Category: Explorer

Public Service Motivation and Police

Public Service Motivation (hereafter: PSM) is crucial to any governmental institution. (Borst & Lako, 2017; Leisink & Steijn, 2009; Schott, Neumann, Baertschi, & Ritz, 2019) According to Perry and Wise (Perry & Wise, 1990), PSM refers to public servants being motivated by their willingness to benefit others rather than their own when performing public services. This would distinguish them from private sector employees. As such, PSM is comprised of three dimensions. First, the rational component relates to the intrinsic motivation of public officials. Secondly, the affective element presumes that public servants have a high degree of compassion and willingness to self-sacrifice. Finally, the normative element of PSM finds that civil servants possess a high degree of morality; and upholding this motivates them. These three dimensions would make for the ideal type of public servant. They will serve as the theoretical blueprint to further assess PSM within the Dutch National Police.

There are both academic and societal reasons for delving into PSM in the Dutch National Police. First, despite often being one of the largest public agencies, the academic body of knowledge seldom discusses PSM in law enforcement. Secondly, the Dutch National Police had a strike in early 2019 due to labor shortage and heavy workload. Such a phenomenon makes researching PSM in the police force relevant to society (Brown, 2019)

This paper assesses PSM in the Dutch National Police in an empirical manner. The evidence consists of data gathered from an interview with a Dutch police officer in The Hague, Demas. While anecdotal in nature, the lack of empirical studies into PSM in law enforcement justifies this approach. It can enlighten the first steps on the path to new research. As such, this paper continues by separately discussing the rational, affective, and normative dimensions of PSM.

The rational aspect of PSM: intrinsic motivation and beyond

Initially, intrinsic motivation was an aspect considered to be innate to PSM. This means that public servants actively participate in performing daily job tasks and make contributions of any sort in the public sector (de Vries, 2016). Demas shows that this element is indeed present:

“I want to be there for the civilians, so my purpose is to make them feel protected. This is the main thing I want to accomplish.”

As such, he reveals to have an internal drive that motivates him to help civilians; without expecting anything in return. In this respect, he exemplifies the ideal type of public official.

However, during its gradual development, PSM theories went beyond the initial idea of the intrinsically motivated public servant. Namely, external factors also played a role in motivating and demotivating public officials; for example, Frederick Herzberg’s theory of motivators (public recognition, the content of work, career advancement possibilities), and hygiene factors (administrative burdens, interpersonal relations, and salary). Finally, Douglas McGregor ties both approaches together. His ‘’theory x’’ assesses external motivational elements such as continuous financial incentives. Additionally, his ‘’theory y’’ states that internally-motivated employees gain a sense of fulfillment merely by an excellent completion of job tasks (de Vries, 2016) The analysis below shows that such elements can also play a role in the motivations of a Dutch police officer.

First, the content of work is an important determinant of job satisfaction for Damas. He describes his experience of being a police officer after finishing one day’s job:

“Becoming a policeman is a different kind of thing to do. Like the feeling I get when I am done with the work. It is great.”

Thus, this shows that the content of the work plays a role in motivating him.

Secondly, career growth possibility is another determining factor in terms of job satisfaction. Demas regards the possibility of career advancement as a major motivator:

“Working in the police office means that I can grow a lot. There are different kinds of directions and I can start from being an officer and go through the process and later can become a detective. I can work for different divisions. This is important because I can grow in my career.”

As such, the sense of curiosity and constant freshness clearly motivates him to remain at service in the police bureau.

Thirdly, burdensome administrative rules function as a major hygiene factor (demotivator): discouraging employees from being engaged at work. Damas experiences this as well:

“Administration. I come from the office where I did a lot of administration before. I have to type a lot. I think administrative work is a lot.”

In this way, the fact that the respondent is concerned that he might miss the chance to track down criminals while he is occupied with report work, functions as a dissatisfier.

In sum, the above part shows that despite the initial major focus of PSM on the intrinsic motivation of public servants, both internal and external elements can play a role in the job motivation of a Dutch police officer.

The affective aspect of PSM

A second hallmark of PSM is ‘’effectiveness’’. Employees with this attribute tend to show a degree of compassion towards others especially sufferers or socially vulnerable groups (de Vries, 2016) The following quote shows that such a mentality can also be present in police officers:

“I have to be patient and be communicative with people, such as the victims. Because I have to give victims support and have conversations with them. This requires a lot of empathy to spend time with people and talk with them nicely.”

In short, this indicates that Damas identifies his behavior as a way of showing empathy and lending support to victims; thereby exemplifying the ‘’effectiveness’’ of the public servant ideal-type.

The role of morality

Morality, as de Vries explains in his book, has both intangible and tangible components. First of all, it refers to values and beliefs(2016). Police officers are often requested to uphold these when combating crimes and illegal practices (Blok & Police Department The Netherlands, 2004). This was also mentioned by the respondent:

“What the police force asks is the integrity of the co-worker and the civilian outside and the loyalty for the job because police officers have a lot of rights that the civilians do not have. So I need to be trustworthy for the civilians and for my colleagues. I should not take advantage of these things. Loyalty is a big part.”

