Category: Family

Introduction

Shelter is considered one of the most basic human needs. As far back as can be archeologically traced, human beings and their predecessors have sought to improve the structures they inhabit. A mark of development in the human race can be indicated by the increased complexity in living structures over time (Price, 2010).

The architecture of buildings is tied up to all other aspects of living at any given time in human history, be they social, economical or environmentally related. The type of structures made were and still are determined by the availability of building materials, the level of development of building tools, the climatic conditions, and the economic resources available to the builder.

Architecture in ancient Mesopotamia and how it tied up with economics/trade, agriculture and family life

Ancient Mesopotamia, which is present day Iraq, is one of the earlier civilizations. The region thrived because of agricultural practices carried out between the Rivers Euphrates and Tigris. Mesopotamia literally means land between two rivers. The Mesopotamian civilization had all the marks of a typical civilization in its architecture. Their cities had the assortment of buildings ranging from temples, palaces to private residential houses (Price, 2010).

Excavations done have revealed the remains of the temples built in the place that was originally known as Uruk. Other temple buildings have been found in the Diyala River Valley that belonged to the Early Dynasty. In Nippur, there have been excavated temples from the Third Dynasty, and in Ugarit there have been excavated the remains of temples from the Bronze Age.

The inhabitants of ancient Mesopotamia made use of materials available in their immediate environment to build their houses. It was the Mesopotamians who discovered the use of the wheel. This contraption which went a long to ease labor had a major impact on different aspects of Mesopotamian life, not least among them, her architecture. Since bulk materials could now be moved from place to place with no difficulty, it meant that larger structures could be put up where before this would have been impossible (Matthews, 2003).

The walls of buildings were of brick mud, and the doors of wood. Like modern residential housing, residential houses in ancient Mesopotamia had one large room that would be a termed a living room today. From this, there were several smaller adjacent rooms that served the purpose of sleeping and cooking.

It is apparent that each family constructed their own housing as the general planning, style and size varied greatly within large areas of human settlements (Dow, 2005).

Mesopotamia was a monarchy, and they built lavish palaces for their kings. The earliest known palaces are to be found at the site of the Diyala River excavation at Khafajah and Tell Asmar. The palaces were a conglomeration of buildings that held the actual residence of the royal household, the stores, workshops, and beautiful courtyards famous for their gardens (Pollock, 1999).

Mesopotamian architecture is very rich in depicting the lifestyles of the age and time. Walls, especially those in royal residences were carved out with illustrations of the lives of the monarchs: their acts of bravery in war, or scenes from their day to day life. These inscriptions and carvings have been invaluable to archaeologists in reconstructing and understanding the way of life in Mesopotamia (Pollock, 1999).

As has been noted, Mesopotamia was a hub for agriculture. They grew a variety of crops under irrigation such as apples, grapes, and barley. Agriculture became the basis of the Mesopotamian economy (Price, 2010).

Architecture in Blombos Cave (South Africa) in relation to economics, agriculture and way of life

In comparison the Mesopotamian civilization was far more advanced as compared to the way of living style of the inhabitants of Blombos Cave. The latter were hunters and gatherers; they had not developed the domestication of animals and crops, or advanced in the construction of structures.

This can be attributed to the contrast in the level of technology available to both groups. The Blombos Cave inhabitants had rustic ochre and flaked silcrete tools which were used for the most basic functions like cutting (Grine, Henshilwood & Sealy, 2000).

On the other hand, the Mesopotamian civilization was much more advanced. They had developed the wheel which eased the bulk transportation of materials from one place to another, and facilitated the construction of buildings. They also had brick making skills, and their tools were effective enough to cut down trees to be sawed into doors (Matthews, 2003)..

Another difference is that while the Mesopotamians stayed in the same place since they grew their own crops and kept animals, the inhabitants of Blombos Cave on the other hand were pastoralists, as can be seen from studying the artifacts and fossils at the excavated site. This is because the inhabitants of Blombos Cave, being hunters, had to follow the wild animals as they migrated with the seasons (Grine, Henshilwood & Sealy, 2000).

This is reflected in the type of housing. Though one of the factors that contributed to the inhabitants of Blombos Cave not building their own living structures was their primitive tools, another was the migratory nature of their existence. If shelters were built, they had to be of the kind that could easily be dismantled and salvaged (Grine, Henshilwood & Sealy, 2000).

The importance of economics/trade, domestication of plants/animals and family life to archeological study

A start of any civilization is when people settle in one place and strive to improve to their ways of living (Price, 2010). Though the settling may be planned, improving ways of living happens at times by conscious effort, and at times the discoveries are made purely by accident.

However, the fact that people settle is fundamental for a civilization to arise (Price, 2010). The settlement of people between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris led to the growth of Mesopotamia. It is in this place that the settlers experimented with, and domesticated plants for their own use. Once a source of nourishment was established, the settlers could then divert their energies into other areas, like how to improve their food supply by ensuring that they could grow their crops even during the dry season.

The importance of economics/trade, agriculture and family life to archeological study arises from the fact that the concepts are interrelated, and dependent to actions that occurred in the immediate past. One action leads to another, and it is through this chain reaction that communities develop and grow.

Settlements domesticate animals and crop, the settlement grows and trade and economy are established. From this, there arises a need for a system to regulate trade, hence a government. It is like a ripple effect, and it is only when the different aspects are studied together in their entity does one get to appreciate the nature of seemingly minute historical occurrences (Price, 2010).

How economics/trade, domestication of plants/animals and family life changed over time, and how this is reflected in architecture.

As has already been mentioned, the architecture of any epoch in history was influenced by the lifestyle, materials available in the immediate environment and climate. When looking at the evidence from the two archeological sites in question here, this comes out very clearly. Architecture evolved to keep up with human development. Unlike the Blombos Cave inhabitants, Mesopotamians had started on the practice of crop growing and keeping of domestic animals.

They applied irrigation to achieve this. Because they stayed in the same place longer, they built more elaborate houses. The settlement which they made grew larger. In the process of domesticating crops and animals, economies emerged when there was surplus harvest, and trade of items took place (Dow, 2005).

Again, as a result of staying in the same place for long periods of time, there were established stronger norms and regulations that would govern the behavior of people towards their family, and neighbors. There were more elaborate rituals to mark the rites of passage in a human beings life such as the hunting and gathering existence of Blombos Cave inhabitants would not have allowed.

Deaths were marked with funerals and burial rites; the Mesopotamians buried their dead in family graves beneath their houses constructions of shrines to the deceased, and prayers for the transition of the soul into the unknown realm (Price, 2010).

Because with fixed settlements people tended to get together more often, this called for the construction of structures to accommodate these occasions. Hence temples, arenas and social halls were built. In Mesopotamia, polytheism was the order of the day; there was a god for every occasion (Price, 2010).

Architecture in the present day and age, and how it ties up to the concept of humanness

By surface comparison, modern day architecture in scale and complexity makes Mesopotamian and Blombos Cave look rudimentary; while todays fifty thousand capacity stadiums and hundred-storied skyscrapers relegate ancient Mesopotamia to a childs sandcastle, there are subtle similarities between the two that cannot be overlooked.

The first and most obvious is the designated purpose of buildings. The primary reasons why buildings have been put up in human history is for shelter; to keep out the ravages of weather elements, intruders, and to secure personal property. This has not changed from the time man lived in caves, or to the ancient times, and it remains true even in the present day.

Another reason why buildings are put up is because they are a meeting place for different groups with different agendas. This is true of religious meeting places, political arenas, and social arenas. The Mesopotamians had their temples (Ziggurats), palaces and sports arenas; in modern times there are churches, mosques, houses of parliament, gymnasiums and stadiums (Matthews, 2003).

Another role that has been played by buildings which has not been transformed much over thousands of years is the role of a house in defining a family. In residential houses, families tended to, and still tend to stay together. The size of the family might vary, where at times it is just a nuclear family or at other times a whole clan of relatives. Those related most closely by blood are expected to share a home. This basic characteristic had remained the same over the years (Price, 2010).

Conclusion

In a way, buildings are one of the truest testament to humanness in archaeology; they reflect the fact though the way of living changes with the adaptations made by people to suite their epoch, there are some basic human traits and needs that hold constant. Class and wealth still determine the quality of housing one gets.

Superior housing still symbolizes material success and raises one social standing. There are buildings that remain communal such as places of worship, schools, and entertainment venues. Climate to some extent, still determines the kind of structures that people will put up.

The architectural structures put by the Mesopotamians embodied their way of life. Because they were ruled by monarchs, they built up great palaces, because they were a religious people, they put up temples in which they could carry out their rituals of worship.

