Mass extinction theory attributes the extinction of living organism to collision of extraterrestrial objects such as asteroids with the Earth. The collision results into drastic climatic change due to suspended clouds of dusts that affects radiation from the sun. Drastic and intermittent occurrence of meteors and asteroid resulted to a gradual loss of living organisms during the course of the Earth’s history.
The most credible example giving plausible explanation regarding mass extinction is the dinosaur extinction, which occurred approximately 65 million years ago. Rogers claims that, “…basic experiments have been done, and it seems clear that the iridium came from an extraterrestrial source within the solar system” (25). However, debate concerning dinosaur extinction still rages. The massive impact of extraterrestrial objects did not cause mass extinction of dinosaurs.
The extinction of dinosaur may not have occurred due to drastic impact of meteors and asteroids since the probability of extraterrestrial objects to occur in future is quite negligible. “Astronomers theorized that the Oort cloud of comets could cross the path of our solar system every 26 million years, and would possibly rain comets on our planet for a few million years” (Waldner 19). This prediction has not happened and it seems it will never happen.
Dinosaur basis of mass extinction theory do not give plausible explanation for extraterrestrial bodies since they occurred only once during the period of dinosaurs and there is no possibility of future occurrence. If there was subsequent occurrence of extraterrestrial bodies and concomitant loss of living organism, then this theory would be valid, but since the occurrence is indefinite, extraterrestrial bodies did not cause extinction of dinosaurs.
Selective extinction is another line of evidence that disapproves the dominant theory of dinosaur extinction. If the great impact of extraterrestrial bodies’ collision with Earth resulted into drastic climatic change, then under what mechanism did selective extinction occur? There is no credible explanation of the mechanisms surrounding extinction and survival of organisms.
The theory concentrates on extinction without giving plausible explanation of the survival mechanism of the other organisms. Moreover, extinction studies focus on dinosaur extinction alone and extrapolated findings, and may be, other organism did not undergo mass extinction as claimed.
Joblonski argues that, “lack of understanding of the physiology of dinosaurs makes the issue more complex; if they were endothermic, why did they not survive like birds and mammals? If they were ectothermic, why did small dinosaurs not survive like small reptiles? (205). Hence, the mechanism of survival or extinction remains insufficient in explaining the nature of mass extinction.
In the determination and dating of the occurrence of extraterrestrial bodies, iridium deposits on the rock surface gives substantial evidence. Iridium originates from the solar system and their sedimentation on the rock surfaces signifies the occurrence of the extraterrestrial bodies. However, “a new study has challenged the theory by claiming that those supposed clues are nothing more than fossilized balls of fungus, charcoal, and fecal pellets” (Rogers 34).
The evidence shows that even organic matter that occur naturally on Earth when subjected to cycles of fire can produce iridium, which is a fossil complex. Therefore, fossils records have proved that fungal sediments are ubiquitous and their presence over a long period of history under intermittent fire out brakes transformed them into cretaceous fossils. Therefore, based on the evidence gathered in this research paper, the extinction of dinosaurs did not result from a massive impact event.
Within the past 3 centuries humanity has been responsible for the near extinction of several species such as the blue fin tuna, whales, leopards, cheetahs, tigers, rhinos, elephants and a variety other animals too numerous name due to what can only be described as a systematized butchering of a vast swath of the animal kingdom.
In fact, dozens of animal species at the present can be placed on the endangered species list not out of them being hunted by humans but as a direct result of their local habitats being systematically affected by continued human expansion and the subsequent effect industrial pollutants have had on Earth’s closed off ecosystem.
For example, the Florida Everglades have been decreasing rapidly as a result of the unmitigated consumption of its fresh water system by the nearby cities as well as the fact that the continued construction of apartment buildings has continued to decrease the landmass of the Everglades by almost several dozen hectares a year. Coral reefs have been on the decline as result of higher water temperatures caused by global warming which has in effect robbed thousands of species of their habitats underwater.
Last but not least, the unabated release of fossil fuels into the Earth’s atmosphere has in effect caused a systematic increase in global temperatures which has lead to the melting of the polar ice caps causing a rise in sea levels which has offset the delicate balance of several ecosystems around the world.
Of particular interest is the impact the current trend in global warming has had on species within the Arctic since many of the inhabitants of this vast icy wasteland depend on the ice flows as a means of breeding, escape, hunting, foraging and a vast array of activities which animals in their natural habitat do on a daily basis.
Based on the various pieces of data that has been presented so far, it is evident that any dramatic changes within a particular ecosystem can and often will have an adverse effect on the species living within it (Tucker, 7 – 8).
The Arctic in particular with its vast ice sheets can be considered one of the most vulnerable areas in the world since with the current trend in increasing global temperature ranges especially when taking into consideration the combined effect of both the pollutants in the air as well as the sun entering its “active phase” after nearly a decade of dormancy this means that this upcoming new “phase” in Earth’s environment will definitely cause polar ice cap melting on an unprecedented scale (International Business, 9)
Taking all these factors into consideration the purpose of this paper is determine whether human activity could possibly lead to the extinction of several species within the arctic or if their subsequent population declines are a result of other external factors. Human activity has been shown to adversely affect ecosystems in the past and as such it is likely that it will cause the extinction of numerous species within the arctic if it continues unabated.
Declining Population of Polar Bears
A vast majority of the current polar bear population is on the decline with 8 of the recognized 19 polar bear subpopulations on a decline with only 20,000 to 25,000 thousands bears left in the wild today (Last-Chance Species, 104). While many observers may think that a population base of 20 to 25 thousand individuals may not necessarily equate into categorizing polar bears as being endangered you have to take the following factors into consideration:
1.) The Dodo itself wasn’t initially considered endangered when it was found on the island of Mauritius yet due to the environmental nuances which necessitated its unique evolutionary predisposition towards becoming a flightless bird the result was that when its environment underwent a drastic change (hungry sailors were introduced into the mix) the result was the subsequent extinction of a species since the Dodo was unable to adapt quickly enough to its changing environment.
2.) Polar bears are a species that is uniquely adapted for life in the Arctic, just like the Dodo the polar bear has evolved based on the nuances inherent in its environment however this just means that this species has the same weakness (Cone, 46). Should any subsequent changes occur to the natural habit of polar bears whether in the form of shrinking ice sheets, declining prey populations or continued global warming this could have a disastrous effect on the species since it is ill-suited for any other type of environment (Torr, 4).
When taking into consideration the various accounts elaborating on the impact of global warming on the Arctic and how vast ice shelves and sheets could disappear within the next 50 years this does not bode well for the polar bear population or any population within the Arctic since without these ice masses the polar bear species will in effect become extinct within half a century.
Declining Population of other Arctic Species
First and foremost what must be understood is that a large percentage of the animal species that are in the Arctic at the present aren’t actually native inhabitants but are actually migrant populations that go to the Arctic during particular times of the year (Bohannon, 4) . For example, a variety of whales, seals, caribou, and several bird populations migrate to this area in order to procreate and feast on the abundant resources within the region.
Unfortunately, what should be taken into consideration is the fact that as human interference continues to escalate within the region such as overfishing, oil drilling, population expansion and the effects of global warming this has in effect disrupted the patterns of migration of several of the species within the region which have the possibility for a subsequent cascading effect.
For example, as overfishing reduces the amount of fish stock within the Arctic, seals which are one of the primary prey species of the polar bear would thus begin to migrate into regions that would have more fish available.
This would mean result in the outcome that polar bears would need to travel more in order to get food or the population would shrink as a result of the declining number of seals within the Arctic as well. It must also be noted that other species within the local area will also be similarly affected by changing climates within the area such as caribou and Snowy owls moving more in-land as the ice begins to recede.
Reasons behind Population Decline
Shrinking Environment
When examining the case of the polar bear and other Arctic species the main reason for their decline can be connected to global warming and how this shrinks their natural habitat. Within the past few years there have been news reports of increasing instances of species such as the polar bear and the arctic fox finding their way into various areas where people live such as in the outlying towns of Alaska and Canada.
This is particularly interesting to take note of since polar bear and arctic fox sightings are normally quite rare even in the wild and as such their increased presence near human civilization has been noted as indicative of the fact that something has been impacting their natural environments and causing them to go further in-land.
Scientific investigations into particular behavioral phenomena have turned up rather startling findings involving various polar bear carcasses within the surrounding waters of the Arctic which upon examination showed that they had drowned. This is particularly surprising since polar bears are actually one of the best swimmers of the animal kingdom.
