Category: Family

Every human being is unique and inimitable. There is hardly a person who has the same set of values and feelings as some other individual has. It makes life diverse and complicated at the same time. To understand a person it is essential to realize his/her attitude towards universal truth, ideas and values appreciated in society. The complexity of all these factors impacts the formation of the mentality of a person and the way he/she interacts with the surrounding world. For this very reason, the relationship of people with such concepts as honesty, sincerity, responsibility, etc. result in the formation of a certain image of the world and values appreciated in it.

Responsibility is one of the fundamental qualities of any person, regardless of his/her social status or age. Oxford dictionary defines it as the state or fact of having a duty to deal with something or of having control over someone (responsibility para.1). However, it is a very generalized definition that introduces only the duty, not describing numerous ethical concerns related to the idea of responsibility.

For me, responsibility is not just the realization of the necessity to do something, but the acceptance of the aftermath connected with a certain action or issue. In this regard, to be a responsible human being implies the adherence to the most important moral norms and act not because of the necessity but on account of the realization of the importance of certain actions. It could help a person to achieve the desired goal and remain a high-toned individual.

Every person is responsible for a great number of concerns in his/her life. Additionally, the older a person becomes, the more duties he/she acquires. Usually, these duties are chosen based on priorities and goals appreciated by an individual. The focus on a certain sphere of activity results in the reconsideration of the lifestyle and acceptance of the responsibility to care for it and guarantee its success. Every human being is characterized by a set of priorities impacting the goals and the whole life. I am not an exception. Family and a successful career are two major concerns related to my life. For this reason, I feel responsible for the events connected with these aspects. I try to contribute to their development and protect them from the pernicious external influence.

However, I perfectly realize the fact that it is impossible to control everything in life and try to introduce shifts in the spheres of activity that are beyond my control. Instead, I prefer to do not feel responsible for things insignificant to me. The world financial crisis, international policy, and several other issues have an impact on my life; however, I am not able to change them. That is why my attention is given to more important and topical concerns.

Finally, the recognition of responsibility contributes to the personal growth of a person and the evolution of his/her mentality. An irresponsive person is weak as no concern could impact his/her growth and demand great efforts. Sometimes, the acceptance of the responsibility could present severe difficulties and make a person work hard to accomplish the duty. Yet, I insist on the idea that it is essential to be responsible and try to care about the things which are most significant to you.

Works Cited

responsibility. Oxforddictionaries.com, Oxford, n.d. Web.

Introduction and methodology

Tourism mostly involves traveling to an environment that is outside and distinct from ones common habitation and for various reasons and aims. These range between leisure, recreation and to engage in commercial activities. From the humble beginnings of the early 1800s where only the wealth could afford rare trips to exotic destinations, the concept has grown into a worldwide industry with an estimated earnings of US$944 million in 2008 (WTO, 2009). Indeed, tourism has seen a much wider acceptance than most other consumer activities, evidenced by the over 900 million international tourist arrivals for the same period; this does not factor in the sheer number of local tourists carrying out the activities inside their own countries.

Currently, tourism continues to form a vital part of the economies of many countries in the world; with some, such as the United Arab Emirates and Thailand (among others), having large parts of the national economies based on one form or the other class of tourism.

Synthesis

The large part of tourism is based on the conventional concepts of the destination and/or the activity which the tourist engages in on arrival to the destination; however, there has been a rise in alternative forms of tourism one of them being dark tourism. Each year, many tourists visit the ever-increasing number of dark tourism sites scattered around the world; and get to experience the environment in which death or disaster took place. Such sites many be the actual sites where such events took place, such as the Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and Museum opened in 2000 at the site of the camp where 1.5 million people died at the height of the Second World War at the hands of the Nazi Germans and the Culloden battlefield in Scotland where the Battle of Culloden took place in 16^th April 1746. Alternatively, such maybe a location away from where the incident took place but connected to it and/or housing artifacts recovered from the site of the incident; in this case, a holocaust museum would be a good example.

Dark tourism is becoming increasingly popular with old and new sites reporting increased numbers of visitors every year. The concept is, however, yet to receive universal acceptance and classification; and may be seen by some quarters as an aberration of human curiosity. However, the fascination with death is not a preserve of the minority in the society; large number of people continues to visit sites which a strict classification would identify them as being dark; such would include historical battle fields and war memorials.

Classification of tourism

The world tourism organization defines a tourist as a person who leaves his/her normal environment for another destination in which he/she will stay for a period exceeding 24hrs but that does not exceed a period of one consecutive year; and in which activities carried out do not attract any remuneration. Currently the WTO classifies tourism as; Leisure and recreation [recreation, cultural events, health, active sports (non professional), other leisure and holiday purposes]; Business and professional (meetings, mission, incentive travel, business, other); and other tourism purposes (studies, health treatment, transit, various). The basis for this classification is the type of activity carried out by the tourist in the destination.

Many alternatives to the contemporary classification of tourism have arisen to challenge the universally accepted norms. Some of the new developments in tourism, commonly referred to as adjectival tourisms include; agri-tourism; culinary; cultural; ecotourism; heritage; medical; nautical; religious; space; war: and wildlife tourism. These have developed to serve niche markets specialize into one form or the other. The market size for these types are however not very large. Indeed, this is not an exhaustive list of the possibilities of niche-targeted tourism products; and new adjectival tourisms continue to arise every day.

Dark tourism

Dark tourism as a distinct form has seen a steady increase in both the number of tourists visiting dark sites; and the amount of income circulating in this sub sector (Foley and Lennon, 1997). However, the sub-sector represents a small division within the scope of tourism in the world; additionally, a clear distinction between dark and conventional tourism has not been made. As such, some visitors may combine aspects of both classifications during their travels, thus making it harder to decide where to classify such visitors. Death tourism refers to the situation whereby visitors specifically tour areas associated with human death or disaster. A clear distinction has to be made in regards to all the visits to dark site; and to what constitutes dark tourism. As such, a family visiting the site whereby one or several of their members died does not constitute dark tourism.

Thanatourism is a more specific form of dark tourism involving the visitation of site associated with violent death; the word is coined from the mythological Greek personification of death, Thanatos. Thanatourism is motivated mainly by the desire to experience the environment in which a specific person (or people) died; and is mostly seen in cases where such deaths occurred in a particularly violent or gruesome manner. This form of dark tourism is driven mainly by the desires of the traveler rather than the allure of the destination as is seen with other forms of tourism. As such, while such a destination may remain the same over long period, the arousal of such interests in potential visitors continues to attract visits; and such site have little pressure to refresh themselves. On the other hand, such sites have to go the extra mile to ensure that such experiences are as authentic as possible.

Thanatourism sites can be classified into five categories; travel to places where death has occurred, for example in Nazi death camps; travel to site where death will occur, for example public executions; travels to sites where artifacts of death are stored and/or displayed, for example to holocaust museums; travel to gravesite, burial grounds and memorial parks; travel to reenactment festivals, for example war reenactment.

