Mass extinction theory attributes the extinction of living organism to collision of extraterrestrial objects such as asteroids with the Earth. The collision results into drastic climatic change due to suspended clouds of dusts that affects radiation from the sun. Drastic and intermittent occurrence of meteors and asteroid resulted to a gradual loss of living organisms during the course of the Earths history.
The most credible example giving plausible explanation regarding mass extinction is the dinosaur extinction, which occurred approximately 65 million years ago. Rogers claims that, &basic experiments have been done, and it seems clear that the iridium came from an extraterrestrial source within the solar system (25). However, debate concerning dinosaur extinction still rages. The massive impact of extraterrestrial objects did not cause mass extinction of dinosaurs.
The extinction of dinosaur may not have occurred due to drastic impact of meteors and asteroids since the probability of extraterrestrial objects to occur in future is quite negligible. Astronomers theorized that the Oort cloud of comets could cross the path of our solar system every 26 million years, and would possibly rain comets on our planet for a few million years (Waldner 19). This prediction has not happened and it seems it will never happen.
Dinosaur basis of mass extinction theory do not give plausible explanation for extraterrestrial bodies since they occurred only once during the period of dinosaurs and there is no possibility of future occurrence. If there was subsequent occurrence of extraterrestrial bodies and concomitant loss of living organism, then this theory would be valid, but since the occurrence is indefinite, extraterrestrial bodies did not cause extinction of dinosaurs.
Selective extinction is another line of evidence that disapproves the dominant theory of dinosaur extinction. If the great impact of extraterrestrial bodies collision with Earth resulted into drastic climatic change, then under what mechanism did selective extinction occur? There is no credible explanation of the mechanisms surrounding extinction and survival of organisms.
The theory concentrates on extinction without giving plausible explanation of the survival mechanism of the other organisms. Moreover, extinction studies focus on dinosaur extinction alone and extrapolated findings, and may be, other organism did not undergo mass extinction as claimed.
Joblonski argues that, lack of understanding of the physiology of dinosaurs makes the issue more complex; if they were endothermic, why did they not survive like birds and mammals? If they were ectothermic, why did small dinosaurs not survive like small reptiles? (205). Hence, the mechanism of survival or extinction remains insufficient in explaining the nature of mass extinction.
In the determination and dating of the occurrence of extraterrestrial bodies, iridium deposits on the rock surface gives substantial evidence. Iridium originates from the solar system and their sedimentation on the rock surfaces signifies the occurrence of the extraterrestrial bodies. However, a new study has challenged the theory by claiming that those supposed clues are nothing more than fossilized balls of fungus, charcoal, and fecal pellets (Rogers 34).
The evidence shows that even organic matter that occur naturally on Earth when subjected to cycles of fire can produce iridium, which is a fossil complex. Therefore, fossils records have proved that fungal sediments are ubiquitous and their presence over a long period of history under intermittent fire out brakes transformed them into cretaceous fossils. Therefore, based on the evidence gathered in this research paper, the extinction of dinosaurs did not result from a massive impact event.
Works Cited
Joblonski, David. Mass Extinctions and Macroevolution. Paleobiology 31.2 (2005): 192210. Print.
Rogers, Phila. Berkeley Scientists Report First Evidence that Dinosaur Extinction Caused by Meteorite Impact. Science Archive Journal 3.2 (1979): 23-39. Print.
Waldner, David. Inferences and Explanations at the K/T Boundary&and Beyond. Theory and Evidence 6.4 (2003): 1- 38. Print.
Within the past 3 centuries humanity has been responsible for the near extinction of several species such as the blue fin tuna, whales, leopards, cheetahs, tigers, rhinos, elephants and a variety other animals too numerous name due to what can only be described as a systematized butchering of a vast swath of the animal kingdom.
In fact, dozens of animal species at the present can be placed on the endangered species list not out of them being hunted by humans but as a direct result of their local habitats being systematically affected by continued human expansion and the subsequent effect industrial pollutants have had on Earths closed off ecosystem.
For example, the Florida Everglades have been decreasing rapidly as a result of the unmitigated consumption of its fresh water system by the nearby cities as well as the fact that the continued construction of apartment buildings has continued to decrease the landmass of the Everglades by almost several dozen hectares a year. Coral reefs have been on the decline as result of higher water temperatures caused by global warming which has in effect robbed thousands of species of their habitats underwater.
Last but not least, the unabated release of fossil fuels into the Earths atmosphere has in effect caused a systematic increase in global temperatures which has lead to the melting of the polar ice caps causing a rise in sea levels which has offset the delicate balance of several ecosystems around the world.
Of particular interest is the impact the current trend in global warming has had on species within the Arctic since many of the inhabitants of this vast icy wasteland depend on the ice flows as a means of breeding, escape, hunting, foraging and a vast array of activities which animals in their natural habitat do on a daily basis.
Based on the various pieces of data that has been presented so far, it is evident that any dramatic changes within a particular ecosystem can and often will have an adverse effect on the species living within it (Tucker, 7 8).
The Arctic in particular with its vast ice sheets can be considered one of the most vulnerable areas in the world since with the current trend in increasing global temperature ranges especially when taking into consideration the combined effect of both the pollutants in the air as well as the sun entering its active phase after nearly a decade of dormancy this means that this upcoming new phase in Earths environment will definitely cause polar ice cap melting on an unprecedented scale (International Business, 9)
Taking all these factors into consideration the purpose of this paper is determine whether human activity could possibly lead to the extinction of several species within the arctic or if their subsequent population declines are a result of other external factors. Human activity has been shown to adversely affect ecosystems in the past and as such it is likely that it will cause the extinction of numerous species within the arctic if it continues unabated.
Declining Population of Polar Bears
A vast majority of the current polar bear population is on the decline with 8 of the recognized 19 polar bear subpopulations on a decline with only 20,000 to 25,000 thousands bears left in the wild today (Last-Chance Species, 104). While many observers may think that a population base of 20 to 25 thousand individuals may not necessarily equate into categorizing polar bears as being endangered you have to take the following factors into consideration:
1.) The Dodo itself wasnt initially considered endangered when it was found on the island of Mauritius yet due to the environmental nuances which necessitated its unique evolutionary predisposition towards becoming a flightless bird the result was that when its environment underwent a drastic change (hungry sailors were introduced into the mix) the result was the subsequent extinction of a species since the Dodo was unable to adapt quickly enough to its changing environment.
2.) Polar bears are a species that is uniquely adapted for life in the Arctic, just like the Dodo the polar bear has evolved based on the nuances inherent in its environment however this just means that this species has the same weakness (Cone, 46). Should any subsequent changes occur to the natural habit of polar bears whether in the form of shrinking ice sheets, declining prey populations or continued global warming this could have a disastrous effect on the species since it is ill-suited for any other type of environment (Torr, 4).