For the inhabitants of Blombos Cave, though they did not build the cave itself, they made their mark on it by storing their treasures there, such as the recovered engraved ochre and their flaked silcrete tools (Grine, Henshilwood & Sealy, 2000).

Architecture captures the spirit of the period in which a people live. More importantly for archeologists, buildings and structures which weather the ravages of time remain a constant treasure in demystifying the secrets of pasts that on any other account may have been lost forever.

Thus, times may change, the materials and methods of putting up buildings may differ, but the essence of building, the foundation of structures people construct remains pretty much the same in the present day as it was in Blombos Cave and ancient Mesopotamia.

Reference List

Dow, S. C. (2005), Axioms and Babylonian thought: a reply, Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, 3, 385-391.

Grine, F.E., Henshilwood, C.S. & Sealy, J.C. (2000). Human remains from Blombos Cave, South Africa: (19971998 excavations). Journal of Human Evolution, 37: 755765.

Matthews, R: (2003). The archaeology of Mesopotamia: Theories and approaches, London: Cambridge University Press.

Pollock, S (1999). Ancient Mesopotamia: the Eden that never was. London: Cambridge University Press.

Price, D., T (2010). Images of the Past (6^th ed), New York: McGraw Hill

Article #1

Bringing Culture Back Home: Aging, Ethnicity and Family Support, Jay Sokolovsky

The author conducts a literature review on the capability of the ethnic community to take care of its aging community. He aims to test the hypothesis that the ethnic community is more than able to take care of its elderly sufficiently. His reviews of the studies that have been conducted by other anthropologists indicate otherwise. In the Hispanic community, the culture was one of close family interaction and profound family loyalty. It has been perceived that the

Hispanic elderly receive the highest level of emotional family support. Sokolovsky highlights studies that have shown the levels of obligation and an expectation of kin support was declining in the Hispanic society. The elderly were not turning to family for assistance preferring to suffer in silence. The research by the author shows the limitations of the informal structures in dealing with the elderly. He proposes that the voluntary agencies should stop putting so much pressure on families to take care of their elderly kin.

Article #2

Age of Wisdom: Elderly Black Women in Family and Church, Jane W. Peterson

The author sought to understand fully the role of elderly black women in the family and church. Relevant literature appreciated the role of black as wise women in the community. They helped in rearing the grandchildren and gave great advice to the adults. She participates in great decision making.

She is the organizer of the family reunions and the custodian of the family history. The author conducted her own research and spent time with an elderly woman called Lottie. Her experiences reinforced the findings of other studies on the role and importance of elderly black women.

The author spent time in the Refugee Church of God in Christ where she saw the elderly black woman regarded as highly. They are referred as mothers and deemed to be wise. This is due to their experiences in child birth and rearing, illness, death and other challenges in life. This shows the overwhelming support they will get in the family and church due to their age.

Article #3

The Social and Cultural Context of Adaptive Aging by Southeast Asian Elders, Barbara W. K. Yee

The author over a period of twenty years has conducted mental health workshops. He examines the cultural transformation of the Southeast Asians in America over time from the perspective of the elderly generation. He researches on the coping and adaptive strategies used by the elderly Asians to the different culture in their current resident country.

He highlights his experiences with four elderly Asians in the article. The results showed there were cases of positive and negative adaptation. In America, the elderly advice is not treasured as the younger generation is embracing a whole new culture. These Asians were rescued from their countries by the families so they are totally dependent on their families for financial support.

They have lost their high status in terms of providing for their families and inheritance. The elderly who lived far from the family, by themselves had a tougher time adjusting to their new life. Yet in houses with teenagers there were high levels of intergenerational conflicts on culture. In some families there have been suicides, deaths and even murders in the elderly generation. Those who have successfully adapted had to learn English, compromise and adapt to the new cultures.

Article #4

The Dynamics of Ethnic Identity and Bereavement among Older Widowers, Mark R. Luborsky and Robert L. Rubinstein

The authors studied the impact the ethnicity of an elderly individual assisted him or her to deal with bereavement. They found that the ethnic identity and practices in different cultures such as in the Irish, Jewish and Italian communities greatly assisted them to deal positively with the loss of a spouse in old age. It assisted them to adapt to life after the great loss.

The researchers found certain themes in adaptive and non-adaptive or destructive behavior in elderly that could assist the psychotherapists deal with the mourning elderly. They found out that culture was powerful. It connected the people biologically as they sought to know their family lineage (Luborsky, Rubinstein, 1997, p 305). Culture shaped their belief system giving them an ethnic identity. The strong link to culture and ethnicity assisted the aged to cope with life after the loss of a loved one.

Article #5

Social Support Systems of Rural Older Women: A Comparison of the United States and Denmark, Dena Shenk and Kitter Christiansen

The authors sought to research on the perception of the use of formal services by elderly people in the rural areas. Case studies on elderly conducted in Minnesota and Denmark revealed that the Danish people viewed the use of formal services favorably. They saw that in choosing the formal services they could use, it gave them independence and decision making power. The Americans however viewed informal services negatively.

Formal services are perceived to be used when the individuals informal network of family, friends and relatives have failed to support the elderly adequately. The elderly therefore tend to turn to the informal network first. They see the use of formal services as the loss of independence. The Danish links however with the formal service providers however were not as close or strong as the American links, for those who sought for formal services.

Article #6

An Organization for the Elderly, by the Elderly: A Senior Center in the United States, Yohko Tsuji

The author sought to investigate how elderly people in the Lake District Senior Centre dealt with the culture. In America the elderly find themselves in a cultural dilemma since the dominant American cultural value are based on the pillars of independence, productivity and strength. The centre has gone against the societal norms that the elderly should be disengaged or isolated. The centre has shown otherwise, the day to day running of activities is carried out by the elderliness.

The board of directors and other committees that is involved in decision making is also mostly composed of the elderly. The elderly also self-finance themselves as a third of the budget is financed by the elders. During the day, there are workshops, seminars, group meetings of a recreational and educational nature. The elderly have a system of social network, exchange and support. They have learnt to assimilate the American culture in their everyday lives.

Article #7

History, Community Context and the Perception of Old Age in a Rural Irish Town, Jeanette Dickerson-Putman

The author interviewed several people in Clifden and Blessington, Ireland to hear their perception of old age. The respondents viewed old age as the signal or signs of declining health and the lack of the ability to continue contributing to the society in terms of work due to frailty. The social life of the individual starts declining and even dies. Soon, the aged need a great support network in order to make it in life. The respondents noted that in old age, the people had a certain level of material security.

The government gave the old people good pension and other benefits. If the elderly did not have access to money, they would have a difficult old age. In terms of support, the family did not play a central role in taking care of the aged rather it was the close friends and confidants that took physical care of the individual. If the aged experience the loss of their spouses or had strained relationships with their children, they would receive very little emotional support.

The Irish respondents noted that in old age, one experienced contentment, peace, rest and a relaxed mind. However, at the old age, a downside was that there were individuals who experienced high levels of loneliness and bitterness. The project showed what the people considered as successful and unsuccessful aging.

Article #8

Uncle Ed, Super Runner and the Fry Cook: Old Men on the Street, Jay Sokolovsky and Carl Cohen

The authors conducted a study in the New York, the Bowery, on the survival and experiences of the aging men in the streets. The society focuses on the plight of the homeless mainly in the winter however in spring, it stops being hot news. The homeless on the streets are still there and going through various hardships.

They found out that the hardships of living in the streets had the greatest impact on the old men who were more than 50 years and above. These were men who had lived on the streets for years, some even decades. They conducted case studies on three elderly homeless Their fieldwork results showed that despite the poverty experienced by the men on the streets they shared food, cash and cigarettes.

They also shared tips on how to survive on the streets. The friendship developed on the street served as a survival tactic. The old homeless people took to constant drinking to deal with the trauma of homelessness that brings desperation and hopelessness. They will continue drinking even if it endangers their health.

Article #9

One Thousand Points of Blight: Old, Female and Homeless in New York City, Jay Sokolovsky

There was a study conducted by the National Institute of Mental Health on the experiences of homeless women on the streets of America. The author participated in the study and highlights a session he had with an elderly woman in her sixties in a womens shelter located in the U.S Army armory. The elderly American male is able to handle the public shelters better than the female due to their experiences in jail, military and boarding houses.

The elderly female experiences a cultural and psychological trauma as she tries to adjust to the shelter environment. The conditions are rough as it is an environment where the toughest and abrasive survive. They have exhausted their kin resources. There is a perception that the number of homeless women has been decreasing however it is not true. The count has been decreasing since they shun the big shelters preferring the streets, small charity shelters and drop in shelters. The absolute count has been increasing.