Dark tourism has earned its place as a significant sub-sector of the tourism industry; and it is only prudent to pay proper attention to it. This significance can be shown by the large number of people visiting sites that are easily classified as dark every year; a good example is the Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and Museum. As many other sites are opening up or being created by world events, this sector may offer the much-needed expansion of the industry.

Analysis of dark tourism

Tourist motivations

Studies into the motivations of tourists (to any destinations) have not been conclusive; and many gaps still exist in the literature exploring what drives an individual to leave his/her comfort zone and try to experience life in a different environment albeit for a brief period. Among the aspects that have come up during these explorations is the identification of push and pull factors that have been generally accepted as the factors that result in the practice of tourism. On one hand, push factors are identified after the study of the tourist; and are the occurrence or circumstances that predispose the tourist to travel. On the other hand, pull factors are motivators which attract a potential traveler to the destination; and are therefore parameters of it thereof (Dann, 1977: 186).

The tourism industry is dominated by activities and destinations whereby the pull factors are greatly emphasized over the push factors; this is based on the assumption that a tourist visits a certain destination in order to do or see things (Crompton, 1979: 421). This would mean that the major or sole factor attracting a tourist to a certain destination is the environment and/or attributes which the site offers and advertise. Push factors are, however, equally or more important than pull factors for any given destination; as such a traveler chooses a destination not-only for what that destination offers, but also how that destination satisfies a specific psychological need (Uzzell, 1984: 80: Poria et al, 2001: 1047). In dark tourism, the pull factors play a major role in influencing a visitor to leave his/her home and go to a site associated with death and/or disaster. For example, the need to commemorate and pay respect may influence some to pay a visit for instance to a war memorial. This, however, does not remove the need or motivation of the destination to provide some pull factors that will finally push the visitor over the line. For example, a war memorial may include special guide tours or commemoration festivals as part of the package of the visit; as such while a visitor will fulfill his/her push factors in visiting the site, s/he will also benefit from education and better insight of the incident(s) that made the site what it is in the first place. Such tours are commonly seen in holocaust museums where they not only aim at commemorating the events, but also educating current and future generations.

However, most of the visitors who visit dark site do it manly for personal reasons; these range from commemoration of experience underwent either by themselves, family members or friends; affirmation of individuals cultural identity; as an act to appease a guilty conscience; and out of simple curiosity. Whatever the reason for such a visit to a dark site, the motivation to expose oneself to the environment of death and disaster can be influenced by one or a combination of the following.

Heritage

Potential visitors often feel that they have a cultural connection with the dark site; and have a personal need to visit such sites to define or reinforce their cultural identity. For example, descendants of a war veteran may feel compelled to visit a site connected to the respective conflict; so as to perceive their connection with such a veteran despite not having met (them) personally. In this case, it is easy to classify the travelers between those who have a high probability of making repeat visits to the site and those who do not. A passage of a large amount of time and space usually result in disconnect between the heritage of an individual as represented by the site; and the need to fulfill a psychological need; such people demonstrate a low probability of returning to the site. On the other hand, close association in time and space almost always ensures repeat and even regular visits to a dark site.

History

Some of the visitors to dark site are drawn to them due to their historical significance; for such site, the visit usually forms part of the itinerary involving visits to friends, relatives or general vacation; and not as the primary destination for the traveler. Such visitors do not exhibit particular attachment to the site or the events that took place therein; but rather visit the sites due to their reputation as worthwhile stops during the stay in the particular city or region.

On the other hand, there is smaller groups of historical dark tourist; these visit the site on official capacity; either as part of an activity of a study; shooting of a film or documentary; or as an educational tour. History, as a push factor for dark tourism is not particularly strong; and most visits are incidental rather than planned; and are rarely repeated.

Survivors guilt

Among war veterans who survived a certain war or battle, there is common need to go back to a particular battlefield or memorial cemetery. While the purpose to visit such a site would range from the need to commemorate, remember or mourn their fallen comrades, an aspect of guilt is very likely to be present in some of them. This is also seen in victims seeking to revisit the site of a disaster (later after they recover).

The sentiments of such survivors guilt are also, however, affected by the tone of the site; for example, does the commentary during the tour seek to place particular blame on one party of the conflict or not; or does it accuse some parties of neglecting responsibilities that would have averted a disaster. In this case, potential visitors who may be part of the groups carrying the blame will easily be discouraged from ever paying a visit to the site.

Survivors guilt as a push factor for dark tourism is greatly affected by the passage of time; since it can only exist so long as either the survivors are alive, or the context of the event is still relevant in the concerned society. Lack of these two factors result in the fading of a site since it was dependent on guilt as its main motivation.

Curiosity

Some dark site attract visitors whose major motivation is curiosity or novelty; as much as these sites may have a profound meaning for a good section of the visitor, for others, the fascination is only with the circumstance of the events that made the site dark in the first place. The factors which drive curiosity as a motivation for travel include interruption of the (travelers) routine, escape from the normal environment, the search for thrill and adventure; and escape from boredom. In some instances, some parties may be offended by what at times results in the desecration of sites supposed to be somber or sacred by curious visitors. On the other hand, some of the dark destinations are specifically targeted to elicit curiosity from potential visitor; thus acting as a pull factor for tourism.

Insight into the phenomenon of death

Death and dying elicits different responses in different individuals; for some, a need to understand the phenomenon of dying may lead them to visit sites associated with death of individuals or groups of people. Some of the people who would be more inclined to visit areas which would offer a better comprehension of the phenomenon include medical professional, terminal patient and their relatives; and religious leaders. A small number of visitors can attribute their visit to dark site to an uncanny fascination with death and related subjects. The ability to confront and understand death can be aided by pictures; films and narratives describing or portraying actual death or reenactments of it; or artifacts associated with death including murder weapons, execution toll; or human bodies preserved whole or in parts.

The pull factor of curiosity in death does not form a major factor in determining visitation of dark sites; this however varies from one site to the other; and from one event to the other. However, it is an aspect of dark tourism that cannot be completely ignored.

Nostalgia

The need to reconnect or remember a past event in the life plays an important part of the push factors aiding dark tourism. As with survivors guilt, nostalgia is only possible if the persons who experienced a certain event are still alive and able to visit the given place; thus is eroded by passage of time and/or space.

Education

As mentioned before, some of the dark sites have profound historical significance to distinct groups of people or whole country. Indeed, many scholars spend significant amount of time carrying out studies of documents, site and artifacts related to a tragic or deadly event. Among the major motivations for the study is to understand how, for example, people can result to such cruel practices such as genocide, mass murder, terrorism and war. Secondly, there is almost a universal sentiment to allow measures to ensure that events like that do not happen again in the future.