When taking into consideration the various accounts elaborating on the impact of global warming on the Arctic and how vast ice shelves and sheets could disappear within the next 50 years this does not bode well for the polar bear population or any population within the Arctic since without these ice masses the polar bear species will in effect become extinct within half a century.
Declining Population of other Arctic Species
First and foremost what must be understood is that a large percentage of the animal species that are in the Arctic at the present arent actually native inhabitants but are actually migrant populations that go to the Arctic during particular times of the year (Bohannon, 4) . For example, a variety of whales, seals, caribou, and several bird populations migrate to this area in order to procreate and feast on the abundant resources within the region.
Unfortunately, what should be taken into consideration is the fact that as human interference continues to escalate within the region such as overfishing, oil drilling, population expansion and the effects of global warming this has in effect disrupted the patterns of migration of several of the species within the region which have the possibility for a subsequent cascading effect.
For example, as overfishing reduces the amount of fish stock within the Arctic, seals which are one of the primary prey species of the polar bear would thus begin to migrate into regions that would have more fish available.
This would mean result in the outcome that polar bears would need to travel more in order to get food or the population would shrink as a result of the declining number of seals within the Arctic as well. It must also be noted that other species within the local area will also be similarly affected by changing climates within the area such as caribou and Snowy owls moving more in-land as the ice begins to recede.
Reasons behind Population Decline
Shrinking Environment
When examining the case of the polar bear and other Arctic species the main reason for their decline can be connected to global warming and how this shrinks their natural habitat. Within the past few years there have been news reports of increasing instances of species such as the polar bear and the arctic fox finding their way into various areas where people live such as in the outlying towns of Alaska and Canada.
This is particularly interesting to take note of since polar bear and arctic fox sightings are normally quite rare even in the wild and as such their increased presence near human civilization has been noted as indicative of the fact that something has been impacting their natural environments and causing them to go further in-land.
Scientific investigations into particular behavioral phenomena have turned up rather startling findings involving various polar bear carcasses within the surrounding waters of the Arctic which upon examination showed that they had drowned. This is particularly surprising since polar bears are actually one of the best swimmers of the animal kingdom.
Due to locations where the corpses were found (which were several miles from the nearest ice flow) and how it has been known that polar bears actually have a habit of swimming from ice flow to ice flow in order to catch prey, scientists hypothesize that the corpses found were of polar bears that had simply exhausted themselves swimming since they couldnt find an ice flow near enough which various scientists conclude is a direct result of increasing temperatures within the Arctic.
Of particular interest to scientists is the fact that as the ice sheets within the Arctic shrink various species that rely on the sheets for protection and for hunting (i.e. seals and various Arctic based avian species) will need to go farther and farther away from shore in order to hunt thus increasing their chances of either exhaustion or being hunted by predators (International Business, 9).
Not only that, as hunting grounds continue to shrink there will certainly be a degree of interspecies competition resulting in a subsequent population decreases as there are less resources to go around.
Fewer prey species
Another factor that should be taken into consideration is the impact warmer weather will have on certain prey species. Various studies have noted that abrupt temperature changes as well as gradual topographic changes within a short period of time actual result in lower reproduction rates since the sudden changes actually interferes with the reproductive cycle of certain species (King, 30-33).
For example, certain species of Arctic krill which feed hundreds of aquatic species within the Arctic are actually sensitive to sudden changes in water temperatures which has actually adversely affected their reproductive cycle causing fewer krill to appear per year.
This has a cascading effect among the other species within the local environment as their main source of food becomes fewer per year. (Wildlife Declines Observed Across Arctic, 4) Not only that, warmer temperatures are actually conducive towards the reproductive cycle of certain species of fish within the Arctic which has actually caused a boom in their population. Unfortunately fish are among one of the largest consumers of krill which as further caused a reduction in the population of the species.
While ordinarily this may seem like an effective alternative to krill for some species (i.e. seals and killer whales) what must be understood is that species such as Blue Whale subsist almost entirely on krill and as such with fewer krill appearing in the waters of the Arctic the population of Blue Whales would of course decrease as a direct result.
Human Activities and their Impact on Species Extinction
All of the problems presented so far can be connected to one incontrovertible fact, that it is human activity that is behind what can only be described as an imbalance within the natural order of the environment. As human civilization continues to expand it brings with it an ever increasing demand for resources such as food, raw materials and space. Not only that, increased levels of industrialization in the form of the ever growing number of factories will be needed as the hunger for consumer goods continues to increase as well.
Unfortunately the end result of such actions is an increased level of strain on the ecosystem of the planet which has manifested itself in various ways. This comes in the form of erratic weather patterns, extended cases of drought or flooding as well as numerous odd climate changes that are unprecedented in the planets history.
There have been a variety of reports indicating an increase in the number of typhoons around the world, stronger storms, more cases of tornadoes within Americas Midwest as well as an assortment of climactic shifts which many scientists state is indicative of the impact of humanitys activities on the planet.
Not only that, the hunger of humanity should not be underestimated, within the past century as the population has increased to seven billion individuals this has strained the ecologies of numerous areas around the world as various industries compete to harvest as much as they can in order to feed the insatiable hunger of the populace.
It is based on this that global warming and overharvesting can be stated as two of the main instruments that humanity has put into effect that are the primary causes of species extinction around the world either through habitat destruction or by merely being farmed into oblivion (Polar Bear Politics, 15).
Global Warming
The global warming phenomena has been traced to the continued release of greenhouse gases by factories, cars, and a variety of other industrial processes that have continued to grow unabated for the past century. Of particular interest is the fact that as these processes continue to expand as a direct result of the yearly human population increase this of course will have a negative impact on the global environment.
These increased temperatures have been shown to create stronger storms, droughts, floods and a variety of bizarre weather phenomena which many scientists have stated has actually lead to distinct changes in the reproductive cycle of certain animal species.
For example, it was seen that the rising water temperatures brought about by global warming have caused the eggs of certain species of fish to stop developing and merely die off. The inherent problem with this is that those eggs are needed in order to properly replenish the species that currently exist within the worlds oceans.
The impact of this on species in the Arctic is no less severe with the Snowy Owl, the Arctic Fox, the Polar Bear, seals and even Blue Whales experiencing delayed or otherwise absent reproductive cycles. With the cascading effects of a habitat wide decline in species this has the potential to wipe out a vast swath of species within not only the Arctic but all over the world as well (Bohannon, 4).
Overharvesting
As of late, a variety of fishing vessels have ventured into the waters near the Arctic in order to fish, this is due to the abundant marine life within the area as well as fewer competition from vessels from other countries. The inherent problem though with commercial fishing fleets is that they have a habit of not knowing when to stop due to the rising demand for fish in global markets.