Article #10

Between Humans and Ghosts: The Decrepit Elderly in a Polynesian Society, Judith C. Barker

The author carries out research on the treatment that was given to elderly people in the Polynesian society. In the society, the old people were perceived to be mediators of the people between the world and the next world. They were regarded as being spiritually higher and they assumed the roles of witchdoctors and priests. The number of the elderly people was not high since the people used to die around the age of 35.

The people become mature and died quickly as they were living in very harsh environments. However, at that time they still existed non-supportive attitudes towards the people who had reached the critical area of their life. Since, they were no longer able to contribute to the society or look after themselves, they were perceived to be useless or already dead. There were reports that some of them were treated brutally.

They were seen to be a burden in the society. There was neglect of the old people who were physically impaired and it was acceptable in the society. There was a discrepancy in the status of older people in good health and the ones who were too weak to take care of themselves. Families did not call the doctors or nurses to treat the infected sores and painful joints of frail elders.

Article #11

Dementia in Cultural Context: Development and Decline of a Caregiver Support Group in a Latin Population, J. Neil Henderson

The article highlights the phases that a caregiver support group went through in a Latin population. The author came up with a plan for the implementation of an Alzheimer disease support group for ethnic communities after observing that the existing groups in place had a predominantly white population.

The group was started in 1986. The group received funding from the government and the caregivers went through a thorough training on dementia and related diseases. Six months later, the aged in Latino community had joined the group and there was an aggressive system of follow up and support by the caregivers.

The group however died after two years. They could not support themselves after the project funding was cut off. The project showed the challenges faced by ethnic support groups since the project died due to lack of funds, overburdened care givers, the volunteer nature of the group and the lack of support by private and public organizations.

Article #12

Aging, Disability and Ethnicity: An African-American Womans Story, Monika Deppen-Wood, Mark Luborsky, and Jessica Scheer

The author interviewed an African-American woman to find out how she was dealing with old age and disability and whether her ethnicity aided her in any way in dealing with the challenges in old age. She relied heavily on her family members to take care of her and provide for her financially which they did. From her ethnicity she drew great courage to overcome the challenges in life. The transition stage in accepting her role as a nourisher, advisor and disciplinarian to her children was okay. She is regarded highly by her family members and considered a wise woman.

Article #13

Long-Term Care and the Disabled Elderly in Urban China, Charlotte Ikels

The author conducted a research in China on the perception of dementia in old people and the long-term care of these individuals. He noted that in some Asian cultures such as India, Japan and Polynesia, dementia did not have an alarming impact on the family members.

The individual is seen as though he is cutting links with the natural world and connecting with the supernatural world. In the western world, however, the emphasis of the medical aspects of the disease made people not appreciate the way the cultural and social factors would mediate the impact of the disease.

In China, they had a culture of promoting the taking care of the elderly by the family. The children and relatives were relied on to take care of their parents and grandparents. The elderly parents lived close to the childrens residence. Overall the elders who were disabled were well taken care in the Chinese culture.

Article #14

Liminality in an American Nursing Home: The Endless Transition, Renee Rose Shield

The author conducted a study in an American nursing home to investigate the experiences of the old people in the nursing homes. She observed the residents and the staff as they conducted their daily activities. She had the perception that the elderly in the nursing home were a close knit community sharing jokes and stories on the events in their lives.

They would tell each other of the engagements, weddings and birth experiences in their life. However she discovered it was not so. Life in the nursing home was marked by loneliness and dependencies. It was a solitary transition for the elderly.

The community did not support and rally around them unlike other stages in life. The residents were provided with the best medical and nursing care however they still faced the last days of their lives with inadequate emotional support, isolated from the world. She found that the society was unwilling to involve the elderly in opportunities to contribute to society, treating them like children. The society, fearful of death, is quick to transfer the care of the elderly to an institution instead of providing the warmth and support of a community.

Article #15

Understanding Life Backwards, Joel Savishinsky

The author interviewed individuals who had just retired in order to find out how they were adjusting to life after retirement. He found out that the identities that individuals had before retirement affected their attitudes to retirement and their self esteem.

These identities affected the rate at which the individual would adjust to life after retirement. Even though the study revealed that there was no great impact of gender differences on the rate of adjustment, the individuals identity and social background influenced the adjustment rate differently in the men and women.

Conclusion

On review of the mentioned articles, it is clear there is a great need in most societies to come up with better structures both in the informal and formal structures to take care of the elderly. The old people people play an important role as Jane Peterson in her article. They represent the wise in the community who are able to advise the younger generations on handling the bittersweet experiences in life. It is not good for family members to neglect taking care of them.

The aged experience high levels of loneliness, depression and isolation as they try to adjust to this new phase in their life where they have to be taken care of and depend financially on their children. The society should especially follow up on the homeless who are elderly. They have exhausted their kin resources and in their age cannot handle the harsh difficulties of life in the streets.

References

Luborsky, M & Rubinstein, R(1997) The Dynamics of Ethnic Identity and Bereavement among Older Widowers. In The Cultural Context of Aging: Worldwide Perspectives, edited by Jay Solovosky. 2^nd Edition. Westport, Corn: Bergin and Garvey.

Introduction

In order to understand the nature of crime and the concept of social disorganization, one needs to perform a comprehensive analysis of the phenomenon and study it from different angles. The Chicago School of Criminology suggests viewing the notion under scrutiny from the ecological perspective, thus placing emphasis on the societal issues and the related factors (Hardyns & Pauwels, 2017). Implying that the setting in which an individual lives defines their propensity toward crime, the Chicago Theory (CTC) posits that the strategy for mitigating crime should be based on changing the social perspective and conditions in which people are raised.

Main body

Based on the tents of sociological theoretical frameworks, the Chicago School Theory suggests that interactions within a family define ones behavior and set of values to a large extent, causing one to develop specific patterns of interpersonal relationships. The term anomie, which serves to define the the shared perception that society is breaking down, is linked to the CTC directly (Teymoori, Bastian, & Jetten, 2017, p. 1011). The concept emerged with the creation of the differential association theory, which has ostensibly been inspired by CTC (Barmaki, 2016). In this context, the impact of family relations on an individual and their propensity toward crime needs to be considered. Representing a microcommunity, the family hierarchy, and interactions within it shape ones perception of right and wrong, affecting ones choice between the legal and illegal. Thus, CTC has led to the assessment of interpersonal relationships, stereotypes, and the impact thereof on the probability of a person committing a crime.

Studies show that the influence that family has on an individual is quite large in terms of the development of criminal tendencies. For instance, the study by Lilly, Cullen, and Ball (2018) points to the prevalence of challenging family backgrounds in criminals. In addition, a study by Hardyns and Pauwels (2017) addressing the problem of juvenile crime and increase in its rates proves that the impact of family members on ones decision to undertake criminal activities is quite vast. According to Barmaki (2019), the observed situation occurs due to the misrepresentation of basic values, as well as moral and ethical norms, in early childhood and the development of the respective issues in adult decision-making. Overall, there is a clear correlation between the family background of an individual and the behaviors that they are likely to develop in the future. While the observed discovery does imply that people from poor socioeconomic backgrounds may be under a greater threat for developing criminal tendencies, it also suggests that the level of criminal activities can be reduced by encouraging a change in community values, behaviors, and philosophy.

Conclusion

CTC allowed expanding the analysis of crime and creating new approaches toward its management by shifting the discussion to the area of sociology. By considering the societal issues that may cause a rise in crime within disadvantaged areas, CTC has provided the platform for introducing a healthier perspective into the specified communities. Moreover, the application of the CTC in the context of managing the levels of crime will imply introducing young people from disadvantaged family backgrounds to the set of values and opportunities that will allow them to diverge from the path of crime. Allowing for a sophisticated approach toward managing relationships within society and addressing them at the family level, the Chicago School theory has created premises for ensuring safety and healthy relationships within communities.