One the other hand, dark sites offer fertile grounds for research into very specific disciplines such as military strategy, engineering, anthropology et-cetera.

Remembrance and commemorations

Among the most powerful tool of motivations to dark tourism is remembrance or commemoration of a certain event and its victims. It is however prudent to mention that what is remembered is often manipulated by the prevailing powers and authorities, cultural values & practice and historical framing. As such, whole segments of protagonists and/or events may be omitted or ignored so as to set an appropriate tone for the prevailing social situation.

Conclusion

Dark tourism offers a very interesting insight into the way the human psyche respond to the question of death, disaster and grief. Such responses range from macabre curiosity to grief and regret. Additionally, it offers an excellent example in the potential to develop tourism outside the limits of what is conventionally accepted.

Research limitations

Dark tourism is an emerging field; as such there is limited number of studies aimed specifically at the sub-sector as a unique and distinct form of tourism. Additionally, due to its relatively new distinction, there are no precedents to which the various parameters can be compared to, and any new information can only be used as a basis for future more comprehensive studies.

Reference list

1. Crompton, J.L. 1979 Motivations for Pleasure Vacation. Annals of Tourism Research 6: 408-424.
2. Dann, G. 1977 Anomie, Ego-enhancement and Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 4: 184-194.
3. Foley, M., and J.J. Lennon 1997 Dark Tourism  An Ethical Dilemma. In Strategic Issues for the Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure Industries, M. Foley, J.J. Lennon, and G. Maxwell, eds., pp. 153-164. London: Cassell.
4. Poria, Y., R. Butler, and D. Airey 2001 Clarifying Heritage Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 28: 1047-1049.
5. Quick overview of key trends. UNWTO World Tourism Barometer (World Tourism Organization) 7 (2). 2009.
6. Uzzel, D.L. 1984 The Alternate Structuralist Approach to the Psychology of Tourism Marketing. Annals of Tourism Research 11: 79-99.

Abstract

The purpose of the present study is to measure the ratio of the teenagers involved in insecure sexual activities and their consequences in society. The role of a welfare organization supporting the youth in this regard has also been elaborated in the present study. The need for the help of the Ad Council to the voluntary welfare organizations campaign is also part of the paper. Since sexual activities contain sociological significance, the inappropriate performance of those all comes under the fold of social problems. Before embarking upon the topic under study, it would be appropriate to define some concepts applied in the present study:

1. Teenager: A teenager is a person whose age is between 13 and 19 years. Teenage is considered the most thrilling period of life when a man has the least care of the consequences of his actions and deeds.
2. Sexual activities: Sexual activities refer to the physical contact between two or more persons belonging to the same as well as the opposite gender, where intercourse may also take place between them. These physical contacts may be oral, vaginal, and anal, as well as sex with the animals too.
3. Contraceptives: Contraceptives simply means a method, material, or device which is used as a preventive measure to control pregnancy. Contraceptives may be in the form of condoms, loop, pills, capsules, and others.
4. Non Profit Organization: A nonprofit organization refers to a private organization, which is set up for welfare purposes and works voluntarily to help individuals suffering from any type of socioeconomic problem. It also includes NGOs and other welfare societies, unions, and associations.
5. The Ad Council: The Ad Council means the Advertising Council of the USA, which also serves as a nonprofit organization and provides the voluntary and welfare associations with public service announcements based on the funds and aids from different sponsors during their course of performing social welfare programs and campaigns. It enjoys a respectable status in respect of benefiting public welfare unions and institutions.

Introduction

It has aptly been said that an individual is the product of society, and all his needs and requirements are fulfilled by living in a social setup and interacting with other individuals and groups. Sex is a social phenomenon and holds imperative importance on the one hand and the only source of reproduction on the other. The institution of marriage is the universal one and exists in every society, from the most primitive to the most modern one, which offers the individuals a systematic way of fulfilling their sexual desires and an opportunity to reproduce as well. There was a time when people used to be got married at an early age, mostly at the prime of their youth, but traditions have taken a drastic alteration, and social norms, mores, and conventions experienced their new forms, especially during the contemporary era. In pre-1960 American society, the age at marriage and the age entry into a sexual union were essentially the same. But times have changed, and now we recognize a distinction between the two events. It is a fact beyond doubt that people have always been involved in extramarital sexual relationships since ever. The researches reveal that the percentage of young people and teenagers engaged in extramarital sex has always been the highest among all the social strata. Looking into the researches conducted recently on the topic of sexual activities, it becomes obvious that teenagers are the stratum most involved in such activities other than the wedding lock. The main reason behind this includes a great passion for sex, as well as an overwhelming majority of them, is leading a single life (Zaidi, 2002:31).

There was a time when people were least concerned in respect of the consequences of safety during sexual activity. The inclusion and introduction of fatal and contagious diseases, especially HIV and AIDS, has aroused peoples apprehensions regarding using contraceptives and other safe methods while doing sexual intercourse. In addition, an increase in the number of illegitimate children and illegal pregnancies among the teenage girls in access have created anxiety among the masses at large. The nature of these relationships includes heterosexual, homosexual, oral, sadism, masochism, and bestiality, etc. The boys and girls of this age group are not only developing relations between themselves but also neglect the outcomes of such activities that may cause serious dangers to their health on the one hand and can create social problems on the other. Though the government is extremely interested in combating this threat and has devised many plans and schemes to tackle it, yet there is an urgent need of creating awareness among the youth regarding sexual activities and their consequences. Moreover, the instructions to avoid the dangers and harms of such acts must be conveyed properly and in a systematic way, so that the problems of the youths health as well as social disturbances as a result of their unawareness can be evaded or at least mitigated to some extent. Since the government looks unable to embark upon the massive problem in a comprehensive way, there come forward few organizations, which are determined to save the nation from such an unpleasant situation of unsafe and insecure sex and create awareness among them. The STEP is one of the most prominent non profit organizations among them.

