrollable growth of the country’s population. The following is the list of the main factors that contributed towards this particular policy, on the part of the Iranian government, proving itself utterly effective:
a) Ever since the Islamic Revolution of 1979, the Iranian government never ceased to invest rather heavily in providing the educational opportunities for as many citizens as possible. In this respect, the emphasis was placed on educating women.
In its turn, the increased rate of literacy among Iranian women resulted in the latter becoming secularised to an extent, hence, providing the additional incentives for these women to choose in favor of ‘family planning’. This confirms the validity of the earlier mentioned neo-Malthusian assumption that the rate of people’s literacy positively relates to the extent of their educational accomplishments.
b) The country’s top-ranking clergyman thoroughly supported the government’s fertility-reducing effort. In 1980, Ayatollah Khomeini declared that the use of contraceptives on the part of Iranian citizens is fully consistent with the main theological provisions of Islam.
This, aided the mentioned governmental effort rather substantially, because of the Khomeini’s approval of contraceptives, even the country’s utterly religious citizens were growing emotionally comfortable with the idea of exercising caution, while indulging in the sexual socialisation with each other. There are clearly defined ‘phenomenological’ undertones to it, as the example of Iran indicates, there can be no good reason in believing that the Church always acts as the fertility’s main agent.
c) The implementation of the earlier mentioned fertility-reducing initiative on the part of the Iranian government proceeded hand in hand with the process of the country’s continuous urbanization. It has been estimated that by the year 1996, 60% of the country’s population consisted of urbanites (Abbasi-Shavazi 430).
This established the additional preconditions for the governmental initiative to succeed. After all, as it was pointed out earlier, there are no objective reasons for city dwellers to consider ‘baby-making’ an activity that is crucial to ensuring their very survival, in the physical sense of this word.
d) Through the years 1985-1996, the Iranian economy sustained a number of setbacks. In its turn, this naturally caused the country’s sexually productive citizens to experience a certain psychological anxiety related to the prospect of not being able to secure a well-paid job on their part. Consequently, the rate of reproduction among these people has declined rather dramatically.
In light of the above-mentioned, we can come with suggestions as to what predetermined the essence of the Iranian demographic policies in the recent past, and also as to what will account for the country’s demographic dynamics in the future.
First, the sheer successfulness of the implementation of the ‘family planning’ policy in Iran has been largely predetermined by the essentially authoritarian paradigm of a political rulership in this country. The reason for this is apparent as after having decided to proceed with enacting this policy, the Iranian governmental officials continued to exercise a full control over every consequential phase of the policy’s implementation.
Second, the foremost reason for the Iranian government to choose in favor of implementing the earlier mentioned policy was that, despite being strongly committed to the traditional values of Islam, the Iranian society continues to remain essentially Capitalist. This explains why in the time of peace the Iranian policymakers tend to regard the prospect of the country’s population continuing to boom in terms of a ‘problem’, rather than in terms of an ‘economic asset’.
Third, contrary to what it is being assumed in the West, Iran is not preparing actively for war with America and its allies in the region. Had this been otherwise, the country would have pursued with implementing the aggressive pro-natalist policy, just as it was the case during the course of the Iran–Iraq War (Goldstone 5).
The popularity of the anti-natalist sentiment in today’s Iran can also be explained by the fact that, as time goes on, this country grows increasingly secularised, which reduces the chances for the outbreak of yet another Persian War even further.
Finally, if the current ‘family planning’ policy in Iran remains enacted, in about 20 years from now the country’s economy will face the acute challenge of having to sustain the existence of the exponentially proliferating population of senior citizens.
This challenge will prove especially serious, given the fact that at this time the number of fully employed young Iranians will be severely undercut, as a direct result of the currently implemented ‘family planning’ policy. This implies that in order for Iran to be able to maintain its economic sustainability as an independent country, it will need to put away with the concerned anti-natalist policy.
Conclusion
The earlier provided line of argumentation as to what accounts for the qualitative essence of the ‘neo-Malthusian’, ‘phenomenological’ and ‘neo-Marxian’ approaches to fertility-management and as to what can be considered as the discursive significance of the currently enacted ‘family planning’ policy in Iran, appears thoroughly consistent with the paper’s initial thesis.
Apparently, there can be indeed a very little rationale in believing that the notion of ‘fertility’ is thoroughly objective and that, as such, it is not being affected by the currently predominant socio-cultural discourse. The deployed arguments also imply that the most effective instrument of addressing the problem of overpopulation would be concerned with overthrowing Capitalism on a global scale and with adopting the Socialist methods of managing the population/economy.
Works Cited
Abbasi-Shavazi, Mohammad. Recent Changes and the Future of Fertility in Iran. 2007. Web.
Bongaarts, John and Susan Watkins. “Social Interactions and Contemporary Fertility Transitions.” Population and Development Review 22.4. (1996): 639-682. Print.
Cohen, Joel. “Population and Climate Change.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 154.2 (2010): 158-182. Print.