Due to locations where the corpses were found (which were several miles from the nearest ice flow) and how it has been known that polar bears actually have a habit of swimming from ice flow to ice flow in order to catch prey, scientists hypothesize that the corpses found were of polar bears that had simply exhausted themselves swimming since they couldn’t find an ice flow near enough which various scientists conclude is a direct result of increasing temperatures within the Arctic.
Of particular interest to scientists is the fact that as the ice sheets within the Arctic shrink various species that rely on the sheets for protection and for hunting (i.e. seals and various Arctic based avian species) will need to go farther and farther away from shore in order to hunt thus increasing their chances of either exhaustion or being hunted by predators (International Business, 9).
Not only that, as hunting grounds continue to shrink there will certainly be a degree of interspecies competition resulting in a subsequent population decreases as there are less resources to go around.
Fewer prey species
Another factor that should be taken into consideration is the impact warmer weather will have on certain prey species. Various studies have noted that abrupt temperature changes as well as gradual topographic changes within a short period of time actual result in lower reproduction rates since the sudden changes actually interferes with the reproductive cycle of certain species (King, 30-33).
For example, certain species of Arctic krill which feed hundreds of aquatic species within the Arctic are actually sensitive to sudden changes in water temperatures which has actually adversely affected their reproductive cycle causing fewer krill to appear per year.
This has a cascading effect among the other species within the local environment as their main source of food becomes fewer per year. (Wildlife Declines Observed Across Arctic, 4) Not only that, warmer temperatures are actually conducive towards the reproductive cycle of certain species of fish within the Arctic which has actually caused a boom in their population. Unfortunately fish are among one of the largest consumers of krill which as further caused a reduction in the population of the species.
While ordinarily this may seem like an effective alternative to krill for some species (i.e. seals and killer whales) what must be understood is that species such as Blue Whale subsist almost entirely on krill and as such with fewer krill appearing in the waters of the Arctic the population of Blue Whales would of course decrease as a direct result.
Human Activities and their Impact on Species Extinction
All of the problems presented so far can be connected to one incontrovertible fact, that it is human activity that is behind what can only be described as an imbalance within the natural order of the environment. As human civilization continues to expand it brings with it an ever increasing demand for resources such as food, raw materials and space. Not only that, increased levels of industrialization in the form of the ever growing number of factories will be needed as the hunger for consumer goods continues to increase as well.
Unfortunately the end result of such actions is an increased level of strain on the ecosystem of the planet which has manifested itself in various ways. This comes in the form of erratic weather patterns, extended cases of drought or flooding as well as numerous odd climate changes that are unprecedented in the planet’s history.
There have been a variety of reports indicating an increase in the number of typhoons around the world, stronger storms, more cases of tornadoes within America’s Midwest as well as an assortment of climactic shifts which many scientists state is indicative of the impact of humanity’s activities on the planet.
Not only that, the hunger of humanity should not be underestimated, within the past century as the population has increased to seven billion individuals this has strained the ecologies of numerous areas around the world as various industries compete to harvest as much as they can in order to feed the insatiable hunger of the populace.
It is based on this that global warming and overharvesting can be stated as two of the main instruments that humanity has put into effect that are the primary causes of species extinction around the world either through habitat destruction or by merely being farmed into oblivion (Polar Bear Politics, 15).
Global Warming
The global warming phenomena has been traced to the continued release of greenhouse gases by factories, cars, and a variety of other industrial processes that have continued to grow unabated for the past century. Of particular interest is the fact that as these processes continue to expand as a direct result of the yearly human population increase this of course will have a negative impact on the global environment.
These increased temperatures have been shown to create stronger storms, droughts, floods and a variety of bizarre weather phenomena which many scientists have stated has actually lead to distinct changes in the reproductive cycle of certain animal species.
For example, it was seen that the rising water temperatures brought about by global warming have caused the eggs of certain species of fish to stop developing and merely die off. The inherent problem with this is that those eggs are needed in order to properly replenish the species that currently exist within the world’s oceans.
The impact of this on species in the Arctic is no less severe with the Snowy Owl, the Arctic Fox, the Polar Bear, seals and even Blue Whales experiencing delayed or otherwise absent reproductive cycles. With the cascading effects of a habitat wide decline in species this has the potential to wipe out a vast swath of species within not only the Arctic but all over the world as well (Bohannon, 4).
Overharvesting
As of late, a variety of fishing vessels have ventured into the waters near the Arctic in order to fish, this is due to the abundant marine life within the area as well as fewer competition from vessels from other countries. The inherent problem though with commercial fishing fleets is that they have a habit of not knowing when to stop due to the rising demand for fish in global markets.
This has put a subsequent strain on the aquatic populations within the Arctic making it that much more difficult for the species present to replenish themselves adequately. The impact of such a method of overharvesting is obvious, with fewer fish to eat animals such as Arctic seals, Killer Whales, and a variety of other native species that subsist on their consumption have experienced rapid declines in populations as a direct result of unmitigated fishing practices within the local area.
This creates a domino effect wherein species that were already endangered to begin with are now in critical condition since not only are they finding fewer prey species to eat but as a whole their entire food chain has been drastically affected leading to disruption and potential destruction of their habitat.
Extinction of Species within the Arctic
Possibility of Extinction within the next 50 years
One of the more interesting aspects of current concerns related to the possible extinction of polar bears and other arctic species within the next 50 years is that various pundits and critics have stated that it is highly unlikely that such species will become extinct since it all hinges on the polar icecaps melting as a direct result of global warming yet for them global warming is nothing more than a myth or an exaggerated concern.
For example, on the syndicated TV program Penn and Teller “Bullsh*t” it was argued that while it may be true that humanity is capable of influencing the natural environment what it is doing at the present is nowhere near what is necessary to cause the catastrophic events elaborated on by numerous climatologists.
They point out that the Sun itself goes through various phases of dormancy and activity within a decades long cycle and that we are merely entering into a period of increased solar activity hence the fact global temperatures have increased. It must also be noted that on average the Earth’s climate and topography is in a constantly shifting state that changes with or without human interference. For example, the polar icecaps actually used to be nearer to the meridian several thousand years ago as compared to their current location.
This means that as the topography of the Earth and the climate shifts there would of course be changes to the various habitats of animal species. Is this indicative of the fact that the Arctic may disappear, probably, however this doesn’t mean that humanity was directly responsible for such changes to occur. In fact it might also be possible that the climate might shift again resulting in a restoration of the icecaps to their previous state.
Necessity of Intervention
On the other hand you have to take the following facts into consideration:
There is obviously some form of human impact on the global environment since subsequent increases in industrialization have results in greater amounts of greenhouse gases being released into the atmosphere which have been proven to cause increased temperatures (Stokstad, 2).
Overharvesting of various fish and aquatic specimens in the waters around the Arctic can lead to an imbalance in the food chain resulting in subsequent population declines.
It has been determined that there is a definite decline in nearly 4,000 species within the Arctic and as such is indicative of something affecting their growth rates.
When taking all these factors into consideration it becomes obvious that human activity has indeed affected the species within the Arctic for the worse and as such necessitates the need for intervention in order to ensure their continued survival (Stokstad, 2).
Conclusion
Based on the various arguments and data snippets presented it can be stated that it is the result of human activity in the form of global warming and overharvesting that has lead to the decline of numerous species within the arctic. As such, if nothing is done within the immediate future it is obvious that not only will polar bears vanish off of the face of the Earth but several thousand species as well will be similarly affected.
Works Cited
Bohannon, John. “Where Will Animals Disappear Next?.” Science Now 2006.156 (2006): 4. Academic Search Premier. Web.
Cone, Marla. “On Thin Ice.” Mother Jones 31.2 (2006): 46. International Security & Counter Terrorism Reference Center. Web.
International Business, Times. “Global Warming Threatens Arctic Species With Extinction ESA Warns.” International Business Times 9: Regional Business News. Web.
Computationally, when a population size phase exceeds the carrying limit, it becomes a super-martingale, and depletion occurs from a variation of martingale elements. Jagers and Zuyey (2020) explore such an extinction particularly among species with soft carrying capacity. They propose a model to explain this extinction with an initial non-random value of Z0 and the value of a nth variation by Cn, where n – 1, 2…. Thus, subsequent population sizes are denoted by Z1 = Z0 + C1 … indefinitely because of extinction. In this case, extinction is the final stage denoted as Zn = 0 implying that Zn _ 1 = 0 (Jagers & Zuyey, 2020). No further finite absorbing levels of population sizes exist beyond this point. In an actual world, the time durations are of varying lengths hinging on an individual species’ life span, age range, and other superseding factors (Jagers & Zuyey, 2020). Species in settings with soft carrying capacities such as those with non-negative value K create a restricted expectation of a variation, given a full past history, is non-positive when the species surpasses the carrying volume.