This has put a subsequent strain on the aquatic populations within the Arctic making it that much more difficult for the species present to replenish themselves adequately. The impact of such a method of overharvesting is obvious, with fewer fish to eat animals such as Arctic seals, Killer Whales, and a variety of other native species that subsist on their consumption have experienced rapid declines in populations as a direct result of unmitigated fishing practices within the local area.
This creates a domino effect wherein species that were already endangered to begin with are now in critical condition since not only are they finding fewer prey species to eat but as a whole their entire food chain has been drastically affected leading to disruption and potential destruction of their habitat.
Extinction of Species within the Arctic
Possibility of Extinction within the next 50 years
One of the more interesting aspects of current concerns related to the possible extinction of polar bears and other arctic species within the next 50 years is that various pundits and critics have stated that it is highly unlikely that such species will become extinct since it all hinges on the polar icecaps melting as a direct result of global warming yet for them global warming is nothing more than a myth or an exaggerated concern.
For example, on the syndicated TV program Penn and Teller Bullsh*t it was argued that while it may be true that humanity is capable of influencing the natural environment what it is doing at the present is nowhere near what is necessary to cause the catastrophic events elaborated on by numerous climatologists.
They point out that the Sun itself goes through various phases of dormancy and activity within a decades long cycle and that we are merely entering into a period of increased solar activity hence the fact global temperatures have increased. It must also be noted that on average the Earths climate and topography is in a constantly shifting state that changes with or without human interference. For example, the polar icecaps actually used to be nearer to the meridian several thousand years ago as compared to their current location.
This means that as the topography of the Earth and the climate shifts there would of course be changes to the various habitats of animal species. Is this indicative of the fact that the Arctic may disappear, probably, however this doesnt mean that humanity was directly responsible for such changes to occur. In fact it might also be possible that the climate might shift again resulting in a restoration of the icecaps to their previous state.
Necessity of Intervention
On the other hand you have to take the following facts into consideration:
There is obviously some form of human impact on the global environment since subsequent increases in industrialization have results in greater amounts of greenhouse gases being released into the atmosphere which have been proven to cause increased temperatures (Stokstad, 2).
Overharvesting of various fish and aquatic specimens in the waters around the Arctic can lead to an imbalance in the food chain resulting in subsequent population declines.
It has been determined that there is a definite decline in nearly 4,000 species within the Arctic and as such is indicative of something affecting their growth rates.
When taking all these factors into consideration it becomes obvious that human activity has indeed affected the species within the Arctic for the worse and as such necessitates the need for intervention in order to ensure their continued survival (Stokstad, 2).
Conclusion
Based on the various arguments and data snippets presented it can be stated that it is the result of human activity in the form of global warming and overharvesting that has lead to the decline of numerous species within the arctic. As such, if nothing is done within the immediate future it is obvious that not only will polar bears vanish off of the face of the Earth but several thousand species as well will be similarly affected.
Works Cited
Bohannon, John. Where Will Animals Disappear Next?. Science Now 2006.156 (2006): 4. Academic Search Premier. Web.
Cone, Marla. On Thin Ice. Mother Jones 31.2 (2006): 46. International Security & Counter Terrorism Reference Center. Web.
International Business, Times. Global Warming Threatens Arctic Species With Extinction ESA Warns. International Business Times 9: Regional Business News. Web.
Of late, there has been a significant change in the populations of various species of animals. The number of species that was there a century ago is very different from what is there today. This number is changing at an alarming rate, an issue that is drawing the attention of many people around the globe. The affected species, the causes of the change, as well as the possible criterion of arresting the situation, forms the subject of their discussion.
Animal extinction is generally the termination of the life of the final individual of a certain species. This is the time when there is no more existence of the species. Extinction, though is usually a natural phenomenon, it is estimated that 99.9% of all the species that have ever lived are now extinct. (Newman, 1994).
The dinosaurs serve as a living example of a species that existed a few centuries ago but is completely nowhere today. The causes of extinction vary depending on the species. Inability to reproduce, which serves as the root precursor behind the extinction of a species is thought to come because of deteriorated health, old-age, absence of one animal of the opposite sex, scarce population of the animals, among others.
There exist quite a number of causes of animal extinction, some of which are undetectable, complicated, while others are easily identifiable. Just as each species is unique&so is each, extinction&the causes of each are varied& (Beverly & Stearns, 2000). Human activities play a key role in fuelling the disappearance of any species.
For instance, the increasing global human population has chased away a large number of animals, as people create settlement areas. It is not news that others end up killing them in their attempts to make settlement areas. In addition, the transfer of animals into new places, game parks/reserves, has also sped animal extinction. Some turn to be predators and food competitors of the others, a case that reduces the number of the affected. As this continues, the species might end. Over hunting, among others, are accountable as well.
A number of things are in place to help curb the situation. A lot of money has been raised to cater for advertisement expenses. These advertisements are purely addressing the issue of animal extinction. They let people know the reasons behind animal preservation, showing the critically affected animals, as well as the effect of the absence of those species on the entire food chain, in which man is major consumer, relying entirely on the rest.
Due to the increased deforestation, Ehrlich (1991) posits that stern actions have been introduced against any, found interfering with the habitats of animals. This includes jailing accompanied by a heavy fine. People have protested this issue outside offices of the relevant departments that deal with animals.
This has enlightened the need for urgency in their establishing of the necessary steps worthy taking, to help rescue the affected species. The agencies that deal with animal protection are highly funded today to help them employ more people who protect these animals on a daily basis.
In conclusion, animal extinction is a sensitive issue that needs to be addressed to all people. This follows from what has been realized of late that, failure to this, human species is not far from suffering the consequences. As a result, measures ought to be taken, early in advance, to help prevent, rather than curing.
Reference List
Beverly, P., & Stearns, C. (2000). Preface: Watching, from the Edge of Extinction. Yale University Press.
Ehrlich, A. (1981). Extinction: The Causes and Consequences of the Disappearance of Species. New York: Random House.
Newman, M. (1994). A Mathematical Model for Mass Extinction. Cornell University Press.
The dialects that are in the linguistic minority such as the Suzhou dialect tend to be out of use as it occurs in East Chinas Jiangsu Province, where it is replaced by the dominant language. Hu Shuning remembers that the promotion of Putonghua was spread across education and media that led to the reduced use of the Suzhou dialect. The interviewee notes that a dialects unique words show the lifestyle and traditions of the people who speak it (Yiqian).
After the establishment of Putonghua as the official language, many people began to consider this language to be the only correct one. In spite of the mentioned difficulties, many young people understand the role of their dialects and try to preserve them.