Ehrlich, Paul. The Population Bomb. New York: Ballantine Books, 1971. Print.
Goldstone, Jack. “Population and Security: How Demographic Change Can Lead to Violent Conflict.” Journal of International Affairs 56.1 (2002): 4-22. Print.
Herrmann, Michael. “Population Aging and Economic Development: Anxietiesand Policy Responses.” Population Ageing 5 (2012): 23–46. Print.
Malakoff, David. “Are More People Necessarily a Problem?” Science 333.6042 (2011): 544-546. Print.
The definition of family provided by the Australian Bureau of Statistics focuses mostly on formal and conventional aspects, for example, marriage, the residency in the same household, or blood relationship. However, it does not describe the interactions between people who compose a family.
For instance, nothing is being said about such things as attachment, love, responsibility, and care. These aspects are important for the creation and sustainability of every household.
This is the main limitations of this definition. Furthermore, this interpretation does mention many new forms of family structure, namely cohabitation or same-sex households. This is another issue that should not be overlooked by people who study sociological aspects of such a concept as family.
It should be noted that there are several family structures which have emerged fairly recently. For example, one can speak about same-sex families (Giele, 2006).
Certainly, this family structure could exist in the past decades, but the number of such households has increased dramatically in the twenty-first century (Giele, 2006). Furthermore, one should remember that about some demographic changes affecting families.
For instance, the longer life expectancy increased the participation of grandparents in the education of children who age ranges between 11 and 16 (Griggs et al, 2009, p.200).
Furthermore, one can speak about such a phenomenon as cohabitation. This means that many people tend to live together without registering a marriage or establishing formal relations (Hayes et al, 2011, p. 2).
Finally, one should take into account that in many contemporary families, some of the gender roles can change. For instance, it is possible to mention that in some households husbands can take a greater part in the education of children (Baxter & Smart, 2011). In turn, women can act as breadwinners.
These are some of the trends that can be identified. They are important for understanding the transformation of the modern family.
Comments on the posts of other students
The posts made by other students can throw light on the transformation of family in the twenty-first century. For example, these posts can help readers learn more about the emergence of same-sex families or culturally diverse households.
These tendencies are vital for people who study the transformation of many households in Australia as well as other countries. Furthermore, the responses of other students show that the definition of family offered by the Australian Bureau of Statistics has significant limitations.
Nevertheless, this discussion could have been more productive if learners could speak about the factors that affect families and the reasons why new types of family could have emerged in Australia.
These questions should not be overlooked because in this way, one can learn more about the challenges that many households face nowadays.
For instance, it is possible to speak about unemployment or the lack of time for the upbringing of children. This is the main issue that should be taken into account by scholars and policy-makers.
Overall, it is possible to say that conventional perception of family is no longer applicable. In particular, nuclear households have become less widespread, especially in comparison with the past decades.
The discussion presented by researchers and students can illustrate some of the difficulties pose a threat to the sustainability of many families. Additionally, these issues should be considered by policy-makers who develop programs that should support families. This is the main argument that can be made.
Reference List
Baxter, J., & Smart, D. (2011). Fathering in Australia among couple families with young children: Research highlights. Family Matters, 88 (2), 15-26.
Giele, J. (2011). Decline of the family: Conservative, liberal, and feminist views. In A. S. Skolnick & J. Skolnick (Eds). Family in Transition, 16th edn (pp. 60-80). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Griggs, J., Tan, J-P., Buchanan, A., Attar-Schwartz, S., & Flouri, E. (2009). They’ve always been there for me’: Grandparental involvement and child well-being. Children and Society, 24 (3), 200-214.
Hayes, A., Qu, L., Weston, R., & Baxter, J. (2011). Families in Australia 2011: Sticking together in good and tough times. Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies.
Asian Americans exhibit a strong cultural diversity that prevents scholars from characterizing their families using a single set of cultural values; however, they also share strong cultural similarities such as the Confucian philosophy towards life and family.
Scholars claim that this philosophy is a product of the early political and cultural influence of China in the historical development of other East Asian nations including Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam.
The culture of these nations is highly influenced by the doctrines of Confucianism, which advocate for the respect for authority, loyalty to parents, emotional moderation, and the vital role of education. The Confucian philosophy uses the concepts of training (chiao shum) and control and love (guan) in the Chinese parenting practices, such that they are deeply involved in the lives of their children.
Such involvement in the learning process of their children has faced many challenges in the Asian American family, following their immigration. In addition, some Chinese practices such as physical discipline are not condoned in the United States.1
This paper seeks to explore how Asian American families have succeeded in maintaining the Confucianism philosophy by identifying the existing Chinese cultural practices among the descendants of their immigrants, and Chinese mannerisms that point to the Confucianism doctrine. The paper also examines Confucianism in other Asian Americans including Koreans and Vietnamese.
Research questions
How do immigration history of Asian Americans and experiences of living in America affect the ability of these families to maintain Confucianism?