References

1. Barmaki, R. (2016). On the origin of the concept of deviant subculture in criminology: W.I. Thomas and the Chicago School of Sociology. Deviant Behavior, 37(7), 795-810. doi:10.1080/01639625.2016.1145023
2. Barmaki, R. (2019). On the origin of labeling theory in criminology: Frank Tannenbaum and the Chicago School of Sociology. Deviant Behavior, 40(2), 256-271. doi:10.1080/01639625.2017.1420491
3. Hardyns, W., & Pauwels, L. J. (2017). The Chicago school and criminology. In The Wiley handbook of the history and philosophy of criminology (pp. 123-139). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4. Lilly, J. R., Cullen, F. T., & Ball, R. A. (2018). Criminological theory: Context and consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
5. Teymoori, A., Bastian, B., & Jetten, J. (2017). Towards a psychological analysis of anomie. Political Psychology, 38(6), 1009-1023. doi:10.1111/pops.12377

The Tuareg community from West Africa has interesting family life aspects. The books, A Nomad in Two Worlds by Kemil and Fallon and Tuareg Nation by Worley present themes such as nomadism and pastoralism. A Nomad in Two Worlds is a story about the memories of Ahmed and his travelling experiences in both America and Niger (Kemil and Fallon 2013:6). On the other hand, Tuareg Nation reveals fundamental information about the Tuareg family life. Some of the aspects about the Tuareg family life evident in the two books include nomadism, division of labour, and the value of milk. Therefore, what do the aspects of the Tuareg family life entail?

The first aspect of Tuareg family life is nomadism. Tuaregs have no permanent homesteads since they constantly move to different places depending on the seasons. According to Worley (2014:40), the Tuaregs have annual transhumance to Azawakh valley. The Tuaregs undertake the migration during summer to take advantage of the available nutritious grass. In addition, they embrace pastoralism, given that they live in the desert (Kemil and Fallon 2013:3). While in the desert, they ensure that they find pasture for their animals. Therefore, the Tuareg family life is characteristic of nomadism and pastoralism.

The Tuareg family life readily embraces division of labour. Both the adults and youths have their duties to perform. In A Nomad in Two Worlds, Kemil and Fallon (2013:8) narrate an event where Ahmed has the responsibility of caring for the young camels. Ahmed performs the task as a youth at the age of seven years. Taking care of the young animals and preventing them from breastfeeding was the responsibility of the youth (Kemil and Fallon 2013:8). In addition, according to Worley (2014:44-45), whereas the concern of men was ensuring that the livestock was well attended to, the task of the women was to extract milk from the animals.

The last aspect of the Tuareg family life is the valuation and dependency on milk as a main source of food. According to Worley (2014:36), the Tuaregs success in pastoral nomadism relies on milk production. The Tuaregs have a proverb about milk, which suggests that milk is the sustainer of water and water is the soul of life. Even though water is a problem in the desert, the Tuaregs consider milk as the most essential need. Therefore, they are capable of surviving on milk alone when there is no food and water (Worley 2014:37).

In conclusion, the Tuareg family life is simple, and the simplicity is restricted to the Tuaregs, as they are the ones who understand the desert life best. For instance, they can survive on milk alone whenever there is a lack of food or water. A normal person without experience of desert life cannot manage to live without food and water. People consider food and water as the most fundamental inputs for survival. Therefore, the aspects make the Tuareg family life unique.

Works Cited

Kemil, Ahmed and Fallon Mary. A Nomad in Two Worlds. (Kindle Edition) Turmaline LLC, 2013. Print.

Worley, Barbara. Tuareg Nation. Unpublished Manuscript, 2014. Print.

Introduction

Social and economic welfare is closely connected with the welfare of families. The changes that occurred to the family structures, therefore, significantly affect behavioral patterns that most people tend to apply to. In the United Kingdom, there is a growing tendency to cohabitate because fewer people wish to be engaged in marriage obligations. As a result, more and more children are likely to live in unmarried or incomplete families with single parents.

Children, therefore, often face theories psychological, emotional, and social problems while acting in various social and cultural contexts. Because adults are reluctant to take responsibility for their lives and children, there are growing patterns of remaining single or being engaged in a civil marriage. All these shifts have a potent impact on the social policies, as well as outlooks on living arrangement standards, sexual morality, and family relations.

While tracing historical and cultural contexts of family structure changing patterns, as well as analyzing family types transitions, it is possible to define which competing needs individuals have within the newly presented families, as well as highlight the most successful intervention strategies that could assist in eliminating anti-social behavioral patterns and neglected attitude to complete family morale.

Historical and Social Contexts of Family Structures in Relation to Social Policy

The current trends in family changes are not promising. The social and historical background of changing patterns sufficiently explains the reasons for the contemporary family crisis in the United Kingdom. Specific emphasis should be placed on greater patterns of single mothers working and taking care of their child, no-children parents with two incomes, and two unmarried couples having a child. These are the most widespread family structures that have appeared because of social changes.

According to Irwin (2000), &changes in general patterns of standard living arrangements are themselves part of the substance of changing familial and friendship based relations (p. 1). Despite the changing patterns of family structures over time, the popularity of the nuclear family remains. With regard to family and childrens perception, it is possible to define external social factors that affect families, as well as define specific demographic information in relation to family changes.

The concept of family is an ambiguous one because the term is used in various senses and meanings and it is often understood differently by people. Therefore, marriage and family are also viewed as the most fundamental social institutions in almost all societies. Nevertheless, the debates are centered on the concept of a two-parent type as the ideal one, as well as on other patterns that are stereotypically classified as incomplete and inappropriate because of certain cultural and historical contexts within which these prejudices are placed.

In this respect, Squire (2009) argues that in modern Britain &politicians have a traditional view of the family and fail to acknowledge the increasing disparity between family realities and family ideology (pp. 59-60). Despite the existing concepts and perceptions, the sociological perspective dictates that families are considered the basic units of society aimed at protecting young children. They also provide financial and emotional support for individuals because of a number of core functions that families perform.

In other words, the family encourages people to perform one more important roles in society that contribute to their public performances. These roles, therefore, have a significant meaning to society. From a historical perspective, various societies and movements have different angles and views on family construction. For instance, the supporters of the functionalist perspective believe that social roles influence cultural shaping of society.

The family is defined as a tool for fulfilling the needs of society, as well as for integrating harmony between various social institutions. In particular, specific distinction is presented between female and male roles in terms of domestic labour (Squire 2009). The biological differences have become the main platform for sexual division in the most efficient society. As a result, man had long been considered as the main economic and family provider whereas womens role is confined to household responsibilities and childcare.

With the advent of feminist trends, the view on family structure has significantly changed. Their rejection of patriarchy was justified by the assumption that division of labour by biological differences was not reasonable. Therefore, the misconception with gender roles prevented women from fulfilling themselves in other social roles (Squire 2009). Moreover, the traditional distribution of family and gender roles made it difficult for women to achieve their occupational goals.

Regarding the above-presented shifts and movements influencing the concept of family and marriage, the role of cultural and historical heritage are pivotal in shaping this concept. Specifically, Irwin (2009) states, &ethnic groups arise partly from different historical and cultural heritages as these interact with structural factors particular to the UK (p. 8). Additionally, material and financial requirements, as well as household arrangements, were the key elements in distinguishing between male and female visions on family over various historical periods.

Analysis of Family Types and Transitions That Families Undergo at Any Given Time

The changes in family types have constantly been changing in the course of time. The patterns and outlooks on marriage, cohabitation, and family were at the core of the shifting processes. However, such aspects as income level, household arrangement are considered invariable points of family transitions.

Specifically, the research conducted by Irwin indicated the explicit alterations in family compositions. Within the period from1960s to 1990s, it is possible to trace the changes and identify future trends in family structures. Specifically, the researcher has noted that there is a significant growth in non-partnering, as well as independent living among individuals under the pension age. Such trends may be explained by later ages of cohabitation and marriage.

Despite the presence of all types of families in the UK, including nuclear, extended, mono-gender, symmetrical, reconstructed, cohabitation, and lone-parent families, the latter is the dominant type (Squire 2009; OGrady 2009). As a result, children looked after by single mothers are more likely to suffer from poverty, low self-esteem, and other psychological problems.

The family transitions in the United Kingdom have also touched on the levels of fertility. In this respect, Garrett (2001) investigates the nature of changes in family fertility in nineteenths and twenties centuries, as well as the factors that have a direct influence on it. Specifically, the despite the conventional wisdom, fertility decline did not progress&from high to medium to low desired family size in a uniform fashion (Garrett 2001, p. 322).

However, there is still growing tendencies among young adults in postponing having children. Restricting themselves to smaller patterns of family size is predetermined by the growing ideals and conceptions, as well as shaped attitudes to family constructions. Based on experience and examples of high family sizes, young people are still concerned with financial and materials issues. In addition, there is also a significant connection between womens paid employment and fertility (Garrett 2001).

The attitude of young adults to family also changes and, as a result, women seeking to fulfil themselves in professional sphere are less likely to have children in their 20s.

It should be stressed that the patterns of family types and transition differ significantly in the course of time in the United Kingdom. However, the higher ratios of adults are less likely to adhere to the traditional patterns of family structure, such as nuclear families and extended families. In addition, views on marriage change as well because of specific social and cultural circumstances.