Problem
Explaining population distinction is technical; thus, requiring a simplified model. Some of the population changes are homogenous and take place within unspecified periods. For others, such as those in soft carrying capacities, they die out when their carrying capacities are exceeded leading to extinction. However, the time durations cannot be estimated as they vary from species to species. As a result, these variations cause classification problems necessitating the development of a simplified framework.
Method Used
To avoid these technicalities, Jaggers and Juyev (2020) propose a model assuming that the variation Cn denotes a single individual dying (minus 1) with a restricted probability limited to 0. Changes occur after the death or birth of members of a species, denoted Cn, n ∈ N. N designates a set of positive values and C implies change. Each size variation is a valued random integer used in population description. When the population dies, no assumptions are made about the duration of changes that in actual life can vary as influenced by several internal and external factors.
New Results and Possible Extensions
The model is simple and unrestrictive; hence, evading uniformity constrains and is linked to irreducibility. In other words, the model implies that all populations in such environments will extinct or die. Mathematically, the framework complies with a supermatingale convergence characteristic and probability of attaining an absorbing extinction condition. Compared to other models, this framework augments an understanding of the carrying volume and extinction, a sigma-algebra for all activities, including nth. In contrast, other models only quantify eco-evolutionary processes linking population decline to the loss of genetic distinction. The model is Fn with a load capacity illustrated as K > 0, considered a large natural integer. As a carrying potential of the community implies that the conditional probability of the imminent transformation, considering its history, satisfies a number of assumptions (Jagers & Zuyey, 2020). The first argument maintains that, as previously elaborated, load capacity does not offer a normative restriction: population size may surpass it, but then will continue to decline for frameworks with holding abilities that are dependent on individuals as shown below.
The super-martingale premise of the species size process is one fundamental tenet of the assessment; the other is that all members of a population, regardless of circumstances, often face a distinct chance of dying unknown to the other species. In particular, denoting by Z+ the range of non-negative integers (Jagers & Zuyey, 2020). Assumption two is a logical principle that can be simplified in many frameworks as shown below where € > 0 denotes as;
Its objective is to minimize snares when the system enters a subcategory of conditions that do not include zero and have no way out. Overall, based on the starting condition, the population either dies rapidly or expands beyond and around the holding ability K before it becomes extinct.
Reference
Jagers, P., & Zuyev, S. (2020). Populations in environments with a soft carrying capacity are eventually extinct. Journal of Mathematical Biology, 81(3), 845-851. Web.
Wildlife management and extinction prevention in Australia is a critical topic of discussion as the country faces unprecedented biodiversity losses. This paper investigates the threats to wildlife in Australia and strategies for managing and preventing their extinction. Sources of stress on wildlife are discussed, including habitat loss and fragmentation, climate change, invasive species, overharvesting, and disease. Successful management strategies employed by Australian governments and organizations to protect threatened species from becoming extinct are reviewed. These include captive breeding programs, habitat restoration efforts, legislative protection measures such as protected areas or restricted hunting zones, and adaptive management techniques such as translocation or assisted migration. The role of international treaties in preserving Australian biodiversity is also considered. Understanding the challenges facing wildlife in Australia and implementing effective management strategies can ensure the continued existence of many important species for years to come. This paper provides insight into the threats facing native Australian wildlife and outlines strategies for managing and preventing their extinction. It looks at past successes and current challenges and suggests policy solutions that could be implemented to help ensure a future for some of Australia’s most iconic species. Understanding the threats facing wildlife in Australia and implementing effective management strategies can ensure that native species continue to thrive for many years. This paper provides an important contribution to the existing literature on wildlife conservation efforts in Australia, as well as valuable insights into current threats and potential solutions for extinction prevention. In summary, this paper examines the threats to wildlife in Australia and outlines strategies for managing and preventing their extinction. It discusses sources of stress on wildlife, successful management strategies employed by governments and organizations, and the important role of international treaties in preserving Australia’s unique biodiversity. Hopefully, this research will help inform future policy decisions concerning native Australian wildlife and ultimately ensure a future for some of Australia’s most iconic species.
Introduction
Wildlife management and extinction prevention in Australia is a critical issue that needs to be addressed to protect this unique continent’s biodiversity. The introduction of new species, changes in land use, urbanization, habitat destruction, climate change, and other environmental pressures have all impacted native Australian wildlife populations. In response to these challenges, various strategies are being implemented by governments, conservation agencies, and individuals across Australia to preserve endangered species and promote sustainable wildlife management practices. These include initiatives such as habitat restoration projects; the introduction of strategically placed fencing or barriers; pest control programs; the establishment of national parks; legislation to protect threatened species; and captive breeding programs. By adhering to these strategies, Australians can ensure the sustainability of their unique native species and help prevent further extinctions. While the preservation of flora and fauna has become an important global priority in recent years, this discussion will focus on examining how to manage wildlife to slow down the disappearance of animal species in Australia.
The history of wildlife management in Australia has been long, stretching back to the earliest days of the continent’s settlement. Traditional Aboriginal land management practices were the first attempts at managing the country’s growing wildlife population, and the first government-led initiatives were put in place in the 19th century. Since then, the history of wildlife management in Australia has evolved significantly, with an increasing focus on sustainability, conservation, and humane animal welfare standards. Today, Australia has one of the world’s most advanced wildlife management systems, which helps ensure the protection and preservation of its unique biodiversity for future generations. This includes strategies such as habitat protection programs, captive breeding efforts for endangered species, and legislation that restricts hunting or harvesting native animals. Through these measures, Australia continues to be an example of the successful management of its wildlife and the importance of conservation.
The Challenges of Wildlife Management and Extinction Prevention in Australia
The challenges of wildlife management and extinction prevention in Australia are complex and far-reaching. As the largest continent on Earth, Australia is home to an incredible variety of flora and fauna, many of which are found nowhere else in the world. Unfortunately, various challenges have had a devastating impact on Australian wildlife. To protect this precious biodiversity, governments and conservation organizations all over the country should be dedicated to developing effective management strategies that protect the environment while also allowing for sustainable economic development. The following are some of the challenges that significantly influence the sustainability of wildlife in Australia:
The Impact of Introduced Species on Australian Ecosystems
A range of introduced species has threatened Australia’s unique ecosystems. Introduced species are non-native, often aggressive, plants and animals that can disrupt native ecosystems. The introduction of such species has had an immense impact on Australia’s natural environment, leading to significant changes in biodiversity and population levels as well as changes in the composition of habitats and food webs (Sattar et al., 2021). Introducing new species is often unintentional, either through transport accidents or accidental introduction from other countries. Some introduced species may also reach Australia deliberately due to human activities such as ornamental gardening, pet keeping, and agricultural production. Introducing non-native species can drastically affect Australia’s natural environment and human population regardless of the introduction method.
Some of the most damaging introduced species in terms of ecological impact include cats, rabbits, foxes, and cane toads. These animals are highly adaptable and reproduce rapidly, which allows them to spread quickly across large areas and outcompete native species for resources such as food or shelter. As a result, they cause significant disruption to local ecosystems, resulting in displacement or even extinction of native species due to competition or predation by these invasive predators (Sattar et al., 2021). In some cases, species introduction has also caused significant changes to the composition of habitats, leading to the introduction of exotic plants, which can further alter local ecosystems. To mitigate these threats, governments and conservation organizations need to work together with local communities to develop effective strategies for managing introduced species.
The Effect of Human Activity on Australian Wildlife
Human activity is having a major impact on Australia’s wildlife. Habitat destruction and fragmentation, invasive species, pollution, disease, and climate change all contribute to the extinction of many native animals. Habitats disappear as forests are cleared for agriculture, urban areas, and infrastructure development (Sattar et al., 2021). This affects the amount of food available to native animals and reduces the suitable habitat they can inhabit. Fragmentation also means that populations become increasingly isolated from each other, reducing their ability to reproduce successfully. This has led to increased fragmentation of habitats, meaning animals are isolated and unable to access resources such as food and water (Sattar et al., 2021). Pollution due to human activities is another major factor affecting Australian wildlife, with many species being exposed to chemicals that they cannot process or absorb safely. Pesticides used in farming can also enter waterways, poisoning aquatic life and destroying their habitat.