How do the Asian American families’ attitudes, values and beliefs concerning education and socioeconomic status impact on Confucianism?
Research objectives
To find out the relation between immigration trends of Asians into America and their settlement experiences, and the ability of Asian American families to maintain their cultural practices, with focus on Confucianism.
To find out the relation between legacies of Confucianism and the socioeconomic status of Asian American families with regard to educational attainment.
Demography of Asian Americans
Some of the countries of origin of Asian Americans include China, Japan, Korea, Cambodia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and India, among others.2 Each of these nations has its own cultural heritages, languages, political systems, religious practices, and economic conditions, which is reflected in the diverse ethnic differences among Asian Americans.
Confucianism has its origin in the Chinese society, where it served as one of the greatest humanistic cultures involving virtue teachings and rules of social reform.
These teachings then spread from China to other East Asia countries such as Singapore, Korea, Japan and Vietnam.3 This study will focus on the Chinese immigrants to America, and their current practices that ensure that Confucianism impacts both their lives and those of their children.
Background of Confucianism
Confucianism is the Western term used to refer to a moral cultivation practice known to Eastern Asians, including Chinese, Koreans, Japanese, and Vietnamese, as the “Scholarly Tradition”.
The neologism “Confucianism” was devised in the 19th century after a great Chinese sage known as Confucius, who introduced the concept of adhering to inherited rites diligently in order to fully awaken one’s humanity and in doing so, grasp the way of heaven. It was Confucius who came up with the notion that the perfection of that process was only possible after a “life-long dedication to meticulous study and self-cultivation”.
This was achieved by comprehension of the philosophical moral effects of daily relationships based on the interaction of an individual to both internal and external resources. The former was attained through self-cultivation, which involved the purification of one’s mind and heart in order to make the will sincere.
By achieving this state, an individual was believed to be capable of uniting one’s family and moderating the society, which was necessary to renew the human race. Conversely, helping one’s family, society, and the world to achieve total serenity would in turn, allow the individual’s virtue to rest in ideal integrity.
As such, Confucianism involves individual accomplishment through daily interactions as opposed to through the power of an inspirational deity, which makes it less of a religion and more of a system of humanistic ethics.4
These religious implications were passed on through a set of teachings that were believed to have been written by Confucius. These texts included the Analects, Book of Mencius, Great Learning, and Doctrine of the Mean, and they were instrumental, for centuries, in shaping the religious, philosophical, and political discourse of China, as well as other East Asia nations including Korea and Japan.
However, the dominance of the Neo-Confucian in East Asia began to decrease in the nineteenth century, as the technological and military superiority of European powers began to rise steadily.5
This led to a call by the Japanese and Koreans leadership for replacement of the Confucian educational system with a more empirical and practical based education system. This exercise was also evident in China, with its culmination in the abolishing of the traditional examination system and a call for renunciation of any loyalty to Confucian doctrines.6
Confucianism in Asian American families
A majority of East Asian immigrants to America journeyed in the late 19th and 20th centuries, following the change in perception of the Confucian education system. Most of these immigrants were of the view that the Confucian system was not ideal for a modern life. As such, they worked as laborers in the new land, due to their minimal literary and political education.
Their disapproval of the Confucian doctrines led them to adjust their non-working hours to the worship of Buddha or Taoist images. The descendants of these immigrants had less exposure to the doctrines since they could not read Chinese. In addition, these descendants were of the opinion that the Confucian values were inapplicable in the American way of living.7
However, not all Asian Americans shared this opinion of the traditional education system. For instance, the “members of the Confucius Center in Chicago and the Confucius Church in Stockton California” use various Scholarly values and symbols as reminders of their cultural heritage.
Such associations commemorate various Chinese holidays and sponsor classes that can inform young people about classical Chinese by studying the four books mentioned earlier.
The members of these associations also own cemeteries for organizing biannual outings that allow people to visit the graves of their recent ancestors; a Confucian tradition that symbolizes the expression of gratitude and adoration for the cumulative efforts that have made one’s life triumphs achievable.
Various activities such as taking care of the grave site, presenting offerings, and showing respect and humility to the grave memorial are just some of the obligations of those who uphold the Confucian tradition as a way to compensate one’s ancestors for the gift of an enlightened life.
The ability of Asian Americans to uphold such practices in a foreign land serves both a representative and an assuring purpose in that the East Asian culture heredity excels across both time and boundaries.8
The Chinese Americans who still follow the Confucianism philosophy exert numerous guidelines and requirements on their children. For instance, the children are supposed to take care of various family duties including cleaning, cooking, and taking care of small children.
The Chinese parents do not control their children; on the contrary, they teach their children on how to live in unity with others. Such a practice is achieved by teaching the children to avoid emotional expression, which avoids shaming an individual, and thereby, preserving good health and positive relationships.9
Methodology
This study will use a combination of qualitative research methods, in addition to the literature review on the Chinese Americans applications of the Confucianism philosophy. The research will be conducted in a sample population gathered from higher education institutions. The qualitative research methods that are applicable in this study are in-depth interviews and focus groups.