As such, this shows that Demas strongly upholds the value of ‘’loyalty’’. He strongly believes that he is given authority and power which in turn requires him to be loyal to both colleagues and civilians (de Vries, 2016).

Secondly, morality refers to specific rules and habits that are distilled from the more abstract principles. Public institutions namely attempt to turn abstract moral values into visible elements. By doing so, public servants can set themselves as an example of obeying the law to the public. For instance, this can be swearing an oath of office or adopting a code of conduct (de Vries, 2016). Demas mentioned that he experiences such practices as well:

“We had to swear an oath of office when we started this job. This is a standard procedure to bind us with the ministry because we stand for certain things; we need to listen to it and be honest about it.”

In sum, the respondent’s internal value of loyalty is a factor that ties him to the police force and the civilians he has to protect; according to PSM theory, this enhances his motivation. Additionally, the oath of office, being an externally induced element of morality also ties him to moral standards and can subsequently function as a motivating factor. Therefore, the normative part of PSM theory contains—similarly to the rational aspect—both an internal and external component.

Conclusion

This exploratory paper focused on the ‘’public service motivation’’ in the Dutch National Police. First, it has distinguished between the core of PSM theory, in which a rational, affective, and normative element play a role. Subsequently, these have been applied to the case of a Dutch police officer. This leads to the following findings. First, both intrinsic and external factors played a role in motivating the officer. Secondly, due to the nature of the work, compassion towards others seems to be a motivating factor as well. Thirdly, morality has also been identified as a factor that influences the officer’s motivation as well. Like the first element, this also has an internal and external dimension. As such, all main elements of PSM theory have been found in the case presented. This leads to a preliminary conclusion that a police officer possesses a significant degree of PSM. However, since this paper is exploratory in nature, it has not been able to accurately assess the precise weight of intrinsic and external motivating factors. More detailed and systematic research into this element could be done to provide more insight into the application of public service motivation and morality, especially in the law enforcement body.

Bibliography

1. Blok, C., & Police Department The Netherlands, Ministry of Interior. (2004). Policing in the Netherlands.
2. Borst, R. T., & Lako, C. J. (2017). Proud to Be a Public Servant? An Analysis of the Work-Related Determinants of Professional Pride among Dutch Public Servants. International Journal of Public Administration, 40(10), 875–887. https://doi.org/10.1080/01900692.2017.1289390
3. Brown, E. (2019). Strike in Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and the Hague: No public transport during the morning rush hour on Monday. Dutch Review. Retrieved from https://dutchreview.com/news/traffic/strike-in-amsterdam-no-public-transport-during-the-morning-rush-hour-on-monday/
4. de Vries, M. S. (2016). Understanding Public Administration. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
5. Leisink, P., & Steijn, B. (2009). Public service motivation and job performance of public sector employees in the Netherlands. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 75(1), 35–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020852308099505
6. Perry, J., & Wise, L. (1990). The Motivation Base of Public Service. Public Administration Review, 367–373.
7. Schott, C., Neumann, O., Baertschi, M., & Ritz, A. (2019). Public Service Motivation, Prosocial Motivation, and Altruism: Towards Disentanglement and Conceptual Clarity. International Journal of Public Administration, (March). https://doi.org/10.1080/01900692.2019.1588302
8. Studio Dumbar. (1993). Dutch National Police — Identity and Vehicle Striping. Retrieved November 11, 2019, from https://studiodumbar.com/work/dutch-police

A brief history about Taiwan

During the Yuan dynasty (1206–1368), when the Mongols ruled China, the P’eng-hu (Penghu) Islands within the Taiwan Strait were brought under China’s control. In 1430 the Ming dynasty’s famous explorer Zheng He (Cheng Ho) landed on Taiwan and obtained from the aboriginal people herbal medicines that were said to possess “miracle powers.”

Meanwhile, perhaps as early as the 7th century, Chinese fishermen visited the P’eng-hu Islands, and doubtless, some farmers settled there and on Taiwan itself. In any event, there have been Chinese settlements on the island of Taiwan before the 12th century. Chinese and Japanese pirates also frequently used the island as a base of operations, and a few Japanese settlements were also established there.

The island of Taiwan, additionally normally known as Formosa, was mostly under pioneer rule by the Dutch Republic from 1624 to 1662. With regards to the Age of Discovery, the Dutch East India Company set up its essence on Formosa to exchange with the Chinese (Ming Empire) and Japanese, and furthermore to prohibit Portuguese and Spanish exchange and pioneer exercises in East Asia. The time of Dutch guidelines saw financial advancement in Taiwan, including both enormous scale chasing of deer and the development of rice and sugar by imported Han work from the Ming Empire. The Dutch additionally endeavoured to change over the native occupants to Christianity, and smother parts of conventional culture that they found obnoxious, for example, head chasing, constrained premature birth and open bareness.