Evaluating Competing Needs of Individuals within the Family System

With regard to the established family patterns and deviations from the traditional outlook on marriage, parenting, and child upbringing, there is a growing necessity to consider the competing needs of the individuals within these family contexts. Children development largely depends on the relations between members of their family.

They often follow the habits and behaviour practiced in the family (Crawford and Walker 2010). Therefore, children from incomplete or lone-parents families often have problems with creating their own families. Human development, therefore, the main variable that is affected by family transitions. It has long been recognized that the family is considered an individuals most significant social unit that provides social and cultural contexts within which health problems occur and are resolved and which health intervention problems are introduced. In most cases, traditional practices and beliefs enhance family cohesion.

Some values and norms are much more significant than others in regard of the individuals competing needs. These demands often identify the familys prioritized values (Andrews and Boyle 2008, p. 266). The point is that the families that adhere to traditional cultural values often neglect those expressed by individuals. Therefore, people are often limited to the demands by the family as a building block, but not as a set of members with unique needs.

Family dictates unique patterns of behaviour and attitude to social norms and, therefore, they largely influence individuals perception of outside community. Being dependent on family norms, people often face challenges while striving to achieve their personal goals. At the same time, some norms established in the family are largely affected by individuals. Within this context, attitudes, roles, and expectations can be outlived in case of discontinuity of individuals from families.

Moreover, Cowan (2003) argues, &positive development steps taken by one family member often impact other family members to the extent that previous interactive patterns involving that individual are no longer possible (p. 301). From the very childhood, individuals shape their own perceptions of morality, ideology, and ethics with regard to the commonly created and formulated norms and attitudes.

Because of certain external factors, most children have difficulties in their attempts to adjust to the social environment. Poverty, unemployment, and other social problem often affect families and, as a result, it generates problems at psychological and emotional levels. Most children suffering from financial problems are under moral and psychological pressure as well. In this respect, these childrens competing needs are not confined to those pursued by complete traditional families. The government should also consider this layer of children.

Evaluating Different Types of Interventions Available to Families in Need of Support in Their Caring Role

Families and children in England face significant challenges in terms of financial sustainability and social welfare, despite the existing legislature and regulations, such as the Children Act 1989 (Department of Health 2000, p.17). Form these perspectives, there are inevitable sophisticated issues and relations that affect children within family context and communities in which they live. Under the current circumstances, the government should integrate effective interventions frameworks and programs aimed at improving the quality of services that are responsible for sustaining families through modernization of the public sector.

The frameworks should also seek to promote cooperation between statutory institutions through creating fruitful partnerships with private and voluntary agencies (Department of Health 2000). Promoting and sustaining the wellbeing of children will certainly ensure desirable outcomes necessary for integration at local and national levels, including collaborative approach of the government to service delivery and policy making.

Importantly, early and immediate interventions are indispensible to assist children and families facing problems, either inside the family, or by outside factors influencing parents capacity to handle the problem of financial crisis and abuse (Department of Health 2000). Good joint and cooperative practices at a local level are essentials to achieve the success at early intervention strategies.

The necessity of introducing family intervention projects becomes central for eliminating anti-social behaviour strategy. The government, therefore, decides to provide children from chaotic families with support to exterminate immoral attitudes and unethical behaviour. All the interventions should be sufficiently supported by agencies and councils that will encourage families to reprogram their attitudes to inter-relations within their home settings and outside them (Gregg 2010).

However, because some of the family intervention programs fail to approach family problems in an efficient, it is necessary to introduce advanced measures. In particular, a multi-dimensional strategy should consider several aspects (Gregg 2010). To begin with, the government should conduct an in-depth analysis of individuals perception on family, particularly among the youth populations.

Second, it is imperative to evaluate childrens awareness of the importance of family values and norms, as well as traditional outlooks on family relations (Gregg 2010). Finally, such family related concepts as marriage, partnership, parents obligations, and children upbringing should be taken in the deepest consideration to re-assess various beliefs and norms held by the population with regard to the age, social status, and material income.

With regard to the prevalence of untraditional views on family that are confined to cohabitation and civil marriage, the ratio of lone-parent families have been increased (Gregg 2010). In this respect, the governmental reforms should focus on supporting single fathers and mothers to eliminate poverty and encourage children from incomplete families to shape the correct vision on family relations as the major social institutions (OGrady 2009).

Incomplete families are in urgent need of moral support as well and, therefore, there should be childcare professionals who would be specifically oriented on developing communication with the members of lone-parent families where communication skills are at an extremely low level. In addition, the practices implemented by other countries, such as France should also be regarded to advance the level of social welfare and strike the balance between children from full-fledged families and those from incomplete families.

In particular, the French government have introduced policies directed at reconciling family relations with womens employment (BBC News n. d.). In particular, the governmental authorities have introduced funding for lone-parent families with more than three children for the purpose of encouraging working mother to have more children.

Apart from advancements and contribution to the family as a whole, the government should also pay closer attention to the welfare of children. In particular, it should be concerned more with regulating and developing individual rights of children to avoid the cases of maltreatment, neglect, and abuse (Kappella et al. 2010). Childs developments needs, therefore, are vital because they will influence childrens future perception and awareness of creating a family. The concept of family should be more related to the traditional norms because it ensures social welfare of society.

Conclusion

Family is the core of the social structure and, therefore, this idea should be regarded in close relation with the community welfare. Historical and cultural contexts developed in families are also essential because they influence the changing patterns of marriage, cohabitation, and attitude to family creations. Unfortunately, there is a growing tendency in shaping incomplete families, including non-child families, lone-parent families, and unmarried couples having children.

The individuals raised within context often have serious problems while building their professional career and performing social roles. In the course of human development, the attitude to family, particular to gender roles performed in family have been changing from functionalist division of labour, to feminine views on the role of women in family. As a result of such changes, serious interventions should be introduced to improve the situation in the United Kingdom. Specific attention should be given to childcare and individual psychological and social development.

Reference List

Andrews, MM, and Boyle, JS 2008, Transcultural Concepts in Nursing Care. Lippincott William & Wilkins, US.

BBC News n. d. France. Web.

Cowan, PA 1993, Family, Self, and Society: Toward a New Agenda for Family Research, Routledge, London.

Crawford, K & Walker, J 2010, Social Work and Human Development. Learning Matters, UK.

Department of Health 2000, Framework for the Assessment of Children and Their Families, The Stationery Office, London.

Garrett, E 2001, Changing Family Size in England and Wales: Place, Class, and Demography, 1981-1911. Cambridge University Press, UK.

Gregg, D 2010, Family Intervention Projects: a Classic Case of Policy-Based Evidence, Centre for Crime and Justice Studies, England.

Irwin, S 2000, Patterns of Change in Family and Household Structure and Resourcing: An Overview. Workshop Two: Statistics and Theories for Understanding Social Change. pp. 1-14.

Kappella, O, Rille-Pfeiffer, C, Rupp, M, and Schneider, NF 2010, Family Diversity: Collection of the 3^rd European Congress of Family Science, Barbara Budrich, Germany.

OGrady, S 2009, Lone Parent Policy Reform Successful, The Independent. Web.

Squire, C 2009, The Social Context of Birth, Radcliffe Publishing, Oxford.

Introduction

To understand the impact of traditional gender roles in the community and various family systems, it is necessary to consider them in various populations. These roles play a significant role in defining the relationship among various family members. In my opinion, I suggest that the key decisions are made depending on the roles one plays in the family. Cultures describe the different roles men and women have to play in a family.

In the Hispanic culture, marianismo and machismo are the terms used to determine the various behavioral expectations among the family members. In addition, there is an emphasis that is placed on the community and family setups that define the expectations couples have and the decision-making. At this point, the importance of societal and cultural norms is reinforced.

Gender Roles

The idealized and traditional cultural expectations of behavior among men and women in the Hispanic culture are referred to as machismo and marianismo. Machismo is the feeling of being dominant, independent, and vigorous, while marianismo is being obedient, weak, and chaste. Some researchers argue that these gender roles are outdated and do not apply anymore. Other researchers suggest that they have an impact on the interaction and behavior among the couples in Hispanic culture (Aronson and Kimmel 173).

Conclusion

I believe that men in the community have and should continue taking the lead role in providing for the family. The female job descriptions should be left to remain the same. The argument for this is that the duties a man does have no substantial effect on his hormonal balances. However, it has a tremendous impact on women.

In modern society, women have stepped up to do mens jobs. They are taking up leadership positions in families, thus affecting the mans ego. This phenomenon explains the reason why family breakups have become common in our society (Hooks 65).