The name of the STEP does not need any introduction because of the services it has provided, and the effort it has made for the cause of youth is really remarkable and admirable. The STEP (established in December, 1996) is a non-profitable organization interested in bringing prosperity in the society by rescuing it from the cruel clutches of fast spreading contagious diseases and their impact on society. It is determined to add its share, at the state level, in the struggle to vanish away the financial adversities and miseries especially those of the lower classes, so that they can also become the active and useful part of society by leading a life in a proper and respectable way, instead of getting involved in any type of mean and degrading activities like beggary, theft, robbery, prostitution, drug-trafficking and others due to their emotional collapse. I have been working at this organization as the Country Manager for the last two years and have organized different offices at all the important cities of the state of California. The reformatory program launched by the STEP includes the following:

1. Policy formulation with regard to inaugurating awareness-providing institutes, for the youth, all over the state of California, to teach the young generation all regarding sexual activities.
2. Arrange programs, lectures, seminars and symposia for creating awareness regarding the significance of sex education among the people all over the state.
3. Launch a comprehensive program in private sector, of motivating the people on the basis of awareness, which may indirectly help the government in its campaign against this rapidly growing social problem as a result of perversion.
4. Boost the morale of the teenagers that will surely pave the way towards improving the quality of the life of general public.
5. Devise a scheme, in a proper way, to save the teenagers, which is supportive and beneficial for this useful stratum of the society to save them from undergoing utter disappointment and inferiority complexes due to not having any solution of their problems created as a result of their negligence and lack of knowledge.
6. Protect the female population from the cruelty and discrimination, inflicted upon them, because of illegitimate pregnancies and prejudiced attitude of the male members of their society.
7. Block the way of the teenagers towards getting involved in any type of criminal activities on not finding any solution of health and emotional disturbances.
8. Teach and guide the youth, without any discrimination of caste, creed, class, community, gender, region, race and district.
9. Serve as a supporting hand for the rescue of the people suffering from any distress or turmoil at the eve jeopardising social condition.
10. Perform something great and extra-ordinary to purify the society from the social evils like beggary, theft, embezzlement, drug-addiction, prostitution and other such nefarious activities that are exercised due to lack of awareness, resources and opportunities.
11. Allocate and apply the best of our abilities and energies into the vast field of social welfare that may be beneficial in respect of bringing prosperity in the society.

The STEP has drawn a comprehensive plan of offering the deserving youth interest-free loans on the one hand, and free of cost skill-learning programmes on the other to enable them earn their livelihood in a systematic and glorious way after suffering from HIV, AIDS and mental retardation. The scheme will also be helpful, though indirectly, in discouraging the social evils and criminal activities really an infamous blur on the very face of our society. There is an essential need of unconditional and unabated support of the well to do individuals, associations and especially the Ad Council to lend a hand to the STEP in order to eradicate this social problem with an iron hand. The points above-mentioned emphatically prove the very fact that the STEP requires the assistance of an urgent and comprehensive ad campaign not only to spread the awareness among the youth having sex without condoms, regarding consequences of insecure sex, but also work for rehabilitating the teenagers suffering from mental retardation, emotional setbacks, physical diseases, unwanted pregnancies and others. The advertising campaign launched and commenced by the Ad Council may play decisive role in spreading the message of the STEP all over the state. It will surely bring prosperity and happiness in society making it healthy and satisfied.

Bibliography

1. John R. Weeks. (1995) POPULATION: An Introduction to Concepts and Issues Seventh Edition. Wadsworth Publishing Company Belmont, California.
2. M. H. Zaidi (2002) Biological, Psychological and Sociological Causes of Deviant Behavior: A research work conducted keeping in view the pervert behavior of youth.
3. Wikipedia Encyclopedia. Web.

Introduction

Caffeine has been known to cause many deleterious effects starting from addiction to effects on the neurological development, skeletal development, and behavioral system of the offspring when the mother has consumed large quantities of it.

Having gone through the various literature on the subject, I have decided to replicate the steps taken by Daniel S. Grossier, Department of Pediatrics and Institute of Human Nutrition, College of Physicians and Surgeons, University of Columbia. I intend to draw my own conclusions on the subject of the effects of caffeinated coffee consumption on pregnant rats and the neurological development and behavioral abnormalities observed in the offspring of these pregnant rats and comparing the effects with a group of similar pregnant rats which would be given decaffeinated coffee and another group which would be consuming plain drinking water.

Caffeine has been shown to penetrate the blastocyst or developing cell of the fetus and also accumulate in the fetal liver and brain. In adult animals, caffeine influences the metabolism of various neurotransmitters. It appears possible that prenatal exposure to caffeine could affect the brain function of the offspring as the brain development is maximum in the prenatal stage. So changes in the development of the brain could have a lasting effect manifesting as long-lasting behavioral abnormalities. My intention is to report the results of my study conducted in the rat where possible behavioral changes consequent to the consumption of caffeine during Pregnancy would be seen in it and its offspring. The results could be correlated to the effects of high levels of caffeine consumption in human pregnancies.

Literary Review

Evidence has been found to suggest that caffeine could have deleterious effects on fetuses should their mothers consume large volumes of coffee during their pregnancies. Scientists at Carleton University, in their study on the subject in 1985, found that children born to mothers who consumed more than 300mg per day of coffee had a lower birth weight and smaller head circumference than those born to other mothers who did not have this habit. Large amounts of caffeine could also produce cardiac arrhythmias. (Effects on fetuses and newborn children, New World Encyclopaedia).

Another study by Lawson et al. found that women who used large amounts of coffee during their pregnancies also had the tendency to have miscarriages more than those who never used coffee in this period. The exact minimum toxic dosage of caffeine that could cause damage to the fetus has yet to be specified. Caffeine damages the DNA. It has the ability to inhibit two DNA-damage response proteins;

Ataxia-Telangiectasia Mutated (ATM) and ATM-Rad50 Related (ATR). DNA damage frequently occurs in the dividing cells of the developing fetus. The two proteins control the cells ability to stop the cell cycle in the presence of damage like DNA single-double strand breaks and nucleotide dimerization (Effects on fetuses and newborn children, New World Encyclopaedia).

How does caffeine produce damage? It crosses over from the maternal blood into the fetal blood through the placenta. The caffeine could affect the fetal heart rate and breathing. Studies have been done which show that caffeine can cause premature birth and low birth weight. A study in 1988 showed that female infertility could be produced by an intake of 120-300 mg. of caffeine. However, a final conclusion could not be drawn as other variables were present. Caffeine has been found in breast milk.

Breastfeeding mothers had better leave caffeine off their diet. Neligh and Derby in 1994 conducted a study and decided that the amount of caffeine in less than 5 five-ounce cups of coffee are not a problem for breastfeeding mothers and babies. (Caffeine during Pregnancy, Iafrica.com).

In the 1983 Ottawa study at Carleton University, Canada, 286 pregnant women were studied. Researchers analyzed the total caffeine intake from all sources. In the first trimester, coffee accounted for 56%, tea 37%, while caffeinated drinks, chocolate bars, chocolate drinks, and caffeinated medications accounted for 7% of the total caffeine intake. 4% of the women consumed 100-300mg. Of coffee, while another 4% consumed more than 300mg. After statistically controlling for other potential factors, the most marked effect for the heavy caffeine users in this study was the reduced birth weight and smaller head circumference. The mean head circumferences of the babies of the heavy users were 1.1cm lesser than the head circumferences of the babies of the group, which used less than 300mg. Of coffee. The former measurements were 33.5 cm. and the latter was 34.6 cm. A decrease of 379gms.in the birth weight of the babies was seen in the heavy-user group. The birth weight reductions are more significant for preterm or small infants where thriving becomes a problem (Watson and Fried, Smaller Head Circumference, Low Birth Weight after 300mg. intake, 1985).