In 1642, Dutch forces expelled the Spanish, put down a rebellion by Chinese inhabitants, and, with the assistance of aboriginal peoples, established control over the whole island. As a result, Taiwan became a Dutch colony, governed by the Dutch archipelago Company. The company dug wells, conducted land surveys, and created the idea for expanded commerce, including trade with China and other places in East Asia. It introduced new farm implements and also the use of oxen to till the fields. additionally, its representatives developed a written communication for the aboriginal peoples and converted many to Christianity. Japanese settlers on the island left shortly subsequently.

Zheng Chenggong (Cheng Ch’eng-Kung), born in Japan to a Japanese mother, refused to follow after his father and instead launched a protracted campaign of resistance against the Manchu from bases along the Fujian (Fukien) coast of China. By 1661, however, Zheng had failed in his effort, and he turned his attention to Taiwan. He took an outsized number of Chinese to Taiwan, many of whom had enlisted in his army. Later that year Zheng (whom the Dutch called Koxinga) launched an attack on the Dutch stronghold of Zeelandia (near present-day T’ai-nan) and laid siege thereto. The Dutch surrendered in early 1662 and were evacuated, thus ending the Dutch presence in Taiwan. This was the primary instance of the “liberation” of a Western colony.

Zheng established a Ming-style government on the island and promoted Chinese culture. Chinese bureaucratic rule, however, failed to work well there, because it was superimposed on a structure that was basically feudal. Zheng failed to establish ties with Manchu-ruled China. He did, however, encourage Chinese immigration to Taiwan, and he promoted commerce and foreign trade. Zheng had tried to ascertain ties with the Chinese communities within the Philippines to create support for his continued efforts to revive Ming decree China, but he died suddenly in June 1662 before he could act further on any of his plans.

After his death, his son Zheng Jing (Cheng Ching), operating from an influence base in Fujian province, vied along with his uncle in Taiwan for succession. Zheng won, and, like his father and grandfather, he fought the Manchu. He too failed, however, and retreated to Taiwan. His early death was followed by court intrigue in Taiwan, which gave the Manchu in China a chance to invade and take the island, which they did in 1683.

For consequent two centuries, Taiwan was governed as a part of Fujian province. The Qing government sent officials to rule Taiwan who failed to regard their assignments highly. They considered Taiwan beyond the pale of Chinese civilization. the amount of Chinese governance was thus characterized by frequent rebellions followed by severe punishments allotted by the govt to stay in order.

The inhabitants of Taiwan weren’t proud of rule by the Chinese, whose ruthlessness was partly thanks to the very fact that the Qing government was dominated by the “foreign” Manchu, not the Han Chinese, and also the Manchu feared the “Chinese-ness” of Taiwan. Meanwhile, China was experiencing increasing encroachments from Western powers, and, after the primary Opium War (1839–42)—during which British forces defeated the Chinese—the Qing government came to ascertain Taiwan as strategically important. After the war, the region’s commerce with the West increased rapidly, which gave rise to foreign designs on Taiwan—including those of Japan, especially after it acquired the Ryukyu Islands, just north of Taiwan, in 1879, and, later, those of the us.

After French forces blockaded Taiwan’s ports during the Sino-French War (1883–85) in geographical areas, China focused even more attention on Taiwan. In 1885 the Qing government directed Liu Mingchuan (Liu Ming-ch’uan), the governor of Fujian, to focus his attention on Taiwan, and two years later Taiwan was elevated to the status of a province. Liu undertook reform in Taiwan, built the island’s first railroad, and improved roads and harbours. Taiwan prospered, which engendered friendly feelings toward China.

Kingdom of Tungning (1662–1683)

The Kingdom of Tungning or Kingdom of Formosa was an administration that governed a piece of southwestern Formosa (Taiwan) somewhere in the range of 1661 and 1683. It was established by Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) as a feature of the supporter development to re-establish the Ming tradition in China after it was toppled by the Manchu-drove Qing administration. Koxinga planned to recover the Chinese terrain from the Qing, utilizing the island as a base of tasks. Until its addition by the Qing Dynasty in 1683, the Kingdom was managed by Koxinga’s beneficiaries, the House of Koxinga.

Development under the rule

The promptest issue Koxinga looked after the fruitful intrusion of Taiwan was an extreme deficiency of nourishment. It is assessed that before Koxinga’s intrusion the number of inhabitants in Taiwan was no more prominent than 100,000 individuals, yet the underlying Zheng armed force with family and retainers that settled in Taiwan is evaluated to be 30,000 at minimum. To address the nourishment lack, Koxinga established a tuition approach in which fighters served the double job of rancher when not doled out dynamic obligation in a watchman legion. No exertion was saved to guarantee the fruitful execution of this strategy to form Taiwan into an independent island, and a progression of land and tax collection approaches were built up to empower the extension and development of prolific grounds for expanded nourishment generation capabilities. Lands held by the Dutch were promptly recovered and proprietorship appropriated among Koxinga’s believed staff and family members to be leased to worker ranchers, while appropriately creating different farmlands in the south and the asserting, clearing, developing and of Aborigine terrains toward the east was likewise forcefully pursued. To additionally support venture into new farmlands, an arrangement of changing tax assessment was actualized wherein ripe land recently asserted for the Zheng system would be burdened at a much lower rate than those recovered from the Dutch, considered ‘official land’.