Works Cited

Aronson, Amy and Michael, Kimmel. The Gendered Society Reader. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2010. Print.

Hooks, Bell. Feminism is for Everybody: Passionate Politics. Brooklyn, New York: South End Press, 2000. Print.

Introduction

The work of a modern medical staff involves continuous education. To form a reliable conclusion on a particular issue, it is crucial to be informed of current advanced research. Reading and understanding scientific literature requires the special skills that any modern health worker needs. Reading medical literature is the basis of this process. Sometimes it is necessary to face completely opposite results of research on one topic. The misinterpretation of scientific data can lead to severe problems for medical practice and patients. For this reason, a critical and analytical approach to scientific literature is the necessity of todays reality.

It is essential to get the skill of critical analysis of articles and researches during the study at an educational institute, as, in the future, it will be beneficial. However, students often encounter certain difficulties as there are many different methods and tools for critique analysis. At the same time, among them, it is necessary to choose the one that will be most suitable for qualitative or quantitative research depending on the studied topic. To solve this problem, Caldwell, Henshaw, and Taylor (2005) developed a universal guide to critically review the research on medical subjects. This approach will be used to analyze the chosen article  A phenomenological study of families with drug-using children living in the society (Ritanti et al., 2017). It is a qualitative study of the families experience with children who were addicted to drugs. Qualitative studies are usually difficult to assess due to their diversity because it is not clear whether it is possible to apply a single requirement to all works of this type (Mays and Pope, 2020). By this, it is crucial to evaluate how successful Caldwells instrument is in coming to life.

Research Critique

At first, expectations from the researchs title should correspond to its content. From the title, one can immediately distinguish the studied audience  families with drug-using children. In fact, the study focuses on parents, not including other family members. A phenomenological study part suggests what side of the problem the authors focus on. Following Vagle (2018), phenomenological research involves exploring and understanding the studied audience experience concerning a specific issue. This aspect corresponds to the content of the text, as this is the central focus of the article. The titles last part  living in the society moves attention to another point  the problem, its consequences, and solutions are revealed more in a social context than medical or any other. The text does discuss this aspect but in a small amount. Thus, the title largely corresponds to the content, but not entirely.

The authors of the text are Tantut Susanto, WiwinWiarsih, Ritanti, ImaliaDewiAsih. At the end of the article, they presented notes on the role of everyone in conducting the study and drawing up the results. The search for these researchers with the help of Google Scholar allowed determining that two of them  WiwinWiarsih and Tantut Susanto are very actively engaged in researches and writing of works. When searching for the other two authors, only the analyzed study was found. However, it should be mentioned that the authors live and work in Indonesia and other their works may be presented in Indonesian and not displayed online. Thus, the cooperation of these authors should indicate the credibility of the study.

The next important component for analysis is the abstract of the article. According to Harris (2019), the abstract allows readers to know if the work should be read further. It should contain components such as theoretical framework (ideas and sources), methods, some concepts on necessity, and conclusions (Day, 2018). Ritanti et al. (2017) included all the necessary elements in their abstract. The purpose, methods, and materials, results, and conclusions are summarised here. In this way, they created the motivation to read their research.

The aim and rationale of the article should tell us what problem the authors are going to solve in their study. It will allow readers to understand the motivation of the authors in choosing the topic of work and the reasons that led them to take up this work (Blakeslee and Fleischer, 2019). Moreover, readers can find out what served as the main argument in the initiation of this scientific work. Meanwhile, it helps to understand what modern approaches to the problem are described in the article. The authors should note what issues remain unclear in the current context, what issues and constraints existed and continue to exist. It is not necessary to consider the preliminary generalization of the problem as an extra job. Only in this way can the reader explain the need to perform a given clinical scientific study and only then understand it.

In A phenomenological study of families with drug-using children living in the society, the authors aim to explore specific experiences endured. In the introduction, they focus more on the usual description of drug-related problems. It makes clear to readers that the topic is not solved and remains relevant, but the answer to what specific tasks the article should solve is not formulated. Moreover, it has been stated several times in the text that any action was carried out in accordance with research objectives (Ritanti et al., 2017). However, only one objective, mentioned earlier, has been formulated and identified. Thus, the authors do not provide sufficient justification for conducting their study other than describing the problem. It may affect the incorrect interpretation of its results by other researchers.

A literature review is a section of a study where the authors introduce readers to the context of their study and its theoretical framework (Whittaker and Williamson, 2019). The literature review must consider the works corresponding to the topic of research and justify the literature choice (Hart, 2018). Following the universal rule, authors are not encouraged to use writing that was released more than five years before presenting their research (Bryman, Foster, and Clark, 2019). The only exception is works that explain what prompted the authors to provide the study.

Article by Ritanti et al. (2017) does not contain a separate section on literature. Many references to sources are included in the introduction. They do not take the form of a review or analysis but merely provide some facts. Of the twenty-nine sources listed in the references, only eleven are not outdated. Throughout the text, the citation of the secondary source is used, and original works are mostly written in the late twentieth century. The importance of the sources used cannot be underestimated because it significantly affects the quality of the work and can present the author as a good or bad professional.

The text of the article does not articulate the ethical problems, which the study concerns. It mentions that the work was ethically approved by the university in which the authors conducted the study. The main ethical components of qualitative research are anonymity, respect for the individual, not condemnation (Hennink, Hutter, and Bailey, 2020). After studying the text carefully, it can be concluded that these requirements were met. It can be understood by learning the methods of conducting interviews used by the authors. They took into account all factors that could harm or insult the samples.

The identification of research methods suggests how authors plan to answer the questions they raise. When choosing methods of conducting research, it is necessary to indicate both the methods that were used and to argue their choice, to indicate why these methods will be better suited to achieve the goal. In this aspect, the authors took work more seriously. The methods section describes the sequence of the study and justifies the selection of the methods used. It should enable the reviewer and the reader to assess the correctness of this choice, the reliability, and the results reasoning.

The authors clearly define the background then justify their choice of study design. They also provide additional arguments clarifying this choice. The main concepts of the research can be considered as a system of views on the research, the basic ideas, goals, and the ways of its conduction (Boettke, Stein, and Storr, 2018). In this article, they are not clearly defined, and readers can only guess about the majority of them. Among all necessary and essential elements, only the methodology and design of the study are formulated and justified.

The context of the study should tell readers of the article how the study is connected with different spheres of human life or science (OCathain, 2018). The authors describe in more detail the general background of the problem  the negative impact of drugs on peoples health or morality, crime related to their traffic. They also suggest that public health nurses can help families with drug-abuse children to cope with the problem. However, this aspect is not described in detail and is mentioned only a couple of times. Thus, because the research goals are not enough formulated, it is not clear what the authors want to achieve with their study.

From the title of the article, it is possible to build assumptions about who the participants of the study are. They were selected using the snowballing sampling technique when already found participants, invite other right people. (Flick, 2018). It should be highlighted that the authors indicated the criteria by which the participants were selected very clearly. However, there is no justification for the fact that only parents were chosen for the survey, without the participation of children.

According to the only stated goal formulated in the article, the researchers chose the ideal method to work with the sample and data collection  conducting interviews and analyzing reports. The interview method is a popular means of obtaining primary sociological information, as evidenced by its active use in empirical sociological research (Lee, 2018). The rationale for using the interview method is a desire to understand the world from the interviewed persons view, to reveal the meaning of his/her experience before giving a scientific explanation (King, Horrocks, and Brooks, 2018). Since this was the purpose of the interview research, this method is applicable to understanding the experience. It is possible to audit it by conducting a similar study or conducting the same interview as part of a broader analysis.

The article also sets out a sequence of steps for analyzing the obtained data, which makes it possible to conclude the reliability of this analysis. Ritanti et al. (2017) applied descriptive statistics as a data analysis method. Decrypting and interpreting transcripts of a conversation always requires a lot of attention and time (Townsend and Loudoun, 2018). However, it helped to identify both common and distinct characteristics of events and emotions experienced by families with child drug abuse. The results are formulated clearly and understandably; the main aspects of parents experience are identified by the categories/themes. This section is crucial because it briefly illustrates the logical connection between received data previously shown in a table, and the tasks of the researchers (Weaver-Hightower, 2018). The results presented in this form help researchers to look at problems from different sides and assess its complexity.

Ritanti et al. (2017) devoted a large part of the article to a discussion of the results. Much of this section was devoted to confirming the findings of other studies, that were published more than a decade ago. This fact indicates that results are transferable and can draw many parallels between similar studies. However, since task had been formulated, such discussion diminished the importance of the article and cannot be considered as comprehensive. Moreover, the discussion does not give any original ideas, concepts, and reflection  only general ones.