Interesting findings of Dr. Nehligh (Coffee and Caffeine During Pregnancy)N

Dr. Astrid Nehligh summarized over 200 articles on the subject of coffee/caffeine and presented his findings in the 1994 Journal of Neurotoxicology and Teratology. His assumptions are interesting. He stated that world coffee consumption was increasing.

A mean cup size of caffeinated coffee has about 90mg of caffeine and 65 mg for soluble instant coffee. Decaffeinated coffee only had 3mg. Of caffeine. 150ml. Of tea had 32-42mg.

Cola drinks had 16mg. The daily consumption ranges from 202-283 mg. in males and females between 20 and 75 years.

The half-life of caffeine ranges from 0.7-1.2 hours in rats and mice, 3-5 hours in the monkeys, and 2.5-6 hours in humans. In both humans and animals, during the neonatal period, due to the immaturity of liver enzymes, the half-life of the caffeine is increased. Half-lives of 40-130 hours are recorded from premature and newborn infants. They decrease rapidly to 14.4 hours in 3-5 month infants and 2.6 hours in 5-6 month infants.

Breastfed infants show a longer half-life than formula-fed.

Comparing results of drug administration, taking metabolic body weight as a correlating factor, he chalked up a few details. 20mg/kg body weight in the rat was found equivalent to 17 cups of coffee (at 100mg/cup) in a 70kg. Man. but only 4-6 cups when corrections are made.

In the monkey, spontaneous abortions and stillbirths have been recorded at two dosage levels. In humans, coffee and caffeine from other sources have caused abortions.

Caffeine or coffee intake has almost no association with prematurity; 11% may be attributed to smoking, 5% to alcohol, and only 2 % to coffee.

Absorption of caffeine has a vasoconstrictive effect on placental circulation.

Blood flow in the fetal vein is not affected, but the intervillous flow becomes less due to caffeine intake. The decreased blood flow with the increased concentration of noradrenaline released due to caffeine in the maternal blood can cause harmful risks to the fetus.

Studies have shown that caffeine accumulates in the brain of the fetus. Caffeine concentration in the fetal rat is found to be higher in the brain than in the placenta.

Some studies indicate that exposure of female rats to caffeine (0.04% in drinking water) in Pregnancy produces a greater loss in brain weight than body weight. This point has been indicated in the study by Tanaka et al. (1987) also.

When rats absorb 10-20mg/kg day of caffeine, cerebral concentrations are lower at birth. Modifications are seen in the cerebral concentrations of catecholamines, tyrosine, tryptophan, serotonin, 5-hydroxy indole acetic acid, and cyclic nucleotides in the brain of 1-35 day old rats. These result in behavioral abnormalities like hypoactivity during the development period.

Early caffeine exposure, even if in low doses, tend to produce neurochemical changes causing deficits involving the constructive material like the DNA and RNA and the functional material like the neurotransmitters and ions.

Offspring of female rats exposed to 60-100mg/kg caffeine in their drinking water all through gestation have deficits in learning capacities. Their learning capacity is reduced in a new environment. These affected offspring spend less time playing and touching in an open field.

A study by Yakoubi et al. (2000) indicated that the stimulant effect of caffeine on the locomotor function in mice was attributed to the antagonism of the adenosine A1 and A2A receptors.

Caffeine has a biphasic effect. At low doses, stimulation, and at high doses, depression is seen. The results of the study suggested that the stimulant action took place at the receptor A2A and the depressive action at the A1 (Yakoubi et al., 2000).

Research Methodology

Sixty healthy rats of the Sprague-Dawley variety (Holtzman strain, Holtzman Co., Madison) would be selected for the study. Rats are weighing 240-260gms. Would be kept at standard laboratory conditions and fed a standard diet (Ralston Purina Co., St. Louis, MO). The animals would be mated just after being brought to the laboratory. The period of gestation would be counted from the day spermatozoa appear in the vaginal smears.

Twenty pregnant rats would be fed caffeinated coffee instead of drinking water from day one of gestation. Twenty would be fed decaffeinated coffee only. 20 would be the control group to be fed on drinking water only. No other fluids would be provided for these rats.

All would be fed unrestricted quantities of the same diet. The animals would be kept in separate cages. Body weight gain, fluid intake, and food intake would be measured daily.

The caffeinated and decaffeinated coffees would be prepared fresh daily using a Dripolator. The caffeine content of several samples would be determined on different days to recognize the caffeine content in the caffeinated coffee and decaffeinated one.

(Literature has shown that the caffeine content in caffeinated coffee drunk normally is 0.85mg/ml. while decaffeinated coffee has only 0.03mg/ml.)

Delivery of the rats would be watched out for. About 2-3 hours after delivery, their drink would be replaced by normal water. The newborns would be weighed, and each litter would be left with ten pups each. The extra pups would be randomly selected and killed. The brain and liver weights would be recorded. For the first 21 days of lactation, the other pups would not be separated from the dams. All would be feeding on drinking water and no coffee. The litters would not be disturbed. After 21 days, the pups would be separated and caged in groups of 4 animals, two males and two females, until they were 30 days of age. The cages would be placed in the behavioral test room on the 31st day. The animals would be weighed, and behavior in an open field would be observed.

For the two days of the test, they would be in separate cages and fed a standard laboratory diet.

Results

The results are to be derived and presented to complete the thesis. The parameters for achieving the results would be based on the following data: fluid intake, food intake, maternal weight gain, litter size of the pups, neonatal mortality, postnatal mortality, birth weight of pups, a ratio of liver weight to birth weight of the killed ones and ratio of brain weight to body weight. Gross congenital anomalies would be looked out for. The comparisons of the weights of the dams at different stages of their laboratory life would be studied. The behavior of the pups in the open field regarding locomotion, grooming time, and time spent with a novel object (the table) would be studied. Comparison among the three groups would help me draw appropriate conclusions about the effect of caffeine on pregnant rats and their offspring, and hopefully, the results may be interpreted for human beings. I would be using comparison charts derived from my data.

Conclusion

I hope to make appropriate inferences from the comparison between the three groups of pregnant rats. How much and if the caffeine has interfered with the outcome of pregnancies and the behavior of the offspring would be decided towards the end of the study. Whether it was the caffeine or some other factors which caused the outcome would form part of the discussion.

References

Caffeine During Pregnancy, Web.

Effects on fetuses and newborn children. Web.

Glossier, Daniel S.; Coffee Consumption During Pregnancy: Subsequent behavioral abnormalities, Journal of Nutrition, 1982, Vol. 112, Pgs 829-832.

Neligh, Astrid; Coffee and Caffeine during Pregnancy, Journal of Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 1994. Web.

Tanaka H. et al.,  Effects of Maternal Caffeine Ingestion on the perinatal cerebrum, Biology Neonate, 1987, Vol 51(6), pgs 332-339, Department of Health and Human Studies.