Spanish Formosa (1626–1642)

Spanish Formosa was a little state of the Spanish Empire set up in the northern tip of the island referred to by Europeans at the time as Formosa (presently Taiwan) from 1626 to 1642. It was vanquished by the Dutch Republic during the Eighty Years’ War. As a Spanish province, it was intended to ensure the territorial exchange with the Philippines from impedance by the Dutch base in the south of the island. The settlement was brief because of the reluctance of Spanish provincial experts in Manila to submit more men and materiel to its protection.

Following seventeen years, the last stronghold of the Spanish was blockaded by Dutch powers and in the long run fell, giving the Dutch command over a significant part of the island.

Dutch Formosa (1624–1662)

The island of Taiwan, additionally normally known as Formosa, was mostly under pioneer rule by the Dutch Republic from 1624 to 1662. With regards to the Age of Discovery, the Dutch East India Company set up its essence on Formosa to exchange with the Chinese (Ming Empire) and Japanese, and furthermore to prohibit Portuguese and Spanish exchange and pioneer exercises in East Asia. The time of Dutch guidelines saw financial advancement in Taiwan, including both enormous scale chasing of deer and the development of rice and sugar by imported Han work from the Ming Empire. The Dutch additionally endeavoured to change over the native occupants to Christianity, and smother parts of conventional culture that they found obnoxious, for example, head chasing, constrained premature birth and open bareness.

The Taoyuan manufacturing plant was turn into the second-most productive industrial facility in the entire of the Dutch East Indies despite the fact that it took 22 years for the province to initially restore a profit. Benefitting from triangular exchange between themselves, the Chinese and the Japanese, in addition to abusing the normal assets of Formosa, the Dutch had the option to transform the malarial sub-tropical narrows into a worthwhile resource. A money economy was presented and the period additionally observed the primary genuine endeavours in the island’s history to create it economically.

Agriculture

The Dutch likewise utilized Chinese to cultivate sugarcane and rice for send out; a portion of this rice and sugar was sent out similarly as the business sectors of Persia. Attempts to convince native tribesmen to quit any pretence of chasing and receive a stationary cultivating way of life were ineffective in light of the fact that ‘for them, cultivating had two significant disadvantages: first, as indicated by the conventional sexual division of work, it was ladies’ work; second, it was work escalated drudgery.’

The Dutch in this way imported work from China, and the period was the first to see mass Chinese movement to the island, with one analyst assessing that 50–60,000 Chinese settled in Taiwan during the 37 years of Dutch rule. These pioneers were urged with free transportation to the island, regularly on Dutch ships, and instruments, bulls and seeds to begin farming. Consequently, the Dutch took a tenth of rural creation as a duty.

Trade

The first goal of setting up Fort Zeelandia in southern Formosa was to give a base to exchanging with China and Japan. Merchandise exchanged included silks from China and silver from Japan, among numerous other things. The intense deer skins were exceptionally prized by the Japanese, who utilized them to make samurai reinforcement. Different pieces of the deer were offered to Chinese brokers for meat and restorative use. The Dutch paid natives for the deer brought to them and attempted to deal with the deer stocks to stay aware of interest. In spite of the fact that sugar stick was a local harvest of Taiwan, the indigenous individuals had always been unable to make sugar granules from the crude sugar. Chinese migrants brought and acquaint the procedure with transform the crude sugar stick into sugar granules. Sugar turned into the most significant fare thing as the fundamental reason for delivering sugar was to trade it to other countries. The sugar created in Taiwan made far higher benefits than the sugar delivered in Java. About 300,000 catties of sugar, which was 33% of the all-out generation, were carried to Persia in 1645. In 1658, Taiwan created 1,730,000 catties of sugar and 800,000 catties of them were transported to Persia and 600,000 catties to Japan. The rest was sent out to Batavia. Tea was likewise a significant fare thing. Another of Taiwan’s significant fare things was sulphur gathered from close Keelung and Tamsui. Taiwan, particularly Taoyuan, turned into a significant transhipment place for East Asian exchange networks. The items from Japan, Fukien, Vietnam, Thailand, and Indonesia were sent to Taiwan and afterwards traded to different nations as the business sectors demanded. The Dutch sent out spices, pepper, lead, tin, hemp, cotton, opium and kapok from Southeast Asia through Batavia to China by the way of Taiwan and carried silk, porcelain, gold, and herbs from China to Japan and Europe by means of Taiwan.

Taxation

The Dutch quickly imposed an expense on all the import and fare duties. The Dutch probably made a ton of benefit from the fare obligations got by Chinese and Japanese traders.

Another type of tax assessment was the survey charge which the Dutch demanded on each individual who was not Dutch or more than six years of age.

The Dutch forced a tax on chasing also. They offered a permit to burrow a pit-snare for 15 reals every month and a permit for trapping was sold for one real. During the chasing season between October 1638 and March 1639, the aggregate sum of the chase charge was 1,998.5 reals.

Qing rule (1683–1895)

Taiwan flourished during a sugar boom in the mid-eighteenth century, yet thereafter its sugar industry made some troublesome memories staying aware of advances in remote creation. Until the Japanese occupation in 1895, Taiwan’s sugar ranches and sugar factories stayed little scale tasks. The sugar business was focused in the south of the island and all through the nineteenth century, the southern populace indicated little development and may have declined.