The former will be useful in identifying the personal histories of the Chinese Americans, and their experiences in America, as well as how this transformation has influenced the application of the Confucianism philosophy. Focus groups, on the other hand, will be useful in comparing the opinions of the Chinese Americans with regard to their family practices and Confucianism.
Conclusion
There is minimal literature on the maintenance of Confucian values in Asian American families; hence, the analysis of literature in combination with qualitative research methods.
As discussed earlier, appropriate sources of information on this topic can be attained by visiting the existing Confucius centers and churches within the U.S. More information can be gathered from Chinese American students in higher learning institutions. The study of people can reveal various Confucian values, without the individuals having necessarily gone through the Confucian education system.
Some of these values include high value for education, unselfish behavior, and value on the extended family.10 As such, interviews and direct interaction with Chinese Americans can help to reveal the existence of informal familial education to inculcate Confucian virtues, for individuals with minimal information regarding the Neo-Confucian curriculum.
Bibliography
Adler, Susan Matoba. International Encyclopedia of Marriage and Family: Asian-American Families. New York: Gale, Cengage Learning, 2006, pp. 74-78.
The author explores various family structures in traditional Asian-American families and the gender roles. He goes a step further to examine various religious and cultural values that apply to Asian immigrants, with focus on Korean Americans.
Anheier, Helmut K. Encyclopedia of Global Studies: Confucianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2012, pp. 266-269.
The author explores the doctrine of Ne0-Confucianism in the 20th and 21st centuries, and the popular support that it obtained, as well as various anti-Confucian movements.
Anqi, X., X. Xiaolin, L. Wenli, X. Yah, and L. Dalin. “Chinese Family Strengths and Resiliency.” Marriage & Family Review, 2007: 41(2), 143-164.
The authors provide an insight on familial education and the passage of the Confucianism philosophy from one generation to the next.
Berthrong, John. Contemporary American Religion: Confucianism. New York: Gale, Cengage Learning, 2006, pp. 146-148.
The author explains the Confucianism philosophy including its history and teachings. In addition, the author explores what it takes for the doctrine to flourish outside East Asia by examining Asians in Diaspora (Europe and North America).
Gall, Timothy L., and Jeneen Hobby. Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life: Korean Americans. Detroit: Gale, Cengage Learning, 2009, pp. 335-338.
The authors explore the current trend of Confucianism in East Asia, with focus on South Koreans in Asia, as well as Korean Americans.
Huang, Grace Hui-Chen, and Mary Gove. “Confucianism and Chinese Families: Values and Practices in Education.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 2012: 2(3), 10-13.
The authors explore the origins of the Confucianism doctrine, and the significance of these teachings in the Chinese culture
Hwang, K. K. Dao and the transformative power of Confucianism: A theory of East Asian modernization. Singapore: The Institute of East Asian Philosophies, 1993.
This book provides an insight on the effects of modernization on Confucianism in the East Asian countries.
Nai-Hua, Ko. Familism in Confucianism. Taiwan: Shu-Te University, 2004.
The book explores the education of virtues and ethics through the use of families following the disapproval of Confucianism teachings in the education system of East Asian countries.
Park, M., and C. Chesla. “Revisiting Confucianism as a conceptual framework for Asian family study.” Journal of Family Nursing, 2007: 13(3), 293-311.
The authors provide an analysis of the impact of Confucianism as a religion in ensuring virtuous and ethical growth of Asian children in America
Xie, Yu, and Kimberly Goyette. Asian Americans: A Demographic Portrait. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 2005.
The authors explore data relating to the immigration trend of various East Asian individuals and their experiences in America.
Footnotes
1 Grace Hui-Chen, Huang and Mary Gove. “Confucianism and Chinese Families: Values and Practices in Education.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 2012: 2(3), 10
2 Yu, Xie and Kimberly Goyette. Asian Americans: A Demographic Portrait. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 2005.
3 Helmut K. Anheier. Encyclopedia of Global Studies: Confucianism. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2012), pp. 266.
4 Nai-Hua Ko. Familism in Confucianism. Taiwan: Shu-Te University, 2004.
5 Berthrong, John. Contemporary American Religion: Confucianism. (New York: Gale, Cengage Learning, 2006), pp. 146.
6 Gall, Timothy L., and Jeneen Hobby. Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life: Korean Americans. (Detroit: Gale, Cengage Learning), 2009, pp. 335.
7 Anqi, X. Xiaolin, L. Wenli, X. Yah, and L. Dalin. “Chinese Family Strengths and Resiliency.” Marriage & Family Review, 2007: 41(2), 144.
8 Hwang, K. K. Dao and the transformative power of Confucianism: A theory of East Asian modernization. Singapore: The Institute of East Asian Philosophies, 1993.