Yakubu, Malika el; The stimulant effects of caffeine on locomotor behaviour of mice are mediated through its blockade of adenosine A2A receptors, British Journal of Pharmacology , 2000, Vol 129 , pgs 1465-1473.

Watkinson, B and Fried, P.A.; Smaller Head Circumference, Low Birth Weight after 300mg.intake in Maternal Caffeine Use Before, During and After Pregnancy and Effects Upon Offspring, Neurobehavioral Toxicology and Teratology, Vol. 7:9-17.

Introduction

Background to the study

The hospitality industry plays a significant role in the economic growth of Norwich UK. The guesthouse sector is one of the sectors which have greatly contributed to the countrys economic growth. This is due to the fact that the sector forms a significant proportion of the countrys Gross Domestic Product (GDP). As a part of the countrys economy, the guesthouse sector supports various economic sectors. One of the industries which have been supported by the guesthouse sector is the tourism industry. Norwich UK has witnessed rampant growth in its tourism industry over the past years. The guesthouse sector plays a significant role in the provision of accommodations to both domestic and foreign tourists. By supporting foreign tourism, the guesthouse sector contributes to an increment in the countrys volume of foreign exchange. In addition, the availability of guesthouses across various locations in Norwich UK stimulates the countrys tourism through the promotion of domestic tourism. This paper is a report on guesthouse sector in Norway.

Aim

The aim of the report is to analyze the role of the Norwich guesthouses sector as a Small and Medium Enterprise (SMEs).

Scope

The report entails a justification of the importance of the guesthouse sector to Norways economy. An analysis of the various ways in which the sector is contributing to the countrys economic growth is analyzed. Growth in guesthouses has enhanced the development of entrepreneurial culture. The various SMEs which have contributed to Norwich guesthouse sectors are considered. These include; microfinance institutions, advertising companies, and growth in agritourism. The extent to which guesthouses have contributed to the economy in Norwich UK is considered. The report also considers the characteristics and dynamics of the guesthouses. The extent to which SMEs in the Norwich guesthouse sector are entrepreneurial is analyzed. The individual and opportunity theory of entrepreneurship is analyzed. Finally, a conclusion and a number of recommendations are made.

Justification of the sectors importance

The guesthouse sector has also contributed towards the establishment of entrepreneurial culture amongst the Norwegians. The ultimate result is that there has been an increment in the countrys rate of economic activity through the creation of new employment opportunities. The guesthouse sector has played a significant role in the growth of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in the country.

Stephen (2005, p. 1) asserts that SMEs form an important platform for the growth of entrepreneurship and hence the countrys economic growth. According to Stephen (2005, p. 2) development of entrepreneurial culture within this sector is a key element towards Norwich UK attaining a healthy economy. In addition, growth in this sector has culminated in the creation of new job opportunities within the country. An increase in the rate of tourism within the country has resulted in an increment in the number of guesthouses which has been established in various locations within Norway. This has resulted in a reduction in the countrys rate of unemployment. Stephen (2005, p. 2) asserts that the creation of new employment opportunities results in an increment in disposable income for the citizens. This means that their purchasing power increased thus improving the economic performance of other sectors. In addition, an increase in personal disposable income results in an improvement in the living standards of the households.

An increase in the rate of tourism in Norwich UK has greatly enhanced rural entrepreneurship through the establishment of various small and medium enterprises. For example, an increase in the number of guesthouses which are distributed in various locations in Norwich UK has greatly supported farm tourism in Norwich. Over the past few years, individuals residing in cities have incorporated touring to the countryside for their holidays and other recreation purposes. This has resulted in the bridging of the gap between the city and the rural residents. In addition, growth in farm tourism has greatly contributed to the countrys economic growth. According to places to stay in Norwich: the broads and the Norfolk countryside (Anon., para3), it is estimated that approximately 10% of all individuals working in farms in Norwich UK have integrated farm tourism. The presence of guesthouses in the rural locations is contributing to the development of entrepreneurial skills since the farms are distantly located from each other. Through domestic farm tourism, individual visitors gain diverse knowledge in relation to farming. This greatly enhances the development of agriculturally supported SMEs. On the other hand, the establishment of guesthouses in rural locations has played a significant role in ensuring a relatively equitable distribution of the countrys economic growth.

Extent of contribution by SMEs to Norwich Guesthouses

SMEs play a significant role in the development of Norwich guesthouses. For example, the Norwich guesthouse sector is greatly supported by small and medium enterprises in the tourist industry such as tours and travel companies. Of these tourists, a large percentage of the guests sought accommodation in various guesthouses. Of all the Nordic countries, UK hosted a large percentage of the guests. According to Alka and Ivana (2009, p. 190), a high percentage of job creation in Norwich guesthouses was realized amongst the women. Guesthouses greatly supported tourists accommodations.

Considering the fact that tourism is characterized by a high level of seasonality, the guesthouses provided an opportunity for women to work in the guesthouses and achieve a high level of work-life flexibility. In addition, the proportion of women who were working in guesthouses as fulltime employees in 2007 was relatively high at 75% compared to men who held 90% (Alka & Ivana, 2009, p. 110).

Amongst the European Union countries, UK had a relatively high level of job opportunities which were created for the women compared to other countries. For example, in 2007, 71% of the new tourist accommodation jobs which were created through establishment of guesthouses were occupied by women.

The development of agritourism in UK is supported by the fact that there are a large number of microfinance institutions which support investment in agricultural activities. These SMEs (microfinance institutions) provide ease of accessing financial capital to potential investors in agriculture. This has greatly contributed to towards the development of agricultural activities in rural areas hence increasing agritourism in UK. Increased demand for agritourism in UK has culminated in an increment in demand for guesthouses in rural areas. This has greatly contributed towards development of guesthouses.

Development in microfinance institutions has also greatly contributed towards establishment of guesthouses. This is due to the fact that potential investors in the sector can be able to access financial capital necessary for the establishment of the guesthouses. The cost of capital charged by the microfinance institutions is relatively low compared to the large financial institution.

Creating effecting market awareness is a key factor to be considered in the success of a guesthouse. Market awareness can be attained through various methods such as promotion and advertisement. The emergence of a large number of small and medium advertisement companies in UK has resulted into increased efficiency in the process of creating awareness of the Norwich guesthouse. This is due to the fact that the SMEs are cheap for the guesthouses considering the fact that their advertisement budget is lean. This has enabled both the domestic and foreign customers to be well acquainted with the nature of the services offered by the Norwich guesthouses. The ultimate result is that there has been an increment in the number of customers seeking accommodations in the guesthouses.