As the Chinese populace moved into the lower regions of the northern mountains in the mid-nineteenth century, they started developing tea, which added toward the north’s monetary terms and turned into the island’s driving fare during the last quarter of the nineteenth century. The tea business’ best item during that time.

During the last years of the Qing dynasty’s rule in Taiwan, Taiwan was made a full province of China and some attempts were made to modernize the island by carrying out a land survey and building infrastructure. Taiwan’s first railroad was constructed linking several cities in the north.

Abstract

Suicides are in the top 3 leading causes of death worldwide. The purpose of this study was to identify the most vulnerable group of people who commit suicide. The present study is based on data from the Government of India made available at data.gov.in. It analyses the number of suicides among individuals involved with different professions. The analysis is based on the data available for various states viz. Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu over a period of 10 years. Big data analysis techniques were used to understand the association between different professions and suicides. The states were selected because of their population and Human Development Index. The results revealed that contrary to the popular perception, a greater number of suicides are committed by housewives and unemployed than the other groups viz. Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. Housewives hold a large share of suicides followed by the unemployed and farmers. In Madhya Pradesh, a downfall was seen in the year 2005, but the numbers have only been increasing at an alarming rate ever since. In Kerala, the most vulnerable group changed from the unemployed to housewives, but an overall decrease was seen. Television, print, and social media focus on those involved in farming/agricultural activity and student section, but the study clearly indicates that housewives and the unemployed should be highlighted.

An Exploratory Analysis

Suicide is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. It being in the top 3 only gives us another reason to explore and analyze the cause/reason behind suicide and which group amongst the enormous population is the most vulnerable. The most popular reasons may vary from nation to nation, culture to culture, society to society, etc. For example, a completely developed nation, a frontrunner in the HDI might have a lower rate of unemployed suicides but another developing country might have contradicting results as compared to the other countries. A difference can easily be seen between the American Countries and Asian Countries. American countries have a higher number of divorces than Asian countries due to which the former might have reasons related to attachment, depression belongingness, etc. and the latter may face reasons such as stress and anxiety. In this paper, we tried to study the suicidal pattern over the course of 12 years in various Indian States viz. Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu amongst different professions. In India, as the popular perception goes, the most vulnerable groups in society today are the farmers, unemployed, and students.

Over the last two decades, ‘family problems’ and ‘illnesses’ have been reported to be the leading causes of suicides. These two factors can explain nearly half the total number of suicides in the country. Other reported reasons such as poverty, unemployment, love affairs, and bankruptcy are very inconsequential causes of suicides. A news report for Madhya Pradesh stated that “Though many farmers commit suicide every year, the numbers have suddenly seen a surge after June 6, 2017, following protests in Mandsaur, where it turned violent.” It is worth mentioning that farmers commit suicide for miscellaneous reasons like family problems, alcohol, illness, marriage-related issues, property disputes, etc. which have no direct relation with the deceased being a farmer by profession. Amongst these various trends, cultures, and proposed reasons, an important question arises – What contributes to suicidality or what inflicts suicides? Any biopsychosocial model of suicide suggests the contribution of 3 factors: Biological or genetic factors (such as family history, inheritability of a psychiatric disorder, lowered 5-HIAA, etc.), Social factors or life experience (like supportive relationships, access to resources, abuse or another trauma history, impulsivity, etc.), and Psychological or Psychiatric factors (such as mood states, impaired problem solving, hopelessness, anxiety disorders, psychosis, eating disorders, etc.). According to Rudd (2006), an active suicidal episode consists of many such systems that interact with each other and sustain the suicidal state. These predispositions to suicide lead to effective triggers (perceived loss) due to which various thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and physiology come into play and lead to suicidality. Suicidal behavior is not a psychological disorder in itself. However, it is often a feature or symptom of an underlying psychological disorder, usually a mood disorder (Bernal et al., 2007). Estimates are that about 60% of people who commit suicide suffer from a mood disorder (National Strategy for Suicide Prevention, 2001). Suicide is perceived as a social problem in our country; therefore, mental disorders are given equal conceptual status with family conflicts, social maladjustment, etc.

Methodology

The purpose of this study is to highlight the suicide trend in India amongst individuals involved in various professions and to explore the vast possible reasons behind it. For this purpose, external secondary data is used which allows gaining information about the number of suicides in the Indian States between various professions. The data was made available by the Government of India at data.gov.in. The software used to assess the provided data is MS Excel which delivers a broader view of the trends.

Results and Discussion

Every year the state of Madhya Pradesh has a minimum of around 6000 suicide cases in total. While a downfall was seen in the year 2005, the numbers have only been increasing at an alarming rate ever since (fig 1.1). The increasing trends were recorded by housewives, students, self-employed, farmers, those involved in private sector services, and the unemployed (fig 2.4).

The number of suicides in Gujarat has been increasing ever since the year 2001 (fig 1.1). In 2007, a decrease was seen in farmer suicides which increased again in the further years and reached approx. 600 cases per year (fig 2.1).