For example, Hu Shuning introduces a special account on the prominent WeChat social network that teaches her dialect. This account offers lessons on a daily basis, allowing people to learn it whenever and wherever they want, thus developing their native traditions and lifestyle. It should be emphasized that not only Chinese but also foreigners understand the great capacity of dialects. For instance, Kellen Parker and Steve Hanson, the American contributors, designed Phonemica, the website devoted to Chinese dialects and focused on various spoken stories.
Role of the Dialect
When it comes to Chinese, many people think that this is a monolithic and indivisible language spoken by every Chinese citizen. The problem of the reduction and extinction of the local dialects is one of the most sensitive and unresolved issues in China. In fact, Chinese is a collection of a large number of dialects, differing in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. There are seven main groups of the Chinese language: Putonghua, Yue, Cantonese, Minh, Hakka, Gan, and Xiang.
In addition to dialects, there are vernaculars within each of them, differing in stress or pronunciation of sounds. For example, well-known Putonghua in different cities of China sounds differently. The division of the Chinese language into dialect groups is due in most cases to geographical or historical factors. Each of the dialects of the Chinese language has all the criteria to have the status of a separate language, but a single written language for the whole of China ensures the integrity of this language.
Thus, the review of the given news article shows that Chinese, especially young people are aware of the current threatening situation with regards to dialects. Most importantly, they are ready to act and call others to action.
A rather important and culturally specific information can disappear forever with the extinction of the dialect. For example, knowledge of the unique medicines or receipts used by the local groups can be lost in case their dialect loses its place to some other formation, and this valuable information will be overwhelmed by knowledge from other cultures or merely forgotten. It is through the dialects the literary language is enriched and preserved to reveal the future generations a nations cultural values.
With the help of the dialect, a separate ethnos or nation preserves and transmits its culture and traditions. More to the point, dialects embody the national revival, preservation, and development. The dialect reveals the way of life of people, their values and landmarks, history and destiny. Every person who has mastered the dialect of his or her native culture has a certain way of thinking and vision. Therefore, the diversity of dialects can be regarded as the foundation of the contemporary multinational society.
Work Cited
Yiqian, Zhan. Locals, Foreigners try to Keep Chinese Dialects Alive Despite Putonghua Dominance.Global Times. 2017. Web.
The dialects that are in the linguistic minority such as the Suzhou dialect tend to be out of use as it occurs in East Chinas Jiangsu Province, where it is replaced by the dominant language. Hu Shuning remembers that the promotion of Putonghua was spread across education and media that led to the reduced use of the Suzhou dialect. The interviewee notes that a dialects unique words show the lifestyle and traditions of the people who speak it (Yiqian).
After the establishment of Putonghua as the official language, many people began to consider this language to be the only correct one. In spite of the mentioned difficulties, many young people understand the role of their dialects and try to preserve them.
For example, Hu Shuning introduces a special account on the prominent WeChat social network that teaches her dialect. This account offers lessons on a daily basis, allowing people to learn it whenever and wherever they want, thus developing their native traditions and lifestyle. It should be emphasized that not only Chinese but also foreigners understand the great capacity of dialects. For instance, Kellen Parker and Steve Hanson, the American contributors, designed Phonemica, the website devoted to Chinese dialects and focused on various spoken stories.
Role of the Dialect
When it comes to Chinese, many people think that this is a monolithic and indivisible language spoken by every Chinese citizen. The problem of the reduction and extinction of the local dialects is one of the most sensitive and unresolved issues in China. In fact, Chinese is a collection of a large number of dialects, differing in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. There are seven main groups of the Chinese language: Putonghua, Yue, Cantonese, Minh, Hakka, Gan, and Xiang.
In addition to dialects, there are vernaculars within each of them, differing in stress or pronunciation of sounds. For example, well-known Putonghua in different cities of China sounds differently. The division of the Chinese language into dialect groups is due in most cases to geographical or historical factors. Each of the dialects of the Chinese language has all the criteria to have the status of a separate language, but a single written language for the whole of China ensures the integrity of this language.
Thus, the review of the given news article shows that Chinese, especially young people are aware of the current threatening situation with regards to dialects. Most importantly, they are ready to act and call others to action.
A rather important and culturally specific information can disappear forever with the extinction of the dialect. For example, knowledge of the unique medicines or receipts used by the local groups can be lost in case their dialect loses its place to some other formation, and this valuable information will be overwhelmed by knowledge from other cultures or merely forgotten. It is through the dialects the literary language is enriched and preserved to reveal the future generations a nations cultural values.
With the help of the dialect, a separate ethnos or nation preserves and transmits its culture and traditions. More to the point, dialects embody the national revival, preservation, and development. The dialect reveals the way of life of people, their values and landmarks, history and destiny. Every person who has mastered the dialect of his or her native culture has a certain way of thinking and vision. Therefore, the diversity of dialects can be regarded as the foundation of the contemporary multinational society.
Work Cited
Yiqian, Zhan. Locals, Foreigners try to Keep Chinese Dialects Alive Despite Putonghua Dominance.Global Times. 2017. Web.
The presence of biota in the environment such as microbes, plankton, plants, and animals are indicative of the qualitative conditions of the environment, commonly referring to as biological indicators. Invertebrates account for the 95% of species in the animal kingdom (Smith, Ph.D., 1991) and have become widely used to evaluate and monitor major pollutant stress both inland and aquatic environments, and its rapid loss of species in both habitats led to abundant efforts on studies that focus on biodiversity (Pechenik, 2015). The insects (Class Insecta) from Phylum Arthropoda are highly adaptable having evolved to live successfully in most environments (Hoffman & Frodsham, 1993) and are responsible for many processes in the ecosystem however its loss can have a major drawback on entire communities (Almeida, et al., 2011). These bioindicators effectively respond to changes such as disturbances and stresses. According to Holt & Miller (2010), changes that attribute to pollution and land-use changes are called anthropogenic stressors. Most of the gradual changes in the environment are brought about by human activities which furthermore contribute to the endangerment of these biological indicators. This paper aims to analyze the impacts in the ecology as insect indicators face the threat of extinction brought about by human-induced drivers.