9 Park, M., and C. Chesla. “Revisiting Confucianism as a conceptual framework for Asian family study.” Journal of Family Nursing, 2007: 13(3), 293-311.
10 Susan Matoba Adler. International Encyclopedia of Marriage and Family: Asian-American Families. (New York: Gale, Cengage Learning, 2006), pp. 75.
After class and race, the most important dimensions of inequality in modern societies are gender and age. Gender refers to a set of culturally conditioned traits associated with maleness or femaleness (Kornblum 328). There are two sexes, male and female which are biologically determined statuses and two genders, masculine and feminine which are socially constructed ways of being a man or a woman.
A gender role is a set of behaviors considered appropriate for individuals of a particular gender. Controversies over whether women in the armed forces can serve in combat or whether men with children ought to be eligible for family leave from work are examples of issues arising out of the definition of gender roles.
All human societies are stratified by gender, meaning that males and females are channeled into specific statuses and roles. Comments such as, be a man or she is a real lady, often serve to remind us that our behavior is or is not conforming to the role expectations associated with our particular gender.
When women’s roles are thought to require male direction, as is the case in many households and organizations, the unequal treatment of men and women is directly related to gender roles. The roles assigned to men and women are accorded differing amounts of income, power, or prestige, and these forms of inequality contribute to the society’s system of stratification.
According to Kornblum, recent research has expanded the understanding of gender in society by demonstrating that gender stratification is a feature of organizations of all kinds, and not merely an attribute of individuals and their roles (329). The advantages of the male gender role in American society have long been noted. Men earn higher salaries and often command more respect than women do.
One reason traditionally male occupations are attractive to women, for example, is that they are more positively valued than women’s occupations. Closely related to the perceived higher status of the male role is the power that accompanies this more valued position. The higher status of the male gender role has been offered as a reason why women’s gender role violation is viewed more positively than men’s similar violations (Unger 224).
Gender as Social Construction and Social Structure
To sociologists, gender is not simply something that individuals have. It is something that is constantly recreated in individual socialization, in medical and cultural practices, and in social interaction. Similarly, sociologists describe gender as an attribute not only of individuals but also of social structures.
From the time they are born, girls are treated in one way and boys in another. They are, for example, wrapped in blue blankets or pink, encouraged to take up sports or sewing, and described as cute or as strong before they are old enough to truly exhibit individual personalities (Brinkerhoff et al. 202).
In this way, children are made to learn their gender and gender roles from a very early age. Studies have, however indicated that when parents do not exhibit gender stereotype behavior or punish their children for cross gender behavior, we end up with a more civilized society.
As a result of this learning process, boy and girls develop strong ideas about what is appropriate for girls and what is appropriate for boys. However, since boys are punished more than girls for exhibiting cross gender behavior, they tend to be especially rigid in their ideas of what girls and boys ought to do. Girls are freer to engage in cross gender behavior than boys.
Improvement of Gender Relations over the Years
According to Howe, men are these days living in less gender traditional families unlike in the past (93). In general, men are becoming less gender biased and are looking for something more than what traditional gender expectations can provide for them. The feminist movements have not only benefitted the lives of women, but have changed many men’s lives as well. For example, men no longer think that it is acceptable to beat or rape their wives, actions which were accepted as men’s rights in previous generations.
Unfortunately, men are still growing up in a world that expects them to be aggressive, assertive, and accomplished. In addition, men are also expected to be tender, emotional, and open with their partners. The society expects them to be physically strong yet not dominate in the work place. They are expected to play well with others in work teams and listen to their partners at home. However, boys are generally not socialized to practice these skills as they grow up (Howe 94).
Over the years, several laws and policies have been created to enhance gender relations. They include Policy on Gender and Development by the African Development Bank, requiring that gender be mainstreamed in all of the Bank’s operations, and Social Protection Strategy that seeks to eliminate any form of discrimination.
Predictions about the Future of Gender Relations
To improve gender relations even further, organizations such as Promise Keepers bring thousands of men together in large stadiums to discuss how they have let their important role in their families to disintegrate. The goal of these organizations is to help men reclaim their spiritual responsibility as servant leaders in the home.
Even though Promise Keepers is a conservative Christian movement, it stemmed from the New Age, leftist liberal men’s movement of the 1970s and 1980s when scores of men would go into the woods, beat drums, and openly share about the pain and isolation they felt as boys and men trying to conform to rigid gender role expectations.
The liberal men’s movement sought to free men from narrowly defined gender stereotypes and stilted emotional lives. They built a brotherhood of open, caring, sensitive men who wanted to connect emotionally with their families. In a similar vein, the Promise Keepers group attempts to create a brotherhood of men working toward restoring wives’ and children’s love and faith in men as the religious and moral leaders of the home.
Promise Keepers seek to tear down the commercialization of masculinity, through belittling macho exploits that objectify sex and violence. They want their members to reject the need for power and money, stop starving for a capitalist dream, and start striving for family harmony and strong marriages. They encourage men to turn off their television sets and talk to their families.