The number of suicides in Kerala has decreased over the past 2 decades (fig 1.1). A noticeable decrease has been seen in the suicide rates of the unemployed. Student suicide rates and those working in the private sector have been consistent (fig 2.3). Kerala has the highest Human Development Index in India which means that life expectancy, education, and per capita income has been improving over the years. This increase can be a contributory factor to the significant decrease in the number of suicides in the state.

In Tamil Nadu, the maximum number of suicides were committed by housewives and unemployed people over the course of 12 years. Overall, the number of suicides almost doubled during the decade except amongst farmers, where it reduced to half (fig 2.2). Here, it might be important to note that Tamil Nadu is a state of India with a high HDI. Like Kerala, the state could have seen a decrease in the number of suicides, but the opposite was noticed.

It is shocking to note that consistently over the last decades, a significantly higher number of suicides have been reported amongst housewives than any other population category in India. They account for approx. 20 percent of all the suicides in India. While the overall numbers remain high, the trend has shown some decrease over the last five years. In comparison, farmers account for 12 percent of all suicides over the last two decades, but it is heartening to see the most distinct decline within this category over the last five years. The latest data reports farmer suicides account for less than ten percent of all suicides in India. This contradicts the general perception of farmers and those involved in agricultural activity to have been committing suicide largely. The remaining distribution of suicides in India is across professional categories such as private sector employees, self-employed, public sector employees, and students. If we look at the trends carefully, while most categories show a decline over time, private sector employees and students in India are reporting higher suicides over time.

What can be some plausible reasons for this significant increase in the number of suicides among housewives? Marital dissatisfaction, financial issues such as dowry, torture for dowry, domestic violence, and various other economic difficulties can contribute to the causal factors but only as stressors. The higher the stressors, the greater the risk of committing suicide. Family background, past psychiatric/medical history, genetic conditions, and the immediate environment are some significant factors. The ability to handle all these stressors/triggers along with depression (in some conditions), plays a vital role. In the raw data, it could also be seen that younger housewives had a higher number of suicides than those in the middle ages. Here, it becomes important to take into consideration that, there are a few cultural factors and old customs/traditions which are not supported or approved by the government but are still practiced in some rural areas. Due to this, the possibility of not getting the appropriate number of suicides amongst the young housewives also increases which in turn is a limitation for this study.

Many young people find it difficult to cope with failure in examinations and careers and neither families nor other social institutions offer adequate support or solace. In each state, the number of suicides committed by students each year might be less than the other professions, but it has been increasing when compared with its own numbers. Figure 2.2 shows how in 2001 the student suicide cases were less than 500 in that state. In fact, a downfall was seen during 2006-08 but the numbers have only been increasing since then, reaching up to almost 800 student suicide cases in 2012. Some probable causes may include forced career choices, pressure from the education system, and not being able to express own concerns views or choices. While these reasons may account for some suicide cases, the actual cause remains unknown for most of the cases.

Conclusion

This study revealed that the most vulnerable population to suicide is housewives which is contradictory to the accustomed viewpoint. It is a demographic more susceptible to suicides than farmers. Also, a significant increase in the number of suicides among students has also been noticed. Television, print, and social media focus on those involved in farming/agricultural activity and student section, but the study clearly indicates that housewives and the unemployed should also be highlighted. Yes, it is crucial to not overlook the other categories and come up with ways to decrease the numbers further, but it is also imperative to understand the cause behind these suicides at the individual, community, and national levels. Apart from spreading awareness about the multiple groups susceptible to suicides, it is also important to have better support systems and mental health care services in our country, India. The condescending attitude and stigma associated with mental health need to be changed gradually so that people, from any profession, can seek help whenever they wish to, and they must not feel uncomfortable or judged while seeking this care. If fulfilled, this can play an important role in suicide prevention especially amongst the young population and for future generations.

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6. News, E., & News, I. (2015). More housewives commit suicide than farmers, so why nobody is speaking out for them? retrieved from https://www.indiatvnews.com/news/india/more-housewives-committing-suicide-than-farmers-53541.html
7. Pawar, D. (2014). Suicides and the State of Mental Health Care in India. Retrieved from https://www.mapsofindia.com/my-india/health/suicides-the-state-of-mental-health-care-in-india

If your large intestine is removed or resting, you’ll need an opening for the stool to pass through. This is an ileostomy. Ileostomy surgery is a life-saving surgery. This surgery redirects the intestines to the outside of the body. It is performed when a person’s quality of life is so poor it offers relief. An ileostomy is necessary for many reasons including birth defects, cancer, inflammatory bowel disease, diverticulitis, incontinence, etc. Some of the terms related to this topic include ileostomate, bowel, ileostomy, and stoma.