Insects as Primary Biological Indicators
According to Andrade (1998) and Peck, et al. (1998), insects are abundant and diverse, easy to be reared, and have good organism responses to small environmental changes. These characteristics make them potent representatives as bioindicators. Corbet (1980) confirms that Odonata (dragonflies) species are indicators in aquatic ecosystems like lakes and flooded drainage areas as they are sensitive to water quality change. Ephemeroptera (mayflies) and Plecoptera (stoneflies) have high adaptive capacity reflecting ecological changes (Hardersen, 2000). Order Coleoptera (beetles) have many indicator species representing 20% of the total diversity of arthropods. Scarabaeidae Family (scarab beetles) are used in forest and agricultural cultures in maintaining soil quality and formation, population regulation, and energy flow. Carabidae Family (ground beetles) are used in monitoring oil, sulfur, herbicide, CO2, and insecticide pollution (Carlton & Robison, 1998). Halobates and some species under Diptera (flies and mosquitos) and Lepidoptera (moth and butterflies) are heavy metal indicators (Almeida, et al., 2011). Meanwhile, ants act as indicators for soil quality in degraded and reforested areas (Peck, et al., 1998). Urbini, et al. (2006) showed that bees are used to monitor trace metals, radioactivity, pesticides, herbicides, and industrial pollutants and further supported by Ghini, et al. (2004) that honeybees (Apis mellifera) whereas act as pollination indicators as they show environment chemical impairment due to high mortality rate and intercept particles suspended in air or flowers. Groups under Hymenoptera (wasps), Hemiptera (aphids) and Isoptera (termites) are also pollination and pollution indicators.
Rate of Insect Decline
There are over 8 million estimated number of animal and plant species with 5.5 million insect species (United Nations, 2019) with only one-fifth of the overall insect species are named (Stork, 2018). Despite this large number, about 41% of global insect species are declining over the past decade compared with 22% of declining vertebrate species (Sánchez-Bayo & Wyckhuys, 2019). These disappearances are part of the gathering sixth mass extinction of animals – otherwise called Holocene extinction – since the last 66 million years which had lost 76% species including dinosaurs and other life forms (Greshko, 2019). IPBES (2019) were then able to estimate 10% of 5.5 million insect species and 10% of 2.5 million non-insect species with a total of 1 million animal and plant species facing the threat of extinction for the decades to come. The rate of insect extinction is 2.5% a year, which is eight times faster than that of mammals, birds, and reptiles. Most of the greatly affected terrestrial taxa are Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), Hymenoptera (wasps, bees, and ants), and Coleoptera (beetles). In the aquatic ecosystem, four major taxa Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies), Plecoptera (stoneflies), Trichoptera (caddisflies), and Ephemeroptera (mayflies) have already had a considerable loss. Among which are valuable environment indicators (Sánchez-Bayo & Wyckhuys, 2019).
Human Activities as Drivers of Insect Extinction
The emergence of human activities over the past decades resulted in multiple impacts furthermore contributing to driving these organisms to extinction. Such activities mainly refer to dwindling and loss of habitat of insect assemblages followed by triggering drivers such as degradation and fragmentation which associates with deforestation, agricultural expansion, and urbanization (Cardoso, et al., 2020). Pollution becomes a key driver for insect extinction through the intensive use of pesticides (insecticides and herbicides) as its toxicity and lethal effects greatly impact insect population and habitat alteration (Brühl and Zaller, 2019). Insect population faces an even greater threat because of undetected effects on insect physiology and behavior posed by bioaccumulation and chronic pressure due to exposure to heavy metals (Desneux, et al., 2007). Light pollution interferes and desynchronizes natural activities of insects (e.g. fireflies) such as feeding, egg-laying, and causes mismatches in mutualistic interactions, being vulnerable to change in natural light/dark cycles (Owens & Lewis, 2018). Noise pollution changes and interferes with the acoustic and auditory surveillance of insects in its environment (Morley, et al., 2014).
Anthropogenic introduction of new invasive species outside of their natural zone also poses a threat to native insects. Vulnerable ones being those with narrow geographical distribution and specialist feeding habits having to face direct predation, competition, and vectoring of diseases (Wagner & Van Driesche, 2010). In correlation, with the addition of invasive plants, it reduces the quantity and quality of food leading to the decline in essential resources for many insects due to its monotypic nature (Cardoso, et al., 2020). Overexploitation is also a driver in insect loss as these organisms are harvested for decoration and medicinal uses. Human-induced climate change leads to multifaceted responses greatly affecting shifts in species distribution (Chen, et al., 2011), extinction, and unexpectable cumulative effects at different ecosystem levels (Peñuelas, et al., 2013). On top of that, other insects became co-dependent with endangered insects being vulnerable to co-extinction (Dunn, et al., 2009). Insect reproduction is even more disrupted due to a sudden increase in temperature and defragmentation. An example is insects like the Malaysian firefly (Pteroptyx tener) residing along the Selangor River and Rembau-Linggi Estuary that needs riverbank mangrove for adult courtship and larval habitat but has been converted to aquaculture farms thus limiting the range of firefly dispersal (Jusoh and Hashim, 2012; Khoo, et al., 2012).
Extinction of Insect Indicator Species and its Impact on Ecology
Insects are at the forefront of ecosystem services. Human survival is greatly dependent on ecosystem services like pollination, biological control, food provisioning, and recycling organic matter which are provided by insects (Noriega, et al., 2017). The sudden decline of insect abundance across the globe affects the biomass or energy flow through trophic levels. Consequentially, many ecosystem services are affected leading to the deterioration of ecosystem functionality and resilience, food web structure, species interactions such as plant-pollinators, and population persistence (Losey & Vaughan, 2006). As far as food webs are concerned, insects play a foundation role. In the ecosystem, insects are naturally eaten by frogs, reptiles, cattle, birds, pigs, poultry, and fish which makes up their diet as it consists of approximately 42 to 63% protein and up to 36% fat (Makkar, et al., 2014). Without insects, there will be no food for insectivores which includes amphibians and reptiles until such time that the population of these organisms will decrease. The animals that are dependent on amphibians and reptiles would be affected next as it will adjust to the scarcity of its food source. This process turns into a cascading effect until it further reaches to humans.
As insects provide nourishment in the food chain, they also uphold the sustenance of plant life. Approximately 80% of all known green plants on Earth are represented by flowering plants or angiosperms (Cronquist & Berry, 2019), which require pollination from insects. Hymenopterans (honeybees, solitary bees, bumblebees, pollen wasps and ants), Lepidopterans (butterflies and moths), Dipterans (flies, hoverflies, and mosquitoes), and Coleopterans (fireflies and beetles) are known insect pollinators (Bartomeus, et al., 2014). Agents like the wind may assist in the pollination process but only account for 12.5% of all flowering plants (Ollerton, et al., 2011). Insect pollinators affect 75 percent of the crop species enhancing an average crop yield between 18 and 71% (Bartomeus, et al., 2014). Nearly 78% in temperate-zone communities to 94% in tropical communities of flowering species benefit from insect-mediated pollination for production and evolution, thus, biotic pollination is functionally important for the diversification of major groups of plants (Ollerton, et al., 2011). Extinction of these insects means no major pollinators to lead the dispersal of plants. This means no fruit, vegetables, and crops like rice and wheat, consequently, no sustainable food for cows, pigs, poultry, and fish. In toto, trophic levels are greatly affected as most organisms would suffer from starvation and would cease to exist, eventually initiating a catastrophic crisis. Nearly all biotic components are insect-dependent. The disappearance of insects ultimately disrupts the biomass and energy flow of the ecosystem (Losey & Vaughan, 2006).