In this brotherhood, men feel safe sharing their fears and deepest feelings, their sense of failure over not achieving high powered careers, and their sense of disconnection from their wives. They aspire to lead but also to serve their wives. As men strive to maintain traditional conservative gender roles, they are also seeking to redefine masculinity and create a sensitive, open, and economically connected modern patriarch.
Women often have the responsibility for the spiritual and moral upbringing of the next generation. Some conservative scholars, however, feel that we can not put these important goals in the hands of the government by increasing our use of day care centers for children.
They argue that women have high levels of role strain due partly to the media and the public disparaging traditional women’s work and the roles of their stay at home as wife and mother. As noted by Klein, gender relations may also be enriched through an educational process (539).
Feminist Movements within the United States
To appreciate the historic significance of the woman suffrage movement, it is necessary to understand the degree to which women expected the vote to lead to a total transformation of their lives. Apparently, this had to do with changes taking place in the family, its relation to society, and woman’s role within it.
Historically, the woman’s role has been shaped by her position in the family. Because the traditional family was the site of production and closely integrated with all forms of community life, women were recognized as participants in the larger world of the society. However, the family’s central importance in social organization meant that the patriarchal relations between men and women that characterized family life were carried into all other aspects of society as well.
Until the development of women’s rights and woman suffrage politics, the major approach to improving women’s status came from domestic reformers, such as Catharine Beecher.
To retrieve some of the social recognition that women were losing as production and other aspects of social life moved away from the home, domestic reformers called for an elevation of women’s status in the family, and for increased recognition of the contribution that domestic relations made to community life in general.
They did not challenge the relegation of women to the domestic sphere, but only the relationship between that sphere and the rest of the society. The demand for suffrage represented a much more advanced program for improving women’s position.
Suffragists recognized that the locus of community life had shifted away from the family and that women’s aspirations for a greater voice in the conduct of community affairs could be satisfied only by their moving into the public realm. Moreover, the demand for woman suffrage raised the prospect of sex equality in a way that proposals for domestic reforms never could.
Gender in Education, Work, and Family
At the work place, being a woman results in lower pay and being left out of important decision making arenas. Women have to fight the assumption that they would rather spend more time with their children than in moving up the career ladder. Women are seen as not taking their jobs as seriously as men while men are expected to concentrate on their jobs at the expense of their families. In the same way, gender determines the courses taken during a learning process.
Approximately 95 per cent of all domestic violence victims are women. Violent attacks on women occur in almost every area of their daily lives. They are assaulted in their homes, on the streets, in the workplace, and in schools. According to the United Nations, however, all human beings are born equal and qualify to enjoy every right or freedom.
Conclusion
If gender relations are to be improved in the society, the discussion of cultural roles must be encouraged at different levels in society. Organizations such as Promise Keepers must be empowered to extend their services and spread messages that will drive the society to generational changes regarding gender relations. This study has allowed me to understand that gender stratification often begins from the early days of one’s life and keeps on taking different forms as time goes by.
Works Cited
Brinkerhoff, David, Lynn White and Suzanne Ortega. Essentials of Sociology, Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning, 2007. Print.
Howe, Tasha. Marriages and Families in the 21st Century: A Bioecological Approach, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2011. Print.
Kornblum, William. Sociology in a Changing World, Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning, 2011. Print.
Unger, Rhoda. Handbook of the Psychology of Women and Gender, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2004. Print.
Through the article and class notes for this course, I leaned how change has brought people from the developed nations into the neighborhoods of the less developed world with dire consequences. I gained an insight into how a disadvantaged family structure increased inequality and discrimination.
Those from the less developed countries in trying to survive have resorted to migration, sacrificing on their culture and their families. They have been forced to accept inequality as their lot and to take what is given to them. This paper covers my experience with the issue of globalization through class notes and lectures, and how its effect on equality, culture, families, education, gender, race and migration.
Globalization is a transformation of the world where movement of capital, organizations, ideas, and people is increased globally. Through the class articles that I read during the course, I have learned that globalization brings about better distribution of world resources and hence better living conditions but it also brings about inequality and poverty for the less developed countries.
Globalization leads to high migration of workers from country to country. I read that some migrated from developed countries to less developed countries that happen to be tourist destinations. There they are able to compete successfully with the natives. Other migrants prefer to migrate from less developed countries to more developed countries. In those countries, they are able to find menial jobs and to send money back home.
Inequality may refer to economic or social inequality. Economic inequality is experienced when gender, race or origins play a role in worker compensation or choice of employees. It was interesting to learn that women face the problem of inequality as they are denied certain opportunities that are traditionally expected to be taken by men.
Due to increased migrant labor, employers can pay however much they please as the workers have no say. One of the articles gave a good example of the tourism sector in Costa Rica where employers are not required to pay benefits to migrant workers.