The article must end with a well-constructed conclusion summarising the main points of the research. The conclusion of the finished research work is one of the main sections of the work done in the process of its creation (Shields, 2019). The authors should not make any new arguments in conclusion. This section should summarise the essence of the whole study: the theses of the theoretical part, the solving all the tasks, and achievement of the papers purpose and the solution of the tasks, as well as future perspectives of the researches on this topic (Tusting et al., 2019). The conclusions formulated in the article give a short description of the results obtained by the authors. Such a conclusion cannot be seen as comprehensive, as several important features are lacking. First, the extent to which the authors have completed the task was not assessed. Secondly, the directions of future research are too brief and generic.

Conclusion

Using Caldwells (2005) critical instrument, the article A phenomenological study of families with drug-using children living in the society written by are Tantut Susanto, Wiwin Wiarsih, Ritanti, Imalia Dewi Asih was analysed. The main aspects of the article that describe the qualitative research were analysed and critically evaluated. Basing on the results, it is possible to claim that the research critique framework proposed by Caldwell is a useful and convenient tool. The analysed article does not meet many of the requirements of a good study. The main reasons for mistrust in the paper are the vague formulations of the goals, main concepts, and discussion of the results. Moreover, there was no review of the literature, and the works used are out-dated. Because of these shortcomings, it becomes unclear what the article is written for and what its achievements are. Other researchers may find it useless when searching for the information they need.

Reference List

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Bryman, A., Foster, L. and Clark, T. (2019) How to do your social research project or dissertation. Glasgow: Oxford University Press.

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Day, T. (2018) Success in academic writing. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

Flick, U. (2018) An introduction to qualitative research. London: Sage Publications Limited.

Harris, D. (2019) Literature review and research design: a guide to effective research practice. London: Taylor & Francis.

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Hennink, M., Hutter, I., and Bailey, A. (2020). Qualitative research methods. London: SAGE Publications Limited.

King, N., Horrocks, C., and Brooks, J. (2018) Interviews in qualitative research. London: SAGE Publications Limited.

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Mays, N. and Pope, C. (2020) Quality in qualitative research, Qualitative research in health care, pp.211-233.

OCathain, A. (2018) A practical guide to using qualitative research with randomized controlled trials. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Ritantiet al. (2017) A phenomenological study of families with drug-using children living in the society, International Journal of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 4(3), pp.100-107.

Shields, M. (2019) Research methodology and statistical methods. London: EDTECH.

Townsend, K. and Loudoun, R. (2018) Just on goat: the importance of interpretation in qualitative data analysis, in Saunders M. N. K. and Townsend K. (eds.) How to keep your research project on track: insights from when things go wrong. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, Incorporated, pp.113-121.

Tusting, K., et al. (2019) Academics writing: the dynamics of knowledge creation. London: Taylor & Francis.

Vagle, M. D. (2018) Crafting Phenomenological Research. London: Routledge.

Weaver-Hightower, M. B. (2018). How to write qualitative research. London: Taylor & Francis.

Whittaker, A. and Williamson, G. R. (2019). Succeeding in literature reviews and research project plans for nursing students. London: SAGE Publications.

Introduction

One of the things that make human beings interesting and their lives captivating is the disparities they exhibit when they interact with each other. While many people would attribute this to education, I believe that culture, religion and parenting play a more pivotal role in making us who we are. Personally, I have witnessed first-hand the influence these factors have on the life of an individual. I come from a relatively large nuclear family consisting of both my parents and eight siblings.

I have three brothers and five sisters. My extended family is also large. I have four aunts and seven uncles. They too have families and some of their children (my cousins) have children of their own. My grandfather from my father side is still alive and my mothers father died a while ago. However, my grandmothers from both sides are still alive and enjoying life at 90 years old. Up-to-date, their age and strength still perplexes me.

My family

In regard to my family, my parents are educated and travel a lot throughout the year. Since my childhood, they have been a great success story to me and my siblings. Despite this, they have tried their level best to ensure that we develop and nurture good moral, get a good education and value others around us.

For example, my father always told us that we should never wait for change, but rather, we should make change happen. In my opinion, a life well lived is characterized by an individuals ability to make a lasting difference in the lives of others. This has been my lifelong philosophy, and it has guided my lifes decisions regarding how I communicate, behave and interact with other people.

I would gladly say that my siblings and I are well accomplished. Two of my brothers work as policemen in Saudi Arabia, and the other one is studying with me here in the United States. One of my sisters is also in the United States and three of my younger sisters are still in middle school back at home. The other sister is married and has children.

My family and I are firm believers of Islam and that is why we are Muslims. We pray five times a day and preach a message of peace whenever possible. These traits have been developed over the generations and were passed to us by our parents. Due to the difficulties our parents and their parents faced at the hands of oppressive leaders and radical ideologies, they have always dedicated their efforts in ensuring that we get a better life than they did.

According to my father, not all Muslims are terrorists. He often tells us that Islamic terrorists are as a result of misguided beliefs propagated by ignorant leaders. As a result, my father ensured that we got quality education and right religious teachings as we grew up. He insisted that education was the only effective tool to defeat ignorance.

This assertion is true and the fact that me and some of my siblings are in the United States proves that my father would like us to lead an informed life free of negative influence. My stay in America has been fruitful in this regard. I am pursuing a degree in mechanical engineering at Wilkes University here in the United States. Throughout my stay here, I have learnt to respect the ideas of others and their cultures. In turn, I have seen that people too can respect my culture if given the opportunity to learn more about what we believe in.

My familys Background

My grandfather tells the most interesting stories. I once asked him why he despised the west so much. He gazed at the skies for a while and then started to narrate his story. It was early in the 1930s and he had just married my grandmother. According to him, the marriage ritual was not as relaxed as it is in todays society, he had to prove that he was capable of providing for his wife and this meant that he had to meet all the requirements expected of him before tabling his proposal.

He did very well and after marrying his wife, he left his original home and established his own home elsewhere. Things were going so well until people started complaining of cattle rustlers that came from a neighboring town. In order to ensure security, the government had deployed some militias to curb this escalating security problem.

However, the response was not as smooth as expected. Many innocent people including my grandfather were harassed and threatened by these militia men to a point where an insurgence occurred. My grandfather was forced to move leaving behind everything that he owned. This reign of terror left a once peaceful community in a state of turmoil and hate filled valley.

That is when they moved to a new town for a fresh start where my father was born. He attributes the difficulties faced to western influences which seemed to promote violence, greed and corruption.

My family lives in Saudi Arabia. That is where me and my siblings were born and raised. However, my grandparents live in the rural areas of Saudi Arabia and we normally visit them whenever we gather at home for the holidays. My fathers father has a traditional way of looking at things and it would not be surprising if you argue about something that is an accepted norm in todays society.

I remember our last visit soon after the month of Ramadan. I was browsing the internet and after observing me for a while, his curiosity got the best of him and he called me over. He wanted to know what I was doing and my attempts to explain the internet to him failed miserably.

After a while, he stated that western ideologies and technologies are costing the Muslim community heavily. To better elaborate this sentiment, he stated that the new communication channels (mobile phones, computers and media devices) are being used by western societies to influence the Arabic community into following the western ways, which are perverse and poisonous to the Islamic culture.

He went ahead to state that women are supposed to stay at home and cook, bear children and cater for their families. I tried to explain to him that the world was changing and that the contribution of each person despite his/her race, culture and gender was pivotal to the survival of humanity. In as much as he agreed with me, it was clear that he had some reservations.

On the other hand, both my grandparents were more open-minded. Despite the fact that they are in their 90s, they still have a lot of energy and enthusiasm. I can remember that during our childhood years, they enjoyed telling us stories of their pasts and the origin of man and his culture.

They taught us valuable lessons on respect, trust and taking responsibility. Considering their age and outlook on life, I decided that it was prudent that I gather information on our familys lineage for this assignment from them. The information gathered was refined by my parents and uncles who willingly gave me the information that I required.

Method of data collection

Information collected for this assignment was compiled from interviews I conducted. My grandmothers from both sides were interviewed, two of my uncles and both my parents also helped in gathering the information. My grand mothers were interviewed at their homes during a visit. My parents and their selected siblings provided me with the information via e-mail.

These participants were the most appropriate since they could explain my family tree more vividly and accurately. However, there were some limitations during the data collection process. Firstly, my grandmothers could not explain their lineage clearly. Some of the facts were forgotten and some were not clearly explained.