Near extinction of valuable indicators also allows persistent invasive pest species to emerge. Insects also occupy in a vertical manner (Stork, et al., 2016), composed of few common and rare species which contribute to hyper-diversity or called beta-diversity. Anthropogenic pressures that homogenize natural systems decrease beta-diversity by removing rare species and native species. These causes to allow secondary invasions of dominant alien invasive insects that outcompete and effectively replace rare species and reduce niche space (Swart, et al., 2019). This also causes insects to partition themselves across time. Most insects like cicadas and bush-crickets call at different frequencies to avoid overlap. Warmer temperatures interfere with arthropod phenology. Due to the alteration of host tree cycles (Karban, et al., 2000), 17-year periodic cicadas emerged after just 13 years in 2017 (Sheikh, 2017). Simultaneously, insects as decomposers are also an essential part of the biosphere. Coleopterans (carrion beetles, rove beetles, hister beetles, dermestid beetles, and dung beetles), Dipterans (flies), and Isopterans (termites) are key families in decomposition. The disappearance of these valuable decomposers means an overload volume of carcasses and dung. A historic example would be the introduction of cattle to Australia from Britain back in 1788 (Losey and Vaughan, 2006). In Britain, dung beetles normally eat and break down cattle dung while Australia had no insect fauna to process it. The dung fouled the rangeland and provided fodder for pest species (Dadour & Allen, 2001). Dung as moist habitats encourages the density of cattle parasites and pest flies (Fincher, 1981) like the pestiferous bush fly (Musca vetustissima) (Dadour & Allen 2001). Dung beetles from family Scarabaeidae are efficient in decomposing wastes, enhancing forage palatability, recycle nitrogen, and reduced pest habitat (Fincher, 1981). With dung beetles absent, cattle feces that remain undecomposed dries up and lose a large proportion of inorganic nitrogen into the atmosphere (Gillard, 1967).
Insects, being the forefront of ecosystem services and functional diversity, are crucial in maintaining communities and cohesion in ecological networks (Guimarães Jr., et al., 2017). Beetles, flies, and bees are common connectors in the modular structure that form inter-module interactions and relations (Olesen, et al., 2007). In this case, major insect indicator extinctions not only reduce species diversity but also simplify networks (Tylianakis, et al., 2008), however, they may vary according to the role of species. Loss of specialist insects although will keep the structure remain. In contrast, the loss of generalist insects erodes and changes the architecture, resulting in more extinction cascades and fragmentation of networks into isolated modules (Dunne, et al., 2002). Insect drives coevolution between interactions with plants resulting in remarkable trait complementarities like pollination and ant protection of plants (Bronstein, et al., 2006). Insect extinction will affect direct partners, ultimately incapacitating and severing entire community-wide trait integration.
Insects as biological indicators are greatly affected at an alarming rate due to drivers caused by anthropogenic stressors. Known insect indicators provide services like pollination, biological control, food provision, and organic matter recycling in which biotic components are greatly dependent on. Being largely essential to the biosphere, extinction of these organisms pose catastrophic threats to the dynamics of the ecosystems worldwide. While entomologists regard this as frightening and cause serious concerns, other researchers add that there is no need as scientists still have 80 percent of the estimated insect species that are undescribed. However, with the rate of extinction per year, it is appropriate to assume immediate action and mitigate detrimental human activities as some insects undergo extinction even before being described.
For my great ape, I chose the Gorilla. I chose this because I think it is a very common ape that most people know of. I was not, however, aware that they are close to extinction which is very saddening to hear. Going to the zoo and seeing them walk around might soon be a thing of the past. Gorillas originate from Africa and typically travel in large groups of up to 50. Although they all originate from the same place they do have different habitats. Some include living in mountain ranges while others prefer to live on flat land.
In an article titled World’s largest gorillas ‘one step from going extinct’ written by Kerry Sheridan, he states in the opening paragraph that Gorillas are quickly becoming extinct mostly due to illegal hunting. Most of this hunting is taking place in the Democratic Republic of Congo. In an article published on Primate Info Net it states that Gorillas face three main challenges in their habitat, these include forest clearance, disease, and hunting.
Forest clearance is becoming a big issue because humans are taking down trees in order for construction which leaves these animals without a home. In a study by the Food and Agriculture Organization, it states that in Africa exceeded the global average of .08%. This greatly affects Gorillas for several reasons. One is that it is tearing down their homes so they are forced to change environments. The second reason being that Gorillas primarily eat vegetation so their food sources are being removed which can cause starvation.
Disease is also a cause of Gorillas extinction. Due to the fact that Gorillas are closely related to humans, it means they can also develop the same diseases that we do. However, they do not have the same treatments and medical care. This results in the deaths of many Gorillas because they can not fight off diseases the same way a human could. Along with this, since the species travel in groups, if one Gorilla is affected by a disease it is very likely that it will spread along the rest of the group.
The third main cause of Gorilla extinction would be hunting. The reason for this can range from illegal meat trade to something as unfortunate as an accident. Some people hunt these animals illegally in order to get their meat. Other instances include animal traps that are not meant for Gorillas but accidentally cause them harm instead of what the desired result was. Whether people are killing these animals on purpose or an accident, it does not change the fact that this is a big reason for their soon to be extinction.
As you can see from all of these causes of extinction, humans do play a big role in it. Although disease is not something we can necessarily help, things such as deforestation and hunting could be prevented. Humans could stop poaching Gorillas as well as not tear down their forests. These two things alone would help tremendously with the extinction of these animals. Along with this, just bringing awareness to the dying spices could also help a lot. I was not aware of how endangered they were and I’m sure there are lots of other people that are also not. Spreading the word and giving information about these animals and their reason for extinction could play a big role in saving them.
The phenomenon of animal extinction has been the talking point for a broad variety of people and organizations recently. Due to the increased rates of globalization and the rapid development of industries, the effect that the humankind has been producing on the environment has been amplified (Psihoyos 3). As a result, a range of habitats have been affected and nearly destroyed, which, in turn, has led to multiple species having gone extinct or been brought to the verge of extinction (“Why Animal Extinction Matters”). The resulting disruption in the balance observed in nature and the possible threat of uncontrollable changes, which may include drastic lack of resources in certain areas and the following threats of famine, invasive species, or other disasters, should be brought to public attention as a looming threat. For this reason, causes and effects of animal extinction must be scrutinized closely so that the key factors could be located. With a careful, all-embracive analysis of main causes and effects of animal extinction, strategies for mitigating it or, at the very least, curbing its drastic rates, will be produced.