I read that they are also not highly concerned with employment paperwork and illegal employees can work there without being discovered. Colored workers also face inequality because they are not given the same jobs as their white colleagues.
As migration becomes more common, cultures collide. Migrant workers have no choice but to get used to new cultures and to shed their own in order to fit in and to keep their jobs. They have to gladly do unpleasant jobs that would not be acceptable to them in their culture.
In some cultures, older children are expected to take care of their siblings. In such cultures, these children opt to go to bigger cities where they can make more and send home a lot of money. Some cultures expect men to take care of their families and when they can’t do this in their countries, they move to find jobs elsewhere.
With increasing globalization, families are being severely affected. For example, after reading the class articles on globalization, I learned how parents are being forced to leave their children behind and crossing borders to earn a living.
As much as they send money back home, many feel that their absence negatively affects their children’s upbringing. Calling rates are high and this makes it difficult to keep in touch. The parents become emotionally absent from their child’s life.
Education is viewed as important for those who are trying to earn a living. With the collapse of industrial plants where many used to do manual labor, education has become a way out.
Those who wish to get an education face limitations like transport to their places of learning, obligations to their families and learning disabilities. Education is also considered to be a tool used by women to boost their self esteem and to become better role models for their children.
The culture of the man being the provider for the family is coming to an end as economic times are requiring women to be in the workforce. Tough economic times mean that there are less social welfare programs and some industries that provided income have gone down.
There are some professions that seem to be gender specific. This trend is brought about by culture and traditions. I read with interest how job openings that favor women are becoming more common in developing countries. The job of caring for the elderly or the sick is being done mostly by female foreigners. Gender is also a factor in the human trafficking business. Demand for females makes them more vulnerable than males.
Through my reading, I also discovered how race has always been a sensitive issue in countries with multiracial peoples. The minority races have been fighting for years to get the same treatment, the same careers and same education opportunities as the majority races. Moreover, I learned that discrimination in the third world tourism industry is much more common than in other industries.
Attending the various lectures and reading through the articles provided, I am now aware that the tourism industry now seeks workers who can communicate with the tourists and give them the service that they are accustomed to. This has led to the increase of discrimination against the local workers as foreigners hire foreigners for the top jobs.
The same case has been observed in the healthcare industry. There are more dark colored caregivers being hired for these jobs. This has been attributed to the fact that these jobs are more strenuous and therefore not desirable to the natives.
As travel becomes easier, there is an increase in migration as individuals and families look for greener pastures. Some of the most developed countries like America has toughened their laws on immigration and made it more difficult for migrant workers to settle in America.
In less developed countries, the laws are not as well enforced. Those who manage to settle in developed countries lose some of the connection they had with their loved ones. To keep this connection and emotions alive, they send back money that they work hard for.
Migration in some cases lead to trafficking as some people find themselves in unfamiliar territories. I have also discovered that human trafficking is sometimes a consequence of poverty as some adults sell their children in the hope that they will have better chances of a good life elsewhere.
These children are then used in child labor to produce goods at low prices. Other traffickers promise young adults good employment opportunities and sell them into modern day slavery. They are separated from their family and friends and have no way of going back home.
Reading through these articles, I came to the realization that families are a source of strength for many. As such, the family should be protected at all costs. Legal measures should be taken against trafficking of children, division of families due to poverty and oppression of the poor by the rich. As inequality is not being well tackled by developing tourism destinations, the locals can start up their own businesses as some have done.
They can offer the authentic feel that foreigners cannot offer other foreigners. Globalization has brought many good changes. Migrant workers can now provide for their families, more people are going back to school and there is increased gender equality. For progress to take place, people should always embrace the good and shun the bad.
The Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) was created to provide welfare for indigent families until they become employed and can earn their living. It “is a block grant that provides discretionary funding” at the level of the states, which at the time provide financial support to low-income families (Theodoulou & Kofinis, 2012, Chapter 10.2, para. 20). The program’s strengths lie in supporting the family institution and in stimulating employment since recipients can receive government welfare for a maximum of two years with lifelong benefits within five years (Theodoulou & Kofinis, 2012, Chapter 10.2, para. 20).
The main disadvantage of this program is that it depends on the economic capacity of the state to provide such assistance to families. Apparently, during the financial crisis, when there is a shortage of workplaces, families remain in poverty after reaching the TANF lifetime limits. Nevertheless, the program functions appropriately, as it effectively fulfills its primary function of providing for underprivileged families.
Within this context, the government, along with financial assistance, initiates programs aimed at meeting the primary needs of citizens. For instance, Medicaid provides treatment or nursing care for underprivileged people. Lam (2016) states that the point of the program is that “all Americans pay in, but those found to have enough means, and thus do not require government assistance, do not qualify for the program” (para. 20).
The major advantage of Medicaid is that it provides social support to vulnerable groups of the population, while its main disadvantage is that it is done at the expense of its wealthy part. From my point of view, the Medicaid program seems to be reasonable, since the state performs the function of social support, and it inevitably aims to equalize disparities.