The Impact of Climate Change on Australian Wildlife
Australia is home to a large variety of wildlife that is increasingly being threatened by human activities, such as the effects of climate change. Climate change has significantly impacted many different species in Australia’s ecosystems. Climate change has resulted in drastic changes to Australian wildlife populations and habitats. The heat waves associated with global warming have dried up rivers, lakes, wetlands, and other water sources, affecting food availability for animals such as fish or platypuses (Sattar et al., 2021). In addition, rising sea levels lead to the destruction of habitats along the coastline, resulting in further displacement and endangerment of vulnerable species that can’t adapt to new environments. There have been noticeable effects on the distribution of certain species due to climate change. Animals such as koalas and kangaroos have had to move further inland due to rising temperatures or suffer from increased competition for food and water in their new habitats.
Climate change has also caused effects on animal behavior, such as breeding patterns. As climate change increases unpredictability in weather patterns, Australian wildlife may adjust their breeding seasons accordingly; some species may even be driven to extinction if they cannot adapt quickly enough. The effects of human activities are clear regarding the effects of climate change on Australia’s wildlife populations and habitats. By taking steps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, managing natural resources responsibly, and creating protected habitats for vulnerable species, citizens can ensure that Australia’s wildlife can thrive in a changing world. In conclusion, the effects of human activities, such as climate change, have significantly impacted Australian wildlife populations and habitats. To protect native species, individuals must take action now to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and provide safe habitats for vulnerable animals. Doing so will help ensure the continued survival of Australia’s unique wildlife in an ever-changing environment.
Illegal Wildlife Trade
Illegal wildlife trade is a major cause of wildlife population decline in Australia and globally. Every year, tens of thousands of native animals are poached from the wild and sold into illegal markets for their fur, meat, or other body parts. This has devastating consequences for local populations, threatening species diversity and ecosystem health. The illegal wildlife trade is fueled by various factors, including poverty, demand for exotic species as pets or in traditional medicine, and the desire to increase profits (Sattar et al., 2021). This has led to the over-exploitation of many species and caused serious threats to their long-term survival. In Australia, koalas, platypus, and quolls have been targeted for illegal poaching and sale on the international market.
The impact of illegal wildlife trade on Australian wildlife is far-reaching and affects individuals and entire populations. It increases stress levels among animals living in the wild; reduces numbers of prey species; affects breeding patterns; disrupts food webs; damages habitats through habitat destruction; contribute to disease transmission between humans and animals; and leads to illegal harvesting of resources, such as timber (Sattar et al., 2021). These impacts can have long-term consequences, including species extinction. In Australia, illegal wildlife trade costs the economy hundreds of millions yearly in lost tourism revenue and conservation costs. It also endangers some of the most iconic species – such as koalas, kangaroos, and dingoes – by driving them to extinction. In conclusion, the illegal wildlife trade is a major threat to Australia’s biodiversity and economy. Individuals must act now to reduce its impacts on vulnerable species before it is too late.
The Role of the Private Sector in Wildlife Management and Extinction Prevention
The role of the private sector in conserving Australian wildlife is becoming increasingly important as more organizations recognize its potential to create positive change through corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives. Private companies can use their resources to fund programs to restore habitats and reintroduce endangered species into areas where they have become locally extinct (Okolo, 2022). Companies can also reduce their environmental impact by using renewable energy sources to run their operations and by only sourcing sustainable materials in their products. In addition to providing much-needed financial resources, businesses can help raise awareness about the importance of wildlife conservation through marketing and education campaigns. For example, companies could partner with local schools to educate students about animal behavior and the threats facing local species. They could also work with communities on conservation projects that benefit people and wildlife, such as reforestation or marine conservation efforts.
The private sector also manages conflict between humans and wildlife—such as when wild animals enter farmland or hunt near human settlements. In these cases, businesses can provide funding for fencing and other protective programs and support research into humane methods of controlling animal populations (Okolo, 2022). The private sector will be crucial in protecting Australia’s wildlife from extinction. By working with public organizations and other stakeholders, businesses can make a real difference by providing financial resources, raising awareness about conservation initiatives, and helping manage conflicts between humans and animals. This kind of collaboration is essential for creating effective strategies that ensure the long-term survival of Australia’s unique biodiversity.
The Role of the Australian Government in Wildlife Management and Extinction Prevention
The Australian government has an important role in wildlife management and extinction prevention. This is achieved by implementing effective policies to protect species, habitats, and associated ecosystems. These policies aim to protect the biodiversity of the nation’s environment, promote sustainable development, and ensure that endangered species do not become extinct. The most common policy implemented by the Australian government focuses on conservation initiatives such as habitat protection, reintroduction programs, and recovery plans for threatened species (Lindenmayer, 2019). Other strategies involve research into population dynamics, disease risk assessment, and reducing human impacts through legislation and enforcement. To help prevent future extinctions, Australia has also taken steps to strengthen its legal framework for conservation. The Environment Protection & Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act 1999 is the main law to protect Australia’s biodiversity (Lindenmayer, 2019). The EPBC Act sets out how environment-related decisions are made and provide for penalties if certain protected species are harmed or threatened with extinction.
The Australian government also works closely with state governments, local communities, Indigenous groups, research organizations, and business and industry partners to implement conservation strategies effectively. The government can help protect precious wildlife and prevent extinction by supporting sustainable management practices and promoting environmental education initiatives. In conclusion, the Australian government plays a key role in protecting wildlife by implementing policies that focus on conservation efforts, strengthening legal frameworks, and continuing collaboration with other stakeholders such as research organizations and local communities. Nonetheless, every person can ensure that wildlife remains protected for generations by taking action.
The Future of Wildlife Management and Extinction Prevention in Australia
Wildlife management and extinction prevention are critical issues in Australia, as the country is home to some of the world’s most unique and endangered species. To protect these species and ensure their survival, the Australian government has introduced several measures that seek to manage wildlife populations across the nation. According to Scheele et al. (2018), currently, conservation programs focus on habitat protection, reintroduction efforts, captive breeding protection schemes, population monitoring, and management plans. These initiatives have enabled many threatened Australian species to survive and remain viable in their natural environment. In addition, traditional approaches such as habitat protection and reintroductions can help prevent animal extinction. There is also an increase in recognition of the value of holistic approaches for long-term conservation success. Future wildlife management strategies must embrace cutting-edge technology, such as remote sensing and satellite tracking. This will enable researchers to understand species’ ecology, behaviour, and habitat usage to create effective conservation management plans.
In addition, artificial intelligence (AI) could play a role in the future of wildlife management and extinction prevention. AI can be used to track animal movements, monitor population health, and identify potential threats before they become unmanageable (Fang et al., 2019). By combining this data with traditional methods, wildlife managers will have unprecedented insights into Australia’s flora and fauna ecosystems. Finally, community engagement is also essential for long-term success in preventing extinction in Australia. Future wildlife management strategies must emphasize engaging communities in conservation efforts, encouraging public participation, and providing education about protecting Australia’s native species. By embracing new technologies and working with local communities, Australia can create a secure future for all its threatened flora and fauna, helping to prevent extinction and ensure that these species remain viable.
Conclusion
Strategies for improving wildlife management and preventing extinctions are essential for maintaining the planet’s biodiversity. To this end, governments, organizations, and individuals can take action to reduce and prevent threats to wildlife populations. For example, incentives such as hunting limitations or fees can be set to limit the over-harvesting of wildlife species. Additionally, creating protected areas is an effective way of preserving critical habitats for threatened and endangered species. Solutions like habitat restoration are also important as they help restore damaged ecosystems and create new habitats suitable for wildlife.
Education is another key factor in conserving wildlife, too, as it helps raise awareness about the importance of protecting nature and how people can do their part by reducing their environmental impact. Developing sustainable practices such as eco-tourism initiatives can also help reduce the negative impacts of human activities on wildlife populations. Finally, global collaboration and cooperation between governments, organizations, and individuals are essential for successful conservation efforts. Working together to create effective strategies for wildlife management can help ensure the future of the earth’s biodiversity. By taking these steps, people can work towards protecting vulnerable species and preserving the earth’s biodiversity for generations to come.
Wildlife management and extinction prevention are important issues that need to be addressed if Australia maintains a healthy, diverse environment. It will take the cooperation of both private sector and government entities to address these challenges effectively. The private sector has the resources and knowledge needed to make meaningful improvements in habitat protection and species preservation, while the Australian government can provide policy support for effective regulation. The future of wildlife management and extinction prevention in Australia relies on an all-encompassing approach that recognizes the importance of conservation efforts across all stakeholders. To improve current practices, it is necessary to implement comprehensive strategies focusing on education, research, monitoring programs, and corrective action plans. With collaborative efforts between various parties involved in conservation efforts, Australia can be a leader in protecting its natural resources and preserving the rich diversity of its wildlife. Thank you for your time and attention. Your participation in improving wildlife management and preventing extinctions is essential to individuals’ collective success.