Context and History
The phenomenon of animal extinction might seem a comparatively recent development caused by the years of people’s destructive actions and especially the industrial development. However, the phenomenon of species emerging and disappearing off the face of the earth has been taking place throughout the evolution process due to gradual changes to the environment and natural transformations of it (Smith). What causes particular concern in the observations of species development and disappearance is the recent unnatural rate at which they become extinct, as well as the detrimental effects that the described unpredictable changes have on nature and organic life on Earth, in general (Girling 36). Therefore, to examine the phenomenon of animal extinction, it is reasonable to start with the era of global industrial development and the effects that it has had on nature.
To understand the factors underlying the current problem of species extinction, one must consider climate change as the main culprit since it shapes the environment in which species thrive, disrupting naturally developed ecosystems. In turn, industrial development and increased pollution rates as its direct effect must be seen as the main culprit in defining climate change on the global scale (Psihoyos 5). It would be unfair to claim that no efforts have been applied to address the situation. On the contrary, the problem of animal extinction has been considered on a global level (). Moreover, multiple strategies for supporting specific species and habitats have been deployed, with varying success rate (). Nevertheless, the current situation remains worthy of significant concern since it has been escalating at an alarming rate for quite a while.
Namely, even with the efforts taken recently to safeguard nature and endangered species, the problem of animal extinction continues to grow, gradually spinning out of control. According to the recent studies, the range of endangered species is increasing due to the rise in the velocity of global warming (Saeed et al.). Specifically, the authors claim that the population of frogs endemic to wetlands in Northern Pakistan has been declining unreasonably fast (Saeed et al.). Therefore, further steps must be taken to mitigate the phenomenon of animal extinction.
Stakeholders and Their Positions
Animals and nature, in general, remain the key stakeholders in the ongoing discussion concerning the preservation of nature. Being particularly vulnerable and severely underrepresented, the specified stakeholders require additional protection provided by law and global policies aimed at nature conservation (Smith). Furthermore, the humankind, in general, should also be considered a major stakeholder in the management of the existing situation and the prevention of further harm caused by the lack of concern for and caution toward nature and its fragility. Saini explains that the human role in the increased rate of species extinction has been confirmed and can be described as the leading one. Specifically, the lack of willingness to take action and accept responsibility for the damage caused by the absence of caring should be seen as the primary factors in the observed problem development. Remarkably, the general position of the global community, in general, on the issue of animal extinction remains mostly neutral, with the efforts undertaken by few organizations, such as the World Wide Fund for Nature, being undermined by general indifference toward the subject matter among individuals (Saini).
Industries, particularly, those that cause especially strong damage to the environment, should also be regarded as the key stakeholders in the discussion regarding animal extinction. Although industries play the role of a huge magnitude in destroying habitats and forests globally, the economic growth that they facilitate also needs to be taken into account. Therefore, restricting the extent of the resources available to manufacturers will lead to a rapid economic decline, which is also an undesirable outcome.
Finally, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and charities aimed at supporting nature and preventing its destruction must be seen as important stakeholders in the argument concerning animal extinction. Investing into animal protection, these organizations provide the resources for curbing the rates of animal extinction and ecosystems destruction. Thus, they represent an important side in the argument under analysis.
Thesis and Possible Arguments
In order to curb the current rates of animal extinction, the present capitalist approach toward, managing human-animal relations and the use of natural resources must be scrutinized and deconstructed with the focus on sustainability and ethics. Particularly, the need to view animals as living beings equally deserving sympathy must be promoted as one of the foundational steps toward improving the current situation (Stuart and Gunderson 71). In turn, the issue of defaunation, which has been observed continuously for a significant time span as a result of the increased fast food production and the resulting rise in the range of green areas used as pasture fields, also must be addressed promptly. Galetti et al. suggests that the shift toward lesser consumerism rates and the reduced production rates should occur as the means of minimizing the amount of wasted food and resources (318).
Embracing the existing alternatives concerning the management of global environmental changes without impairing the present economic growth, one should consider the opportunities associated with transitioning to a new mode of production. Stewart and Gunderson (2018) emphasize the necessity to transition from the capital ethos that is actively promoted in the current global capitaloscene to the human-animal relations based on the principles of sustainability. Thus, the instrumentalization of animals and the perspective that allows viewing them purely as commodities will be minimized (Stewart & Gunderson, 2018). Thus, a new ethos for approaching human-animal relations, which is rooted in sympathy and appreciation for animals’ lives, should be interpreted as one of the main alternatives to the current capitalist framework of perceiving animas and other natural resources.
Works Cited
Galetti, Mauro, et al. “Causes and Consequences of Large-Scale Defaunation in the Atlantic Forest.” The Atlantic Forest. Springer, Cham, 2021. 297-324.
Girling, Richard. “Whales in Peril: Deep Impact.” The Times, 2010, Web.
Psihoyos, Louie. Racing Extinction. Abramorama, 2015.
Saeed, Muhammad, et al. “Rise in Temperature Causes Decreased Fitness and Higher Extinction Risks in Endemic Frogs at High Altitude Forested Wetlands in Northern Pakistan.” Journal of Thermal Biology, vol. 2021. Web.
Saini, Divya. “Animal Extinction and Ways of Preventing the Human Role in it.” International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research Review, vol. 3, no. 10. Web.
Smith, Fraser D. M., et al. “How Much Do We Know About the Current Extinction Rate?” Trends in Ecology & Evolution, Elsevier Current Trends, 13 Nov. 2003, Web.
Stuart, Diana, and Ryan Gunderson. “Human-Animal Relations in the Capitalocene: Environmental Impacts and Alternatives.” Environmental Sociology, vol. 6, no. 1, 2020, pp. 68-81.
“Why Animal Extinction Matters.” Washington Post, 2017. Web.
Extinction Rebellion activists are demanding that governments around the world declare a “climate and environmental emergency” and address it immediately. Representatives of the movement insist that their methods are exclusively non-violent acts of civil disobedience. The Extinction Rebellion movement was created in 2018, and, according to the organizers, now it has spread to dozens of countries where there are groups ready to participate in protests. The logo of the movement is a circle with an hourglass inside. They symbolize time, which is becoming less and less for many endangered species on the planet. In the UK, the movement has three main demands: the government must declare a “climate emergency”; Britain must make a legal commitment to reduce its carbon emissions to zero by 2025; a specially created “public council” should monitor the progress of environmental reforms. In April 2019, Extinction Rebellion held a large-scale action in London. For 11 days, they blocked the most important transport arteries of the British capital. As a result of this action, more than 1,100 people were arrested – most on suspicion of disobeying the police, who demanded that the activists move. Some activists have glued themselves to trains and the doors of the London Stock Exchange. Some went on a march towards Heathrow airport; others chained themselves to fences and pipes – like 83-year-old Phil Kingston, who did it “for the sake of his grandchildren” near the Oxford Circus metro station in the very center of the British capital. Representatives of the movement consider it justified to smash windows and damage other property. According to them, such methods are necessary, but at the same time, activists are “extremely careful” with ordinary people. Most of the movement supporters are young people; among those aged 18 to 24, almost half support traffic violations to draw attention to the slogans of the Extinction Rebellion. Famous people also stood up for Extinction Rebellion, particularly actress Emma Thompson and musicians from Radiohead and Massive Attack bands.