This is attributed to their age and the fact that their generation was not educated so there were no clear records to back their facts. Secondly, my parents and uncles were very secretive about their childhood and their family lineage. They only managed to send me the basics. In addition, they took too much time to respond to the e-mails that I had sent.

Conclusion

This paper has given a historical account of my family lineage. The history of my family has been outlined and the method used to gather information regarding this assignment given. The challenges faced during data collection have also been identified.

Current Issues in Marriage, Family, and Religion

History teaches us that societies rise, blossom, and collapse, which is only logical, because change is the essential process of all existence. We as human beings, members of the American society and the global community, are generally aware when a change takes place and are more or less able to intuitively reason where this change might lead. Still, when the changes concern the matter as fundamental as the family, the future (as perceived by each individual) becomes quite vague.

The issue of family and religion, as illustrated by the corresponding module and the readings, therefore, is the subject of immediate interest. The analysis of religion as a social construct can reveal the ways it is intertwined with all other constructs  the instances the given society has agreed to treat in some particular way. Family, at that, comes in the form of yet another social construction, and a powerful one since it lies at the baseline of the society, with practically all social processes revolving around family as a unit.

The changes that are happening in how the institution of family is perceived directly affect the institute of religion (Edgell 642). However, there is a resonating discrepancy between the current familial tendencies and the teachings of the Catholic and many other churches, a gap that the Church will probably have a hard time closing.

The Church has done and is doing its best to promote familial stability and values such as fidelity, fertility, and overall healthy relationships between the members. Albeit the authoritative way in which religion promotes these values, the interrelation of these two institutions is, probably, the driving force behind the society. Religion encourages what it supposes to be healthy marriage, and family socializes the children in a fashion that subsumes religiosity and cultivates the socially agreeable understanding of all the basic cultural concepts like race, gender, and class (Edgell 636). The symbiotic relationships of the two, however, have been shattered by the emergence of the new familial values on the aftermath of the gender equality struggle and specifically the Obergefell v. Hodges ruling.

The Good, Bad, and Ugly (Religions Social Aspects)

The discrepancy between the changes undergone by the institute of family and the teachings of most religions has to do with the role of religion historically. As justly noted in the module concerning the good, the bad, and the ugly aspects of the development of religion and society throughout the history, religion has done much to promote positive social values, including the familial.

The good aspect of religion, therefore, is understandable: it has played a crucial role in shaping the construct of family as we know it and has implicitly promoted the societys self-reproduction. The impact of religion on gender issues, however, has been largely destructive: the assigned gender roles left no place for diversity and allowed for violence against those who are perceived as deviant from the religious standpoint.

Considering that religion has played a signature role in shaping the government (another social construct), the initial position of the latter on the marriage rights of LGBTQ+ couples is more or less predictable (Berg par. 1). Still, the involvement of religion into the change of familial paradigm is quite controversial.

The changing picture of the family institute seems to require certain flexibility on behalf of religion and its actors. On the other hand, one can reason that to force wedding vendors to provide services for LGBTQ+ couples would be to deprive them of their religious liberty if they have objections on religious grounds (Marist Poll n.pag.). Besides, the deprivation of religious rights and the government-induced coercion to abstain from certain religious involvement could cause exacerbation of individual well-being of the said vendors and other objectors (Mochon, Norton, and Ariely 2).

Religion and Family in the Sociology of Religion

On the one hand, taking into account the free market concept related to ideas and religious convictions, this inconsistency of enforcing the human rights and neglecting the religious can present a serious issue to the sociology of religion. On the other hand, ignoring the human rights to maintain religious integrity is certainly not an option. The idea of government-induced enforcement of either is, therefore, highly problematic as it contradicts the very fundamentals of what the Founding Fathers projected the American society should be. Similarly, whether the government leans one way or the other can have a distinct political message that in both instances would act to the disfavor of this particular government.

Religion, Family, and the Future of America

The concepts of family and religion, and the constructs of gender roles shaped partially by religion, have immediate significance to the future of religion in America. Indeed, the controversial situation that has long been on the rise and was to a great extent triggered by Obergefell cannot last long. The state of uncertainty as to whether the human rights should be chosen over the religious or vice versa indicates there is something utterly troubling with this situation. As it was rightly noted, mutual understanding is the key; however, whether and how this understanding will be achieved remains a complicated issue.

Works Cited

Berg, Thomas C. Protecting Same-Sex Families and Religious Dissenters After Obergefell. Religious Freedom Project: Berkley Center for Religion, Peace & World Affairs. Berkley Center for Religion, Peace & World Affairs at Georgetown University. 2015. Web.

Edgell, Penny. Religion and Family. The Oxford Handbook on the Sociology of Religion. Ed. Peter Clarke. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2011. 635-650. Print.

Marist Poll. Tolerance for Religious Rights. Marist Poll. Marist Institute for Public Opinion, 2015. Web.

Mochon, Daniel, Michael I. Norton, and Dan Ariely. Who Benefits from Religion? Social Indicators Research 101.1, 1-15. Web.

The particular features of the peoples life within the definite country depend on the effective and ineffective policies implemented by the Presidents administrations. Thus, everyday life of millions of people depends on the focus chosen by this or that President who is inclined to support the domestic economy or international image of the country.

Furthermore, the effects of the Presidents courses can be different in relation to the life of Americans and immigrants. The members of my family immigrated to the USA from China sixteen years ago. During this period, three American Presidents influenced the life of my family significantly. Thus, a lot of changes in the everyday social life of my family are caused by the definite changes in the courses and policies of Bill Clinton, George Bush, and Barack Obama.

The members of my family decided to migrate into the USA in 1997. This period was advantageous for coming to such an important decision because Bill Clinton supported the positive relations with China and revised the immigration laws.

As a result, the period of Clintons Presidency is closely connected with the realization of Clintons policy goal to improve the partnership and foreign relations with China. The supported partnership was beneficial for the country, and the positive tendencies in the development of cooperation helped my uncles family to immigrate to the USA without significant difficulties.

Being the representative of Democrats, Clinton concentrated not only on the economic and political issues but also on the realization of the social policies advantageous for the majority of population. The focus on the deficit reduction contributed to the decrease of the unemployment level that is why the adult members of my uncles family could find jobs easily.

The associated positive feature was the ability to receive the unpaid leave up to 12 weeks regarding the family concerns according to the Family and Medical Leave Act (Benson). The first years in the USA were rather difficult for the family, and the opportunity to participate in different social programs supported the family significantly. In 2001, the family of my uncle felt comfortable living in the country and hoped for the further stabilization of the economy.

The situation is changed with the beginning of George Bushs Presidency. The terroristic attack of the September 11 influenced all the aspects of the American life. It is a rather controversial point, but the development of the war on terror influenced the development of the social life extremely.

The attitude to immigrants in spite of their status or skin color changed significantly. Discrimination became the result of hidden pursuing immigrants. In spite of the fact my family belongs to the Chinese minority in the USA, the negative effects of discrimination were observed vividly.

The process of recession characterized the economy of the country during the period of Bushs Presidency. The economic state of the uncles family became worse, and unemployment was the social problem which affected the life of my family as a lot of other families in the country. Some positive tendencies were observed when Bush focused on changing the tax policy (Rountree). The first results of the reforms affected the economic state of my family rather positively.

However, the real positive changes in the social and economic status of my family are associated with the Presidency of Barack Obama. The year of 2009 became the successful year for my family, and we focused on all the reforms and improvements connected with the Americans social life. Much attention was paid to the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act known as the Stimulus which was developed to respond to the economic recession in the USA and to overcome the increase in unemployment rates (Klein).

The members of our family participated in the housing program, and the results of the project can be discussed as positive. Moreover, the fact that Obama concentrated on ecological projects also affected my family directly because several members of the family work in this sphere. Nevertheless, the ineffective health care reform did not provide my family with the expected advantages as well as the other population of the country. It is still a problem for my family to cover the health insurance costs.

The effects of policies implemented by three American presidents on the family of Chinese immigrants are significant because any reforms associated with the economic or social life influenced the personal life of the family members significantly.

It is important to note that the most positive conditions for the development and progress are typical for the Presidency of Bill Clinton and Barack Obama when the Presidency of George Bush is closely associated with the period of recession in the economy and social life. The life of each family is based on the political changes in the country because political leaders are inclined to follow different courses and change the aspects of the social and economic life of millions of people.

Works Cited

Benson, Michael. Bill Clinton. USA: Twenty-First Century Books, 2003. Print.

Klein, Edward. The Amateur: Barack Obama in the White House. USA: Regnery Publishing, 2012. Print.

Rountree, Clarke. George W. Bush: A Biography. USA: ABC-CLIO, 2010. Print.