Federal welfare programs are always the result of a complex balance between the principles of capitalism and social equality and support. I thought achieving such a balance was not a major challenge for the legislator. While reading this week’s reading assignment, I have learned more about the mechanisms by which the government attempts to keep this balance. Now I understand that this challenge is rather complicated and requires the creation and application of well-designed social welfare programs. They should both support the disadvantaged part of the population and meet their primary needs and encourage them to provide for themselves.
The subject of family in the sociological arena has been studied and researched by several scholars. Explanations of the characteristic features and behavioral patterns of the family have been discussed in many journals and books. One journal in particular has discussed this issue in detailed and its explanations have been so vividly done such that the issue is fully understood.
The journal is entitled, family matters: Even in marriage: Identifying factors linked to marital outcomes for African Americans. The authors are Chalandra M. Bryant, K.A.S. Wickrama, John Bolland, Barlynda M. Bryant, Carolyn E. Cutrona and Christine E. Stanik. It was first published online in August 2010.
The journal mainly focuses on marriage in the African-American society. The authors did a prolific research in trying to find out the characteristic features which are special to these types of families. They also tried to crystallize out the differences between the African-America families to those of the other families.
Method
The researchers developed a broad conceptual framework which involved primary marital concepts of which the concepts emanated from psychological points of view which were shown to vary across the races. As an example the authors explain this hypothesis as if we look at the stressful part, individuals’ and couples’ resources will meditate and moderate the association between the causes of the particular stress and the welfare of the marriage.
Also the authors did an extensive review of available literature such which resulted in their identification of important findings on the rudimentary constituents in this conceptual framework. The methods include focusing on literature which talked about the description of Africa-American families (Bryant et al 7).
Stress and Welfare of the Family
Persistent stressful conditions have harmful effects on the general welfare in the marital situations. Consequence of stressful life in the African-American home includes increasing prevalence of divorce and poor marital quality. Thus the fewer socio-economic opportunities in African-American homes causes them to have a low socio-economic standard in America. Thus due to their low socio-economic status they are more and more exposed to stressful conditions (Bryant et al 8).
Unemployment and Lack of Money
Economic situations do have a direct impact on the behavioral characteristics of interaction activities of couples. According to recent research, marriage in African-Americans decreased because there was an increase in the rate of unemployment among the African-Americans. Poor African-American families have a tendency to reside in inner city regions where there are low quality resources and services. This is less likely with the white communities who are economically disadvantaged (Bryant et al 9).
The researchers used a sample of African-American families to substantiate that economic advantaged families live happily in economically disadvantaged neighborhoods. This is because most of the married couples enjoy relative affluence compared to their neighbors.
Status of the Workplace
Low status jobs such as those jobs which require few skills make people think of themselves as they belong to the lower status. This is also similar to when a person works in poor working conditions, or when a person works in areas that require little self direction. These families have undergone through such humiliation and have been worsened by the fact that most of these families are involved in service rendering jobs (Bryant et al 13).
The Extended Families
Due to their cultural affiliations, the African American society has an obligation to attend to their extended families. Thus there is a high sense of familial duty in these families which have been cemented by the obligations to their relatives beyond the nuclear family. These families have a high likelihood of living with the extended family. The relatives tend to seek financial help from their middle class counterparts thereby creating a set of normative expectations of socio-economic support (Bryant et al 14).
Children
According to past and recent research, marital satisfaction decrease with the birth of children. In the African American society it has been studied that 55% of the couples enter into marriage with at least one child. This is comparative to 22% of the white community who enter into marriage with at least one child. The stress created in this situation can affect the interaction of couples thus creating the relationship between the couples to be hostile or cold. Other status such as racial discrimination does also add to this stress (Bryant et al 15).
Race of the Family
The racial identity of a person is important since individuals identify themselves with particular cultures which are significantly different from others. Mature racial identity is not experienced in all African American families. This is because the racial identity will be different among every person. In couples who exhibit a mature racial identity, there are a decreased number of stressors. Mismatching along racial lines may also incite conflict (Bryant et al 15).
Authors’ Views
The authors propose that several pathways be used both directly and indirectly to come between stressors and the marital outcomes of the African American society. Thus a study in which these factors are investigated can be an eye opener to understanding how the African American society operates. Thus future research should focus at exploring the bridge between outcomes of a marital affair and the health of African Americans since the health issues were not researched upon (Bryant et al 32).
Conclusion
There are several factors which affect the welfare of the African American family. As discussed above, the factors range from racial differences to economic disparity between the African Americans and the whites. Living and working conditions do also have an impact on the socioeconomic status of an individual. Thus if a permanent solution that will fight off these factors is found the African American society will have an equal socioeconomic status with their white counterparts.
Works Cited
Bryant, Chalandra et al. “Race Matters, Even in Marriage: Identifying Factors Linked to Marital Outcomes for African Americans.” John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2010. 3rd Nov 2010.