References
Fang, F., Tambe, M., Dilkina, B., & Plumptre, A. J. (Eds.). (2019). Artificial intelligence and conservation. Cambridge University Press.
Okolo, N. (2022). The wildlife conservation bond: Exploring new market mechanisms for protecting endangered species. In Extinction Governance, Finance and Accounting (pp. 361-371). Routledge.
North America has the most dinosaur fossils. At the time of ancient lizards, this continent was connected with Asia where the Bering Strait is located today. It appears that the dinosaurs of North America and Asia lived on the same piece of land. Therefore, in both parts of the world, scientists find the remains of related pangolins. The landmasses were not divided by the ocean, and the dinosaurs moved in search of food. However, the remains of some ancient reptiles have only been found in North America. For example, the bones of tyrannosaurs did not come across to paleontologists on other continents. Apparently, these dinosaurs preferred to live only in North America. It is necessary to identify the reason for the extinction of dinosaurs on the territory of the continent, namely, the state of Texas.
Texas
In a detailed analysis of the state of Texas, it is worth highlighting that this territory is characterized by the volumetric presence of flightless species. This will be key in identifying the causes of the extinction of ancient animals. One of the most famous dinosaurs living in Texas is the tyrannosaurus rex (Wignall, 2019). In addition, it is worth highlighting tehacephalos, gravtilos, pachycephalosaurs and colepiocephals. The list of species is much larger, but this is enough to conclude that the predominant number of animal species in the state were flightless.
Background of Geology Research
Since the appearance of animals with a mineral skeleton on Earth about 550 million years ago, when dead animals began to be preserved in sedimentary rocks in the form of diagnosable remains that can be confidently classified as taxa, the diversity of such taxa has been increasing. However, against the background of a general increase in the diversity of the animal world, extinction of certain organisms is constantly taking place (Wignall, 2019). This is explained by the fact that they cannot adapt to constantly changing conditions – the changing configurations of continents and oceans. In 1982, David Raup and John Sepkosky published a famous article in which they analyzed the most comprehensive database at that time, which included about 3300 marine animal families, including 2400 extinct (Bromhm & Cardillo, 2019, p. 77). In this database, they recorded five events of dramatic decline in biodiversity over time, dubbed the “Great Mass Extinctions” (Bromhm & Cardillo, 2019). The youngest of them marks the stratigraphic boundary between the Cretaceous and the Paleogene, which the dinosaurs just did not survive. When discussing the reasons for the extinction of dinosaurs, one cannot leave the general context of the extinction of other animals at the boundary of the Cretaceous and Paleogene, as well as the general context of mass extinctions in other periods. In the very south of North America, scientists have found a trace of a giant meteorite – Chicxulub. Paleontologists believe that it was his fall that caused strong climate change on Earth (Bromhm & Cardillo, 2019). After this global catastrophe, all dinosaurs and many other ancient animals became extinct. However, it is impossible to designate this reason as unambiguous.
Establishing an Eventfulness
The evolution of living organisms is fixed by their remains in sedimentary rocks. The substance from which such sedimentary rocks were formed must have certain properties that make it possible to preserve organic remains, their imprints and traces of animal life. In general terms, the preservation in clay is better than in sand, and over time they will turn into solid rocks – mudstone and sandstone, respectively. However, it is not enough to find well-preserved remains; it is also necessary that the record be as continuous as possible and have a noticeable duration on the geological time scale (Wignall, 2019). Obviously, the probability of finding a preserved, continuous, and long-term record is noticeably higher for deposits of large water basins than for land. This is one of the methodological problems in establishing the causes of mass extinctions.
One way to restore relative sequence is to find a marker of a catastrophic event in the sedimentary section. Anomalies of elevated concentrations of elements of the platinum group, which are rare in the earth’s crust, but enriched in meteorites, or anomalous concentrations, such as mercury or nickel, as a marker of strong volcanic eruptions. The situation is even more complicated with the definition of the “absolute” age, with fixing when the mass extinction event occurred, leading to it a catastrophic volcanic or impact event on a time scale in years. The vast majority of geochronological methods do not allow dating events with an accuracy better than 1% of the age of the dated event (Fletcher, 2019, p. 66). Thus, the task of the international initiative EarthTime is to calibrate the main stratigraphic boundaries of the Phanerozoic with an accuracy of 0.1% of their age. To date, only two and a half methods have come closest to this accuracy:
The method of astronomical chronology, or cyclostratigraphy, which is based on the detection of cyclic changes in one or another parameter in the sedimentary section, for example, changes in oxygen isotope ratios, and the subsequent binding of the detected cycles to the orbital parameters of the Earth’s orbit (Fletcher, 2019). To construct an absolute age scale, it is necessary to have a continuous sedimentary section from the present into the depths of time.
U-Pb dating of single grains of zircon or baddeleyite with isotopic dilution using thermal ionization mass spectrometry. The abbreviation is important because other common U-Pb dating methods with local analysis of the substance within the dated crystal, the data of which are often found in modern literature, do not even come close to the required accuracy. Zircon and baddeleyite crystallize, respectively, in silicon-rich and relatively silicon-poor magmas, which can erupt on the Earth’s surface in the form of lava or form ejecta of pyroclastic material, including that carried over long distances in the form of ash, sometimes present in sedimentary rocks in the form of layers (Bromhm & Cardillo, 2019). When a large meteorite falls, melting of terrestrial rocks can occur with the crystallization of new zircon and baddeleyite, or with the recrystallization of these minerals already present, usually with a partial or, ideally, a complete restart of the isotope clock.
Another method that is suitable for dating volcanic potassium-bearing minerals should be mentioned, the method using radioactive transformation. In the literature, including those related to the problem of the Cretaceous-Paleogene mass extinction, one can find dates obtained by this method with an accuracy better than 0.1% of the age (Bromhm & Cardillo, 2019, p. 13). However, the decomposition constants of the necessary minerals are known with an accuracy of no better than 1%. Additionally, in the method, the age is calculated relative to the standard – a mineral with a known age, determined by some other method.
Mass Extinction – Meteorite Impact or Volcanism
The boundary of the Cretaceous and Paleogene is marked by the disappearance from marine sections of predominantly large planktonic forms of foraminifera, unicellular animals with a calcareous skeleton. In terms of detailed stratigraphy, dinosaurs are not as informative as these single-celled animals. On Earth, there is a global clayey layer occurring between Cretaceous deposits with large foraminifers and Paleogene deposits with small ones (Fletcher, 2019). This layer contains anomalously high concentrations of iridium for terrestrial rocks. This observation allowed Luis Alvarez, a Nobel laureate in physics, his geologist son Walter and two colleagues, analytical chemists Frank Asaro and Helen Michel, to put forward a hypothesis about a large meteorite impact that led to a mass extinction at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary. Later, the site of the impact of this meteorite was discovered in the form of a giant, 180 km in diameter, Chicxulub crater on the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico (Benton, 1990). It was the meteorite that was considered the main and only reason for the disappearance of dinosaurs from the continent, as well as from the state of Texas. This is also explained by the fact that the territorial location of the habitat of dinosaurs and the crash site is extremely close.
However, this hypothesis did not become absolutely true, and experts continued to study the issue. Hertha Keller, a Princeton University paleontologist and expert on foraminifera, criticized this hypothesis on the website of the Geological Society of London (Wignall, 2019). She did not dispute that the global distribution clay layer was due to the meteorite impact, but she questioned that this event led to the mass extinction, including the dinosaurs. Instead of a meteorite disaster, Hertha Keller has been arguing for years – and notably succeeding in this – that the anomalously intense volcanism of the Deccan traps was the cause of the mass extinction. This volcanism began before the fall of the Chicxulub meteorite and continued after it. Between the lava flows there are sedimentary interlayers with an iridium anomaly, although the number of deposits with an iridium anomaly in Late Cretaceous and early Paleogene sediments worldwide is more than one.
Traces of Deccan volcanism are clearly visible in sedimentary sections of the Late Cretaceous and Early Paleogene in terms of mercury anomalies. An important point in favor of the volcanic hypothesis is that before the fall of the Chicxulub meteorite on Earth, there was a sharp warming of the climate by ~2.5–10°C (Alderton & Elias, 2020, p. 83). Comparison of cyclostratigraphic dates of sedimentary rocks, which were used to estimate temperatures, showed that this warming was preceded by the main bulk phase of volcanism. It is important that this warming was several hundred thousand years before the fall of the meteorite (Fastovsky & Welshampel, 2021). Therefore, this is one of the most effective and constructive counterarguments to the meteorite impact theory or the impact hypothesis.