Feedback
It seems to me that their agenda concerning significantly reducing carbon emissions in just six years will require harsh transport restrictions; people will have to radically reconsider their diet, giving up meat and dairy products. In addition, serious investments in renewable energy are needed. However, the participants in Extinction Rebellion insist that the future of the planet depends on this, and there is simply no other way out. However, they do not provide recommendations on what exactly the measures should be to combat climate change. This approach seems counterproductive to me because, to achieve recognition and active changes, it is necessary to present a positive program of action, strategy, and tactics.
The relationship between man and the environment is something that has been in existence from the onset. It can be noted that human beings have always had a relationship with the environment in their quest to survive. In this respect, the relationship has either been constructive or destructive to the environment (Redman 1999: 13).
Notably, human societies have depended on animals for food and other uses. Apart from the relationship between human societies and animals, other aspects of the environment have also been affected. These relationships have resulted in massive destruction of the environment. The ancient societies entirely depended on the environment for their survival. To some extent, this led to the destruction of the environment (Redman 1999: 16).
This has brought about a great interest among archaeologists who are interested in uncovering how the ancient societies related to the environment. In this respect, there are two articles that looked at how ancient societies related with their environment.
This includes the article by Kitty Emery entitled “Assessing the impact of ancient Maya animal use” and that by Alan P. Garfinkel, David A. Young and Robert M. Yohe II entitled “Bighorn hunting, resource depression, and rock art in the Coso Range, eastern California: a computer simulation model”. This paper compares the two articles which centres on the extinction of animals due to the activities of the human societies.
Assessing the impact of ancient Maya animal use
In this article, the author aspired to establish the impacts of ancient hunting on animal populations among the Mayan society between the years 2000 BC and AD 1697. This is a period associated with the Pre-classic and Colonial periods respectively.
The ancient Maya society lived within the southern lowland regions located in Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, and Mexico. Zoo-archaeological information from 35 faunal sub-samples retrieved from 25 sites was used in the study (Emery 2007: 184). This information was used to establish the impacts of hunting on animal population among the ancient Mayan society.
In this study, the varying trends on the abundance of certain species were used to describe changes observed in the hunting practices and the animal species that were hunted. This information was interpreted basing on the hunting efficiency models from the foraging ecology. From the archaeological data collected, it was established that there was a considerable reduction in the proportion of large mammals.
This was particularly in reference to the Odocoileus virginianus species between the Late Classic period and the Terminal Classic/Post Classic period. Therefore, it can be deduced that the reduction of the Odocoileus virginianus species was due to overhunting that characterized the Last Classic period. This meant that the animals were not available for the Mayan societies that lived in the later periods (Emery 2007: 190).
This study recognized that, although the foraging theories assumes a direct relationship between the abundance of animals and hunting, animal population are also affected by changes within the animal habitat. Changes in habitat are inevitable because human population keep increasing. In this respect, there is archaeological evidence pointing to the presence of massive, ancient deforestation and soil erosion during the Pre-classic and Late Classic periods (Emery 2007: 190).
Notably, the land occupied by the Maya changed from a heavily forested land to a land that was covered with scrub forests, savannahs, and grassland in the Classic period. This had far-reaching impacts on the availability of large mammals such as the Odocoileus virginianus species (Emery 2007: 191).
Another aspect leading to the depletion of the large animals could be the increase in the societal stratification. During the Late Classic period, there were numerous elites among the Mayan society, and this meant that the demand for wildlife was high. This is because some species were hunted for culturally symbolic reasons.
Such animals included the Panthera onca, other felids, monkeys, and some bird species (Emery 2007: 191). In this respect, it can be summed up that the extinction of some animal species in ancient Mayan society can be attributed to various factors including cultural aspects, climate changes, and human activities.
Bighorn hunting, resource depression, and rock art in the Coso Range, eastern California: a computer simulation model
In this article, Alan P. Garfinkel and his associates set out to establish “the relationship between aboriginal hunting; forager ecology; bighorn prey population levels and the production of rock art” (Garfinkel, et al 2010: 42). The authors reviewed archaeofaunal evidence suggesting that the Coso desert bighorn sheep species was heavily exhausted during the Newbery era after 1500 B.C.
Also, the authors focused on the dating of rock art indicating a relationship between the reduction in the bighorn and the increase in the rock art activities. Also, the authors looked at the arrival of Numic foragers who were in competition with the Pre-Numics and were responsible for the termination of the Coso rock art tradition (Garfinkel, et al 2010: 50).
In this study, computer simulation model was used in the analysis of the findings. It was concluded that the Coso Pre-numic artists heightened their activities at a time when there was a reduction in the sheep population. The reduction in the sheep population is attributed to the aspect of prestige among the people. In this society, bighorn images were prevalent when there was great importance attached to large game hunting.
When it became apparent that bighorn were scarce, high prestige was given to any hunter who managed to hunt the bighorn successfully. Other cultural aspects such as ritual activities and ceremonies were also associated with game meat. Notably, the successful hunter was accorded leadership roles, power and influence (Garfinkel, et al 2010: 50).
Conclusion
There is no doubt that man has continued to interact with the environment for survival. Human activities have continued to affect the environment differently. In most instances, this relation has been negative leading to the destruction of environment in general. Essentially, the ancient societies were totally dependent on the environment in supporting their existence.
In this respect, the two articles focus on how the ancient societies related with the environment and how the relationship led to the extinction of some animal species. In the article by Kitty Emery, it was established that the extinction of animals was due to cultural aspects, climate changes and human activities.
On the other hand, Alan P. Garfinkel and his associates focused on the cultural aspect of prestige as the main reason as to why the bighorn sheep became extinct. Therefore, it can be noted that the two articles focused on how human activities can lead to destruction of the environment. This is reflected in the way human activities among the ancient societies, which have been analysed, led to the extinction of certain animal species.
References
Emery, Kitty F. 2007 Assessing the impact of ancient Maya animal use. Journal for Nature Conservation 15: 184-195.
Garfinkel, Alan P., et al. 2010 Bighorn hunting, resource depression, and rock art in the Coso Range, eastern California: a computer simulation model. Journal of Archaeological Science 37: 42-51.
Redman, Charles L. 1999 Human impact on ancient environments. Tucson: Univ. of Arizona Press.