What is an ileostomate? An ileosotomate is a common name describing someone who has an ileostomy. What is the bowel? The bowel is another word for the small and large intestines. What is an ileostomy? An ileostomy is a hole on the surface of the belly that allows stool to pass through. The end of the ileum is brought through this opening to form a stoma. What is a stoma? The word ‘stoma’ is Greek and means ‘an opening into or out of the body’ or ‘mouth’. A stoma is an intestine that is brought to the skin’s surface in the best possible, pre-determined location. A stoma is created when a person has surgery resulting in the bowel being brought to the surface of the abdominal wall. A stoma is an opening in your abdomen that allows waste to exit your body, rather than going through your anus. What is an ileostomy pouch? An ileostomy pouch is a waterproof pouch used to collect waste from the intestines. The bodily waste passes through the stoma or opening in the abdomen and into the ileostomy pouch.

It will take time to get used to but you can do many of the same activities you enjoyed before your ileostomy. Some people worry about negative reactions from friends and family. When you’re out in public your clothing covers your ileostomy, so nobody will know about it. Adapting to an ileostomy can be difficult, people must learn how to control their stool and must learn how to minimize odor without feeling like a social outcast. Everyone has the right to be clean, dry, and odor-free. To resume a normal lifestyle, people must learn about ileostomy management. Quality of life after an ileostomy improves if people understand about the surgery required and learn about self-care. Once people know how to care for themselves, they can resume full, active lives. Time, patience, and a good sense of humor can help them live life and enjoy it despite the ileostomy. Having an ileostomy is overwhelming and scary at first. But, people adjust and lead active and productive lives. People with an ileostomy maintain relationships just like before. Some people worry about the people around them having negative reactions to their ileostomy and stoma. Only certain people need to know about your ileostomy surgery. People can choose to share with others about their ileostomy or not. Once you learn to care for your ileostomy, you’ll be able to participate in your regular activities including swimming, hiking, playing certain sports, eating in restaurants, camping, traveling, and working certain jobs. Once a stoma has formed you should be able to live a normal healthy life. Caring for an ileostomy can represent a significant change in your life. It can take time to adjust to your ileostomy. Here is some advice on how to deal with and live life as an ileostomate.

People who have an ileostomy surgery cope with both the physical and psychological changes. This is a big life-changing event in their life and they need to adjust. You have a pouch to collect stool on your abdomen. As you adjust to living with an ileostomy and get used to how it looks and works, you’ll feel better about your body. It helps if you: look at your stoma to get comfortable with it, and remind yourself of the positives of your ileostomy. It’s a given for most people to feel depressed and anxious after this life-altering procedure. But talking to someone may help whether it be someone you know, a support group, or a professional psychologist. You can find specialized clothes online specifically for ileostomies to make you feel more comfortable. You can buy underwear, bathing suits, and wraps that can hold your ileostomy bag. Snug undergarments like stretchy underpants, t-shirts, or camis give extra support, and security, and help conceal pouches. A pouch cover adds comfort by keeping the pouch from resting on the skin and hides your pouch as well.

When you have to have an ileostomy, you face complex lifestyle challenges. You might have concerns about the issues of health and hygiene. But as I said before you’ll also have emotional and psychological concerns. You need to understand how to remove waste from the pouch and how to keep everything clean with no infections. Regular maintenance of the ileostomy pouch helps prevent accidents and embarrassment. Not only that it will also safeguard your health. Accessories enhance wear time, comfort, and management. These accessories include skin prep, stoma past or strip paste, adhesive rings and sprays, and convex rings. These are designed to improve skin if your surface has dimples, folds, a flat stoma, or problems with leakage. Stoma powder is another product to use for sore skin as well. Other accessories include ileostomy belts, ileostomy deodorant drops or sprays, and oral deodorant pills.

Eating is an important part of recovery, but food tolerance can vary. Finding foods that are best for you requires trial and error, and you will return to a normal diet without thinking about your ileostomy. An ileostomy interrupts the digestive process. It impacts the absorption of nutrients. After surgery, your bowel needs to rest. Returning to a “normal” diet begins when moving from fluids to solid foods. You can return to the diet you enjoyed before your ileostomy. There isn’t a special ileostomy diet, but certain foods affect the output from a stoma differently. There are foods that can make you gassy, and cause diarrhea or constipation. You need to learn which foods agree with you and which ones don’t. It’s wise to add new food one at a time in order to tell which foods increased gas or odor or which ones didn’t agree with you. It is important to avoid high-fiber foods, like whole grains, dried beans, and raw vegetables and fruits. It helps to write down your reactions to certain foods. It’s normal to have gas, but certain foods influence it. You can buy products to help reduce gas, like Beano. Charcoal filters are also available on pouches. Before leaving the pouch the filter deodorizes the gas. Foods that cause gas in one person don’t cause gas in everyone. You should only notice odor when you are emptying your pouch. Pouch odor is reduced with liquid pouch deodorants like Brava Lubricating Deodorant Drops made by Coloplast. If you notice an odor, check your pouch to see if there is a leak. Eat solid foods one at a time. If they cause unwanted symptoms stop eating them. You should drink 10 to 12 glasses of water every day. Water is important so that you don’t become dehydrated. With an ileostomy, you get diarrhea and watery stools sometimes which can cause dehydration. You need to empty it more often if your pouch fills more quickly. Foods that thicken output include pudding, creamy peanut butter, potatoes, bread, pasta, applesauce, cheese, and rice. Large foods get stuck more often. This causes a blockage. A food blockage causes cramps, pain, and watery stools with odor. Avoid fiber foods like oats, citrus fruits, apples, and beans. These fiber foods cause severe cramping or food blockage. Certain foods will cause you to have a food blockage. If you have a blockage because of a certain food, for a while avoid that food. Adding foods back into your diet one at a time, in small amounts, helps you know if the food bothers you or doesn’t agree with you. Foods that cause a food blockage include nuts, popcorn, coconut, dried fruits, celery, mushrooms, foods that have fibrous peels and raw and crunchy vegetables, carrots, broccoli, cauliflower, and Chinese vegetables. You can avoid a food blockage by eating slowly, chewing your food frequently, and drinking water with your meals frequently. Drink hot tea, take a hot shower, and run water on your abdomen to relax your abdominal muscles. It’s important to enjoy food as a part of life.