When narrowing the issue and concentrating on the state of Texas, you can see a number of evidence of volcanism as one of the reasons. American scientists conducted a study during which they found out that some dinosaurs could move on their forelimbs. Scientists from Purdue University and the Houston Museum of Natural Sciences explained that a few years ago in Texas, traces of large sauropods, about 110 million years old, were found that moved exclusively on their front legs (Fletcher, 2019, p. 94). They argue that the front legs of dinosaurs were much more powerful than the hind legs, so they were able to push off them when moving. At the same time, the scientists explained the absence of traces of the hind limbs by the fact that they accounted for an insignificant body weight (Fletcher, 2019). Similar prints were found by scientists in 1940, and this is the discovery of another flightless dinosaur in the state (Fastovsky & Welshampel, 2021). The experts drilled through the rock to a depth of 500 to 1,300 meters below the seabed and retrieved new samples for chemical analysis (Alderton & Elias, 2020, p. 77). When studying samples, scientists drew attention to the complete absence of sulfur. From this, scientists concluded that as a result of the catastrophe, sulfur-containing minerals evaporated and a large amount of sulfate aerosols were released into the atmosphere, which led to the death of dinosaurs.
Here it is important to analyze the detection of a large amount of sulfates in the earth. The fact is that this is a highly probable consequence of lucanic explosions, since it is precisely such a catastrophe that is characterized by a large emission of sulfur. As mentioned above, most of the dinosaurs of Texas could not fly, but moved on their limbs (Fastovsky & Welshampel, 2021). Accordingly, they simply did not have the opportunity to avoid both toxic precipitation and surface heating. This does not mean that the meteorite did not play a role, but it certainly was not the only reason.
Impact Hypothesis
In the scientific geological community, a consensus began to form that the volcanic hypothesis of the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction, as well as other mass extinctions, which will be discussed later, is the most promising. For mass extinctions, the coincidence of a volcanic and impact event is important. However, based on 40Ar/39Ar dating, that the fall of the Chicxulub meteorite occurred just prior to the onset of bulk volcanism in the Deccan traps (Alderton & Elias, 2020, p. 107). In other words, a meteorite that fell on the opposite side of the Earth provoked the destruction of the walls of deep magma chambers under the territory of the then not yet Indian Peninsula. In turn, their association into a large focus followed, which ultimately led to volumetric eruptions on the Earth’s surface and a global environmental catastrophe. This view has been de facto criticized by a group of U-Pb geochronologists who have shown that the most voluminous volcanism of the Deccan traps preceded the meteorite impact rather than following it (Fastovsky & Welshampel, 2021). Accordingly, vulcanism continued to be the main cause of the extinction of the dinosaurs.
Nevertheless, continuing the discussion, scientists are engaged in active research on this issue. Thus, recently the impact hypothesis has received a new development, the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction occurred after all as a result of a meteorite impact. It shows, based on simulations, that variations in boron isotopes measured in foraminifera are in better agreement with an increase in ocean acidity due to a meteorite impact than due to volcanic eruptions (Benton, 1990). A few years earlier, it was shown that at the end of the Cretaceous there were two warming events – the first, stronger, in time associated with volumetric eruptions of the Deccan traps, and the second, less noticeable, with the fall of the Chicxulub meteorite. That is why these discoveries did not make significant changes to the existing hypotheses and findings.
Similarity of Mass Deaths
One of the ways to establish the truth can be considered the analysis of all mass extinctions. David Raup and John Sepkosky identified five “Great Mass Extinctions”. The three youngest of them – namely the Cretaceous-Paleogene, Late Triassic and Permian-Triassic – correspond in age to their anomalously voluminous, so-called trap volcanism (Fastovsky & Welshampel, 2021). Accordingly, the Deccan traps in India, the Central Atlantic igneous province, spaced by plate tectonics into the territory of South America, North America, Africa and Europe, and the Siberian traps (Alderton & Elias, 2020). In addition to these three “Great Mass Extinctions”, about a dozen more are recorded, and most of them also correspond in age to some kind of trap province.
However, not every trap province corresponds to its own mass extinction, just as not every mass extinction event is accompanied by the same marking isotopic and chemical anomalies recorded in sedimentary rocks. For example, the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary has a layer with anomalously high concentrations of iridium, while there is no such anomaly at the Permo-Triassic boundary. This suggests that either there was no impact event or the impactor was an icy comet lacking iridium (Fastovsky & Welshampel, 2021). The Permian-Triassic mass extinction event was accompanied by a sharp increase in the light carbon isotope in the atmosphere. It is usually believed that light carbon entered the atmosphere during the combustion of coal, oil, and coal shale due to the thermal effect of hot magma on them (Fastovsky & Welshampel, 2021). At the same time, combustion makes a greater contribution to the load on the atmosphere than volcanism itself. An extremely original and worthy of careful consideration explanation of the sharp injection of organic carbon into the atmosphere in the form of methane at the Permian-Triassic boundary was proposed by MIT professor Dan Rothman and colleagues. According to their hypothesis, the methanogenic archaea of the genus Methanosarcina appeared as a result of the mutation. Having no natural enemies, it began to divide uncontrollably, increasing the concentration of the greenhouse gas, methane, uncontrollably. The reason for the appearance of methanosarcina was a sharp injection into the environment of nickel from giant deposits associated with the Siberian traps and now being developed in Norilsk. That is, in this case, the root cause was volcanism.
It should be noted that the analysis of soil data gives the following results in Texas. Together with the modeling, it appears that during the global catastrophes considered as possible causes of extinction, there was a massive amount of precipitation. More than 85% of such precipitation is characteristic of volcanic eruptions and the contact of their chemical elements with soil heated air (Alderton & Elias, 2020, p. 317). Based on this, most of the flightless dinosaurs died out due to global pollution of the areal by emissions, and the rest were destroyed by a meteorite. Thus, the most likely answer to the question of the extinction of the dinosaurs in Texas will be a combination of catastrophes, namely, warming, volcanic eruptions, environmental damage and a meteorite fall.
Conclusion
Most of the mass extinction events coincided in time with anomalously large volcanic eruptions; the Cretaceous-Paleogene, during which the dinosaurs disappeared, is no exception. At the same time, only one clear coincidence in age with the fall of a meteorite has been documented, just Cretaceous-Paleogene with dinosaurs. In any case, in general, for the cause of mass extinctions, the volcanic hypothesis turns out to be preferable to the meteorite one, it explains more facts. It cannot be ruled out that the extinction of the dinosaurs was caused simultaneously by two reasons – volcanism and a meteorite impact.
References
Alderton, D. and Elias, S. (Eds.). (2020). Encyclopedia of geology. Elsevier Science.
Benton, M. J. (1990). Origin and relationships of the dinosaurs. In Weishampel, D.B., Dodson, P., and Osmolska, H. (eds.),The Dinosauria, University of California Press, Berkeley, p. 11-30.
Bromhm, L. and Cardillo, M. (2019). Origins of biodiversity. An introduction to macroevolution and macroecology. Oxford University Press.
Fastovsky, D. E. and Welshampel, D. B. (2021). Dinosaurs. A concise natural history. Cambridge University Press.
Fletcher, A. L. (2019). De-extinction and the genomics revolution. Life on demand. Springer International Publishing.
Wignall, P. B. (2019). Extinction. A very short introduction. Oxford University Press.
Extinction is the total disappearance of a species from the earth’s surface. It leads to a lack of surviving members of some species to reproduce in order create a new generation of the extinct species. Different plants and animals due to various reasons, which are either natural or man-made. These reasons are habitat degradation, over exploitation of available resources, agricultural monocultures, poaching and commercial hunting, human-wildlife or human-induced climate change and destruction of land to build factories and residential areas. Protecting a rare species of animals or plants is therefore a responsibility of all human beings to ensure the betterment of our planet (Cunningham, & Saigo, 2005).
Animal or plant species’ protection from extinction is beneficial because all species are important for balance in the nature world. Moreover, some animals and plants are key in the field of medicine since they provide raw materials used to produce different drugs. These species may include the African clawed frog that secretes antibiotics, the dogfish shark which has cancer fighting molecules. In addition, chemicals found in certain plants assist in treatment of Hodgkin’s disease and other types of cancers. Also, some extracts from specific and rare marine animals has a unique ability to act as anti-cancer agents. (Cunningham, & Saigo, 2005).