Characteristics of the guesthouses

Most of the guesthouses operate as social enterprises this is due to the fact that they provide guesthouse services to the public. In addition a large percentage of the guesthouses are jointly owned through incorporation of partnership type of business structure. However, some of the guesthouses operate as sole proprietorship type of businesses. In addition, a large percentage of the guesthouses are owned by women. Currently, there is an increase in the number of women entrepreneurs who are venturing into the sector due to its flexible work to work-life balance characteristic.

Extent to which the SMEs in this sector are entrepreneurial

Entrepreneurial skills are very important for the success of SMEs. According to Ronell (2008, p.4), the guesthouses sector of the economy is very challenging due to the increase in the degree of competition within the industry. Firms in Norwich guesthouse sector face intense competition from international firms such as Holiday Inn. In addition, there has been an increment in demand for guesthouse services due to growth in both domestic and foreign tourism. In addition, the tourism industry is characterized by a high rate of dynamism due to changes in tastes and preferences amongst the consumers in relation to services offered by the guesthouses. Ronell (2008, p. 5) asserts that this trend have instigated the need to develop relevant entrepreneurial skills in the operation of firms in this sector.

Guesthouses deal with the provision of personal services to the customers. Therefore, the success of guesthouses depends on certain characteristics of the owner such as his or her personality and credibility. Investors in this sector have integrated a high level of professionalism. The entrepreneurs in the guesthouse sector are committed towards delivering a personal touch to the customers. In addition, the investors are innovative in provision of guesthouse services. Efficiency of innovativeness is attained through the investors being open to environmental changes and being ready to accept new ideas. This has played a key role in ensuring that the guesthouse succeeds in the long-term. For example, considering the fact that guesthouses provide accommodation to tourist industry, integration of service innovation has enabled the services offered by the guesthouses to be in line with the market demands (Ronell, 2008, p. 6). The investors in this sector have also integrated creativity in the operation of the guesthouses. This has ensured that the services offered are unique in the market and a high level of efficiency in solving problems arising from the market. In addition, investors in this sector are faced with risks associated with the business. As a result, the investors are confident and are motivated towards invention and innovation of services to be provided to the customers. The challenging environment of the guesthouses results into development of good managerial skills by the investors. For example, the dynamic nature of the guesthouse sector demands the investor to conduct continuous market analysis. Investors in this sector have integrated the concept of comprehensive market research in their strategic management. This has contributed towards ensuring that the investors are conversant with the market trends. The result has been an increment in the level of efficiency in the decision making process. Through market analysis, the investors are able to scan, identify and exploit the opportunities which are presented in the environment.

To attain a high competitive edge, management of firms in guesthouse sector has incorporated a high level of practicality in the operation of the firm. This is due to the fact that the success of the guesthouses depends on the efficiency of operation of various systems such as the reservation and the stock keeping systems (Ronell, 2008, p. 4).

Comparison of the findings with entrepreneurial theories

Individual opportunity nexus theory

According to Per and Claus (n.d, p. 2), entrepreneurship is composed of two phenomena. These include the individual who are driven by need to enterprise and availability of feasible business opportunities. According to Shane (2003, p.23), opportunities result from various business environments. These environments relate to technological changes, political, legal, social and demographic changes. In addition, the existence of gaps and omissions by other players in a particular industry also contributes towards creation of opportunities.

Demographic and social changes have greatly increased opportunity of growth of the guesthouses. For example, increase in consumer purchasing power has resulted into a change of lifestyle amongst the domestic and foreign consumers. As a result, there has been an increase in the number of consumers who are incorporating tourism in their consumption patterns. In addition, increase in population size poses an opportunity of growth in the guesthouse sector. This is due to the fact that increase in demand results into an increment in demand for services (Shane, 2003, p. 24).Increased growth in technological innovation such as the development in electronic commerce has also contributed towards growth of the guesthouses. This is due to the fact that it has enhanced online booking of reservations in guesthouses. In addition, technological changes have resulted into creation of self employment in various locations in UK through establishment of guesthouses in rural areas. Through scanning of the environment, the individual identifies the opportunity in the environment, makes a decision to exploit the identified opportunity, acquires the necessary resources and organizes on how to exploit the opportunity.

Conclusion

Norwich guesthouse sector plays a significant role in the countrys economic development. This is due to the fact that it stimulates entrepreneurial skills amongst the citizens. This culminates into an increase in the countrys rate of economic growth due to increase in the countrys labor productivity. The success of the guesthouse sector is supported by other SMEs such as agritourism, microfinance institutions and small and medium advertisement companies. The sector has greatly contributed towards enhancement of entrepreneurial culture amongst the citizens due to the challenging nature of the sector.

Recommendation

• SMEs in guesthouse sector should conduct a comprehensive market analysis to determine the trend in the market. This will ensure that they develop strategies aimed at satisfying the customers.
• Due to the dynamic nature of the sector, managements of firms in this sector should ensure that they include a high level of personal touch in the provision of the services.

Reference

Alka, O. & Ivana M. 2009. The significance of tourism as an employment generator of female labor. Zadar: Department of Macroeconomics and Economic Development.

Norwich. 2010. Places to stay in Norwich: the broads and the Norfolk countryside.(On-line). Web.

Per, B & Claus, T. N.D. The individual opportunity nexus: an unfolding polarity. (On-line). Aarhus, Denmark: University of Aarhus. 2010. Web.

Ronell, H. 2008. Effective guesthouse management. (E-book). Cape Town, South Africa: Paarl Printers. Web.

Shane, A. 2003. A general theory of entrepreneurship: the individual-opportunity nexus (E-book). Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing Incorporation. Web.

Stephen, B. 2005. The importance of entrepreneurship to hospitality, leisure. (On-line). Sheffield: Sheffield Hallam University. Web.

Introduction

Trobrianders are the inhabitants of the Trobriand Islands officially known as Kiriwina Islands lying at the eastern coast of new Guinea. They live in traditional settlements and have traditional beliefs about reproduction. These people are completely ignorant of physiological paternity (Lyons 2004); they see no connection between copulation and procreation treating a father of the children simply as the mothers husband. Their families maintain patriarchal relations and a woman is expected to get married before giving birth to a child; a woman with children but without a husband is considered to be an anomalous group. Trobrianders acknowledge social rather than physical fatherhood; they have their own ideas about conception, naming baloma as a real cause of childbirth and providing their own explanations for the physiological changes a woman undergoes during her pregnancy.

Main body

Physical fatherhood is unknown to the Trobrianders, though a father is considered necessary in a social sense. According to the local rules, a woman cannot become a mother until she gets married. Though a womans brother is regarded as her natural protector, she still needs a guardian, a man who would run the household. As stated in Malinowskis work about this tribe, the tribal law requires a family to consist of father, mother, and children and also defines the function of each member of the family. The part the father plays in the family is socially indispensible, but he is believed to bear no relation to procreation. Physical resemblance between a father and a child is explained by the fact that during the womans pregnancy, her husband is always beside her, which results in the childs taking some of his features.