Extinction of some species has varied effects because the balance of nature will be broken. For example, a breach in a food chain may cause a drastical increase of some species in over a short period since there will be no consumers in the ecosystem. This growth leads to increased competition for food and space causing starvation ad leading to a disbalance. The predators will also experience lack of feood, and as a result, they will starve to death, which may cause the possibility of their extinction.
The elimination of one organism from an ecosystem, therefore, serves as a domino effect causing the disappearance of other numerous organisms. The introduction of new cloning technology will further accelerate the process of extinction since the easier it is to clone an organism, the lesser efforts are directed towards the protection of the whole species (Ehrlich, 1983).
Extinction is irreversible as a species that becomes extinct is lost forever, and thus, the expensive efforts required to protect animals facing extinction are justified. Protection of different rare and endangered species is achievable. As a solution to this global issue, an investment of 0.1% of global GDP in environment protection will ensure the pay off a large chunk of the ecological debt (Ehrlich, 1983).
Biodiversity refers to genes, species and ecosystems. The toughness of an area’s immune system is dependent on the area’s riches in terms of biodiversity. Hence, biodiversity is vital in preserving food security and allows ecosystems to adapt to different natural disturbances like earthquakes, fires and floods. Thus, a loss of biodiversity will also have a tremendous impact on medicine and healthcare, among all the rest spheres of life (Miller, 2013).
Extinction of certain species will also hinder scientific research, which aims at finding new way of treating different diseases and production of new drugs and vaccines. Such medicines are usually hard to develop as they cannot (or are hard to) be produced artificially, thus their manufacture is expensive in nature as their source is not easy to get. Genetic diversity helps in the prevention of diseases and enables adaptation of different species to changes in their environment.
Apart from medicine, the some plants and animals are able to provide raw materials for the manufacture of clothing, cosmetics, and household goods. Hence, it is important to protect the rare species from extinction due to various reasons mentioned above.
References
Cunningham, M. A., & Saigo, B. W. (2005). Environmental Science: A global concern. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Ehrlich, A. H. (1983). Extinction: The causes and consequences of the Disappearance Of species. New York: Ballantine Books.
Miller, D., A. (2013). Biodiversity. Detroit: Green haven Press.
Cyclura lewisi (Grand Cayman Blue Iguana) is one of the species listed on the IUCN Red List of Endangered Species. This specie belongs to the Animalia kingdom and is currently listed as an endangered specie; B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) criteria (Burton, 2017). This iguana has a number of unique characteristics. To begin with, they are above 25 pounds, or 11 kilos (Burton, 2017). They are also among the longest-living iguanas, remaining in the wild for 25 to 40 years on average (Burton, 2017). The Grand Cayman blue iguana is exclusively found in the North Side and East End districts of Grand Cayman, Cayman Islands.
One of the biggest risks to the population of this species is wild animals. Adults and adolescents are assumed to be killed by them, and they have been demonstrated to be capable of triggering local extinctions (Burton, 2017). Predation by wild animals is often recognized as one of the iguana’s most serious continuing threats. Several species of rat (most notably the Norwegian rat) are a comparable threat, although natural predators are the primary cause of extinction.
The second most serious threat to the Grand Cayman Blue Iguana is habitat change. Traditional fruit plantations have been converted to cow pastures on a massive scale over the last two decades (Burton, 2017). The decline in the extent of acceptable habitat for iguanas is due to the loss of fruit trees and grasslands. Rapid traffic to the remaining iguana habitats has occurred from road access to farms in inland residential areas (Burton, 2017). As a result, iguana deaths are caused by dispersal outside of protected regions and collisions with fast-moving automobiles, a well-documented phenomenon. The Grand Cayman blue iguana population is gradually expanding and is predicted to continue to rise as a result of continuing conservation initiatives (Burton, 2017). The lack of assimilation opportunities, on the other hand, may ultimately influence the population; hence this is considered a continuing decrease.
References
Burton, F. (2017). Cyclura lewisi. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: e.T44275A2994409. Web.
The Neanderthal was placed as a species of the Homo genus and was called the “Homo neanderthalensis or Homo sapiens neanderthalensis”. It is believed that which Neanderthals’ inhabited Europe and parts of western and central Asia. However, they disappeared from Asia earlier than Europe. Studies have found that they did not reach extinction in Europe until 30,000 years ago (Tattersall and Schwartz, 1999, 7117–7119). Ever since their discovery, it has been a subject of debates on their position in the human family tree and also regarding their extinction. They had specific differences from the modern day man in their physical appearance. Their cranial capacity was larger when compared to modern humans. They were short and heavily built. Researchers have pointed out that their brains may have been larger. Additionally, the brain size is linked to ‘a mutation in the microcephalin gene’, which is also seen in the Homo sapiens genetic pool (Evans et al., 2005).
Discussion
There are several reasons that are pointed out for the extinction of Neanderthals’. Some say it is the diseases caused by pathogens, others say it is the drastic climatic conditions that made their survival difficult, interbreeding was yet another reason pointed out and a few of them say it is the cannibalism that caused the extinction. This paper tries to answer the question is cannibalism the reason for Neanderthals’ extinction?
Archaeologists have found evidence that Neanderthal humans were cannibals. For instance, a team of French and American archaeologists were able to trace out human bones that were found amongst the bones of other animals. This suggests the humans were killed, eaten and disposed of in a similar way to the other animals. Besides, they also found the 100,000-200,000 year old bones at the cave site of Moula-Guercy. From the shape of the remains found it appeared that a group of Neanderthals removed the flesh of at least six individuals before breaking their bones apart with a hammer and anvil mainly to take out the marrow and brains (News in Science, 1999).
According to the researcher Alban Defleur from the Université de la Méditerranée at Marseilles it is the work at the Moula-Guercy cave that established the fact for the first time to demonstrate the existence of the practice of cannibalism by European Neanderthals”. However, his team was unable to find out the reason as to why cannibalism was practiced. Defleur believes “it’s doubtful they were eaten for survival since there was an abundance of natural food sources at the site”. However, they were also not able to link it to mortuary ritual either since there was no evidence that the bones were cut and broken as in a mortuary ritual. The researchers found that the Neanderthal bones were found scattered in amongst deer bones which also showed similar cut marks and breaks (News in Science, 1999).
Though there were several researchers who claimed that Neanderthals practised cannibalism they could not gather much evidence. Even if at several European sites, Neanderthal bones possessed markings that some archeologists interpreted as signs of cannibalism, there were critics who believed that the marks may have been caused by other activities, such as the gnawing of the bones by other animals, cleaning the bones in preparation for burial or even mishandling of the bones by archaeologists. However, in the case of the Moula-Guercy site the evidences of cannibalism were established. As the researchers cautiously mapped the position of the bones in addition to taking thorough notes of stone tools used by them, animal remains and sediment layers in which the bones were buried.
To be more precise the researchers could retrieve 78 Neanderthal bones that were found belonging to at least six individuals of different age. The researchers studied the remains and found that all the skull and limb bones were broken apart with only the hand and foot bones remaining intact and several other body parts such as tough, muscles etc. damaged using the tools. They also found that cuts and fractures on the deer bones that were very similar to the ones that were found in the Neanderthal body. This suggests that the deer were butchered in a similar way and strongly demonstrating that the Neanderthals practised cannibalism (News in Science, 1999). Defleur and his team ended up on cannibalism after they saw cut marks on human bones. In fact they also found that the bones without marrow were not damaged. This shows that they ate marrow which was a good source of protein and fat.
Additionally, they found that bones bear few signs of burning or roasting, suggesting that although the Neanderthals had fire, they ate raw flesh or hacked it off the bone before cooking. According to White another researcher “the circumstantial forensic evidence [of cannibalism] is excellent. No mortuary practice has ever been shown to leave these patterns on the resulting osteological assemblages” (Culotta, 1999, 18 – 19).
Though there was enough of food to eat, Neanderthals practiced cannibalism and the reason for this is still a mystery. According to few researchers as a major ice age brought freezing cold down to much of southern Europe tens of thousands of years ago, starving Neanderthal families huddled in their caves may have resorted to cannibalism. In fact the sliced and butchered bones of Neanderthal people were dug out from a cave called El Sidron in the Asturias region of Spain by a research team led by a paleoanthropologist, Antonio Rosas.
This researcher carefully studied the remains of four young adults, two teenagers, one youngster and an infant and found that all bore intentional cut marks that were made by the common stone tools that were used including saw-toothed knives, skin scrapers and a single hand ax. Similar to the observations of Defleur and his team, Rosas also could evidenced that some of the skulls of the Neanderthals were skinned, their leg joints were dismembered, and other long bones were broken. Rosas also said that this might have been done most probably to extract the fat and protein from the rich marrow.