Trobrianders consider baloma to be a real cause of childbirth. Baloma is a controlling spirit which penetrates into the body of a married woman and brings her a child (she cannot bring a child to a virgin girl). A woman can talk to baloma in her dreams and this spirit can also communicate with the living through dreams to give them news of dead kinfolk or to inform of a pregnancy. (Obeyesekere 2002) The spirit is believed to carry the baby either in a special coconut basket or simply in her arms and puts it in the hair of a woman (the head is the place where the blood effuses this is why namely this part of the human body is chosen).

After the spirit brings the baby, the mother experiences certain physiological changes. First she has a headache, nausea, and pain in her belly after which the baby actually comes down into the belly and the woman gets pregnant. When the child is laid by the spirit on the womans head, the blood from the rest of her body rushes there and during the tide of blood after nausea and headache, the baby is brought into the womb. The blood nourishes the body of the baby, which explains the fact that womans menstruation stops when she gets pregnant.

In sum, Trobrianders do have fathers but only socially. The fathers are not believed to take part in conception because the baby is brought by a controlling spirit, baloma, who puts the baby on the womans head; from there, a flood of blood brings the baby to the womb. The father performs the role of a protector of the family and the children may bear physical resemblance with him because he is constantly beside the mother when she is pregnant.

Works Cited

Gananath O 2000, Imagining Karma: Ethical Transformation in Amerindian, Buddhist, and Greek Rebirth, University of California Press.

Lyons, AP 2004, Irregular Connections: a History of Anthropology and Sexuality, U of Nebraska Press.

The history of skateboarding can be traced back to the early 1950s. This activity was brought about by the craze of surfing, whereby youths came up with some wooden skate boxes attached to skate wheels to try surfing on the pavements just for fun (Stock and Powell, 2010). This idea is believed to have come from Californian surfers. The underlying connection between skateboarding and surfing brought a lot of interest in this activity.

It was until 1959 that the first roller skateboard was on sale. Afterward, the wooden box skateboard got a facelift when it was replaced with layers of the wooden plank; to be precise this was in the early 1960s. This saw the period where the popularity of this activity grew overnight, which was characterized by a growing number of companies venturing into making well-designed skateboards (Martin, 2002). Several companies such as Jacks, Hobie, and Makaha ventured and intensely competed for this lucrative skateboarding business.

Famous skateboard suffers by the 1960s were Torger Johnson, Danny Berber, and Woody Woodward. By that time skating was very simple; unlike today that skateboarding is full of fun and adventure, their mode of skateboarding was different from what it is today (Brooke, 2008). It was informed of freestyle or downhill. Then came the year 1965 when the popularity of skateboarding went down the drain. This was attributed to the fact that safety experts questioned the safety of skating activities urging parents not to buy skateboards and skating companies to stop selling. In this period, the once considered popular fun-filled event lost taste and value.

Moreover, many companies closed down and skateboards were no longer in the vicinity. Those who enjoyed the fun had to make the boards by themselves at home. However, the skating event was resurrected by one Frank Nasworthy in the year 1972, when he invented urethane skateboard wheels. The polyurethane technology was an idea of a firm called Cadillac Wheels. This period is considered to be the revolutionary era for skating. The invention of wheels brought back the lost interest and vigor into skateboarding. Perhaps the urethane wheel must be similar to the skateboard wheels used today, in the sense that they provided effective speed, traction, and ability to change maneuvers.

The enormous growth in the skating activity was experienced in the 1970s. This was characterized by the construction of several skate parks, adoption of vertical skating, aerial, the invert and the Ollie in skateboarding, ranking of professional skaters, and finally the width of the skateboard was increased to nine inches from six inches which increased stability on vertical surfaces(Martin, 2002). It is in this period of the 1970s that the world witnessed the first skateboarding sporting event in Del Mar California. The 1980s is the period when skateboarding fully transformed into a sporting event that is witnessed nowadays.

It is the same period that people changed their notion of skateboarding being a fun event to serious activity. This attitude boosted the growth and development of this sport. At one point teams were introduced in this sport, of course, big names such as Tony Alva and Jay Adams were identified with skateboarding. From time to time skater-owned companies have been in a position to invent new skateboards. It has been a revolutionary period, whereby walls, handrails, and streets turned into skate parks (Brooke, 2008). New tricks have been introduced into skating. It is also the era in which street skating stars such as Mark Gonzales, Natas Kaupas, and Mike Vallely came to be known.

This period of the 1990s and 2000s skateboarding has met a lot of changes, irrespective of the rebel it has previously received from critics. Most had developed a feeling that skating is dangerous, perhaps because of frequent accidents faced by skaters. Despite all these challenges, skating activities have received a lot of media coverage especially from ESPN (Brooke, 2008). The media is using skateboarding events for marketing purposes.

Without forgetting, the corporate world is now engaged with skating events through sponsorships for promotional services. Skating has ended up to be a well-paying sporting activity, with an approximated income of $1000 to $10000 a month. This also has been one of the contributory factors toward skateboarding. Skating is gaining popularity every day, considering issues such as ongoing discussion to engage skateboarding into Olympics events.

Skateboarding stands as one of the sporting events with better growth prospects compared to other sports (Martin, 2002). Proper control and management of skateboarding is also an important opportunity. In the very recent past, skating groups have been coming together to ensure that this sport grows and develops with time. Example of these bodies includes International Association of Skateboarding Companies (IASC) and World Cup Skateboarding.

This sport has been a source of livelihood to some skaters which forms an opportunity in this activity, whereby individuals earn income from skating (Stock and Powell, 2010). Finally, the discussions about the inclusion of skateboarding in the Olympics also provide another essential opportunity.

References

Brooke, M. (2008). The Concrete Wave .Campbell: Paw Prints.

Martin, M. (2002). Skateboarding History. Minnesota: Capstone Press.

Stock, D and Powell, B. (2010). Skateboarding Step-By-Step. New York: Rosen Publishing Group.

The target population includes young (18-30 years) and older adults (55 years and older). Young adults, individuals between 18 to 30 years of age, require endurance and muscle size training. Endurance is recommended because it is at this age, it is important for an individual to build up muscle mass and bone density, as they are crucial for staying active later in the old on and preventing osteoporosis (Chang, et al., 2015). On the other hand, strength training is essential for every individual; however, after 55 years, it becomes more crucial. It stops being about flat abs and biceps and more of maintaining a strong and healthy body, which is less susceptible to injuries. This is because older adults tend to have reduced muscle strength due to the loss of muscle mass (Chang et al., 2015). Therefore, muscle strength training is important as it helps build up muscle mass and bone density and lowers the risk of chronic diseases such as back pain.

Reference

Chang, W. D., Lin, H. Y., & Lai, P. T. (2015). Core strength training for patients with chronic low back pain. Journal of physical therapy science, 27(3), 619-622. Web.