However, the most sticking observation made by Rosas and his team is that the cave held no remains of animals that might have preyed on Neanderthals. Besides, the team found merely seven animal bones from one large browsing elk and a fox. After examining the bones carefully Rosas pointed out there were no tooth marks on the Neanderthal bones that could have been made by a beast of prey. This team of researchers also tried to go deep into various aspect of Neanderthal life. They found that the growth patterns in the tooth enamel of the cave’s inhabitants show obvious signs of periodic nutritional stress or in other words they underwent period of starvation. They traced out that dental hypoplasia was a common problem faced by the Neanderthals and it is a sigh of nutritional deficiency and severe malnutrition. Additionally the ecological conditions with the unusually cold winters of the time, their survival was very difficult and therefore these people must have eaten whatever was at hand to avoid starvation, including the flesh of their fellow hominids (Perlman, 2006).
According to another study by Dr Petitt Neanderthals were excellent hunters. However the fact of whether they hunted every day of their lives or whether it was just a summer outing was still a question. Further it has been difficult to evaluate the variety of Neanderthal diets. The reason behind this is that although animal bones are often preserved in caves, easily rotted food like vegetables, fruit and grains rarely remain. However, researchers measured the ratios of the different types (isotopes) of carbon and nitrogen found in Neanderthal bones. They concluded that plants and animals have contrasting isotopic ratios. Later the researchers calibrated the analyzed by comparing the Neanderthal bone ratios with those from contemporaneous animals such as at the top (bears) and bottom (bison) of the animal food chain. They concluded that the ratios showed that the Neanderthals were top-level predators, getting about 90% of their protein from meat. In fact there are earlier reports that point out that such percentages corresponds to cannibalism (BBC News Online, 2007).
Conclusion
In conclusion, it can be said that though still there is only few evidence that Neanderthals practiced cannibalism, this must not have been the only factor behind their extinction. A combination of factors such as cold climate, pathogenic diseases, malnutrition etc. must have played their role in the extinction of this species. Cannibalism may be just one of the factors responsible for their extinction.
References
BBC News Online, (2007) Meaty appetites may have caused Neanderthal extinction, Web.
Culotta, E. (1999) Neanderthals Were Cannibals, Bones Show. Vol. 286, No. 5437. 1999, pp. 18 – 19. Web.
Evans et al., (2005). Microcephalin, a Gene Regulating Brain Size, Continues to Evolve Adaptively in Humans; Science, 2005: Vol. 309. no. 5741, pp. 1717 – 1720.
Tattersall I, Schwartz JH (1999). Hominids and hybrids: the place of Neanderthals in human evolution. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. Vol. 13: pp 7117–7119.
For a long time, man has been found to be the major agent contributing to extinction of various species of animals and plants. Some of the plants have been found to have medicinal value leading to man exploiting almost all of them. Continued use of these plants coupled with poor environmental conditions has led to the extinction of these plants. The act of hunting by man has also contributed to the extinction of birds and some species of mammals. There are various beliefs among different people regarding some species of animals that have led to man hunting these animals. One of the extinct species of bird is the dodo bird. For many years there has been no trace for the bird. Its extinction has made it hard for scholars to classify the bird when it comes to taxonomy of birds. The dodo extinction reminds people that every in this world is precious. The disappearance of one species has an adverse effect to mankind and nature.
Morphology of the dodo bird
There has been an attempt to compare the bird and the solitaire morphologically. However, from research conducted by Andrew Kitchener of the Royal Museum of Scotland, it is now clear that the two birds were different morphologically. As most of the paintings showed, it has been discovered that dodo bird was not very fat as it is represented in this paintings. Dodo was a flightless bird that lived in island found in Mauritius (BirdLife International para. 2). The bird is related to the family of pigeons and doves three feet tall and weighing approximately twenty kilograms. The bird fed on fruits and built its nest on the ground. The bird had grayish feathers, a twenty three centimeters beak with a hooked point. Dodo had fat yellow legs, very small wings and bunch of curly feathers at the tail. The weight of the bird could not allow it to fly. Scientist argues that the image of dodo bird representing it as a fat bird was obtained from those dodo’s that been captured, overfed and reared at homes (Staub para. 4).
Reason that made dodo bird extinct
Despite dodo living in areas with no predators, the bird still faced extinction. There are various reasons attributed to the bird’s extinction. Most of these reasons were associated with human activities. After living under no threats in the islands for many years, dodo bird had developed no defense techniques. This coupled with its inability to fly made it vulnerable not only to human beings but also to various animals that man came with to the island. Man hunted the animal for food and sports. As it laid its eggs on the ground, it was possible for dogs and cats to get these eggs. This made it hard for it to multiply. The birds were not afraid of man (Hume para. 1). This made it easy for man to catch them. The impacts that the pigs had on the birds population is believed to be severe than that of hunting. As they scavenged, they trampled on the bird’s eggs as well as killing their young ones left on the nests. Continued deforestation led to their hiding places being exposed. This made it possible for dogs and cats to prey on the bird (Yenra para. 5).
Conclusion
Since dodo’s extinction, it has been hard to clearly bring out its morphology. Most of the drawings represent it as a fat bird. However, scientists have proofed that it was s flightless bird with very small wings but not too fat. Its extinction is attributed to human activities. Man hunted the bird for spots and food while animals kept by man fed on the bird as well as its eggs. Today’s significance of the bird in education reminds human being that every animal is precious in this world and its our duty to protect them to save nature and human.
Works Cited
BirdLife International (2004). Raphus cucullatus. 2006. Web.
Hume, Julian. The history of the Dodo Raphus cucullatus and the penguin of Mauritius. 2008. Web.
Staub, France. Dodo and Solitaires, Myths and Reality. 1995. Web.
Yenra. Dodo Bird History, Pictures, Extinction: Origins and isolation of the Dodo Bird. 2003. Web.
Of late, there has been a significant change in the populations of various species of animals. The number of species that was there a century ago is very different from what is there today. This number is changing at an alarming rate, an issue that is drawing the attention of many people around the globe. The affected species, the causes of the change, as well as the possible criterion of arresting the situation, forms the subject of their discussion.
Animal extinction is generally the termination of the life of the final individual of a certain species. This is the time when there is no more existence of the species. “Extinction, though is usually a natural phenomenon, it is estimated that 99.9% of all the species that have ever lived are now extinct.” (Newman, 1994).
The dinosaurs serve as a living example of a species that existed a few centuries ago but is completely nowhere today. The causes of extinction vary depending on the species. Inability to reproduce, which serves as the root precursor behind the extinction of a species is thought to come because of deteriorated health, old-age, absence of one animal of the opposite sex, scarce population of the animals, among others.
There exist quite a number of causes of animal extinction, some of which are undetectable, complicated, while others are easily identifiable. “Just as each species is unique…so is each, extinction…the causes of each are varied…” (Beverly & Stearns, 2000). Human activities play a key role in fuelling the disappearance of any species.
For instance, the increasing global human population has chased away a large number of animals, as people create settlement areas. It is not news that others end up killing them in their attempts to make settlement areas. In addition, the transfer of animals into new places, game parks/reserves, has also sped animal extinction. Some turn to be predators and food competitors of the others, a case that reduces the number of the affected. As this continues, the species might end. Over hunting, among others, are accountable as well.
A number of things are in place to help curb the situation. A lot of money has been raised to cater for advertisement expenses. These advertisements are purely addressing the issue of animal extinction. They let people know the reasons behind animal preservation, showing the critically affected animals, as well as the effect of the absence of those species on the entire food chain, in which man is major consumer, relying entirely on the rest.
Due to the increased deforestation, Ehrlich (1991) posits that stern actions have been introduced against any, found interfering with the habitats of animals. This includes jailing accompanied by a heavy fine. People have protested this issue outside offices of the relevant departments that deal with animals.
This has enlightened the need for urgency in their establishing of the necessary steps worthy taking, to help rescue the affected species. The agencies that deal with animal protection are highly funded today to help them employ more people who protect these animals on a daily basis.
In conclusion, animal extinction is a sensitive issue that needs to be addressed to all people. This follows from what has been realized of late that, failure to this, human species is not far from suffering the consequences. As a result, measures ought to be taken, early in advance, to help prevent, rather than curing.
Reference List
Beverly, P., & Stearns, C. (2000). Preface: Watching, from the Edge of Extinction. Yale University Press.
Ehrlich, A. (1981). Extinction: The Causes and Consequences of the Disappearance of Species. New York: Random House.
Newman, M. (1994). A Mathematical Model for Mass Extinction. Cornell University Press.