When having an ileostomy, people enjoy swimming, surfing, scuba diving, and relaxing in a hot tub. I understand the anxiety some people might have from worrying about leaks and that keeps people out of the pool. There are no restrictions to swimming. Here are some solutions to some common concerns. I’m afraid that my pouch will leak or my wafer will loosen while I’m in the water. Your pouch is waterproof, it’s designed not to leak. If you have concerns about your output, eat hours before swimming, and empty your pouch before taking a swim. If you are hesitant about your wafer, take a practice soak. Avoid applying a new barrier, wafer, or pouch right before swimming. Using waterproof tape or water-specific barrier strips is not necessary, but can ease your mind. There are a variety of ileostomy supplies for swimming and you should find a solution that works best for you. If your pouch has a vent, put a sticker over the air hole so that the filter works. What can I wear or do to help conceal my pouch and keep it secure? You can wear either a patterned or dark color because it is less seeable. Options for women include patterned and boy’s leg one-piece swimsuits. For a two-piece swimsuit, either wear a mix of tankini tops high-waisted bottoms, or boy shorts. You can also look for a swimsuit with a ruffle or skirt to conceal your ileostomy. Options for men include a higher waist for swimsuits or swimsuits with longer legs. Stretch fabric undergarments and swim or surf shirts also provide that needed support. Ileostomy bands and wraps are also used as well. Some ileostomates are comfortable with wearing a swimsuit with pouch covers or just a pouch along with a swimsuit because they are comfortable with their bodies. There is also swimwear and accessories specially made for ileostomates. What do I do if I am approached by pool personnel concerned that my ileostomy is an open wound or believe ileostomy pouches are not allowed in pools? Stay calm and educate them. No one will know you have an ileostomy. Just start swimming.

Plan in advance to avoid problems while traveling. Some suggestions are pre-cut pouches, packing ileostomy supplies in two places, taking extra supplies and always being prepared for the unexpected, and requesting Passenger Support from the TSA.

People living with an ileostomy are able to work just like everyone else in any job with no restrictions. Embracing a new normal is key to living life. The daily norm for most people means returning to work. When you return depends on your recovery and your job. It is your choice whether to tell your employer or co-workers depending on your work situation, but it helps to inform others if you require breaks or other accommodations. Your co-workers will not realize you have an ileostomy unless you tell them. Always be prepared. Have a change of clothes and your ileostomy supplies. Know your rights: You have legal rights under the Americans with Disabilities Act and the U.S. Rehabilitation Act of 1973, which prohibits employment-based discrimination. Dispose and empty your pouch properly: Find the best restroom and changing facilities to empty and change your pouch. Find the best clothing for your job: Consider loose clothing when sitting for a very long time, or for a very active job, try a stoma belt. Don’t stress out over stoma noise: If your stoma makes noise, relax, it is a normal bodily function. You might be the only one who notices it so don’t bring more attention to it than you have to. Hydrate. With preparation and patience you’ll be confident, and feeling better than before your ileostomy.

The most important thing to know is, that an ileostomy is a life-saving procedure. It is not the end of the world, it is the beginning of a new one. Living with an ileostomy can be a major change, but knowing how to live with it and how to deal with it can help you adjust to it.

Full Disclosure/Disclaimer

I was born with a genetic disorder that resulted in numerous polyps developing in my digestive system, the condition is called FAP. It had not affected me other than having a colonoscopy every year. But then before I was a freshman in high school my condition had gotten worse. In order to prevent cancer I had to have my colon removed. Initially, I didn’t need the ileostomy, but then I had some unforeseen complications and had to have a second procedure to correct the first one. Before my freshmen year in high school, I had an ileostomy. I did eventually get the operation reversed because it was only a temporary one. I picked this topic because I am very passionate about it.

Peer review is an essential step when it comes to publishing an article or even a book. It is when you get someone in the same field or a field similar to evaluate work ready to be published. Peer review is extremely necessary as it ensures the quality of work is up to a good standard and has reliable information referenced. Peer-reviewed articles are important as they keep up with current trends and any other research in a variety of fields. Knowing how important peer review helps when research is being done as you know what you’re reading is factually correct.

Someone who didn’t consider peer review is Andrew Wakefield. He wrote a paper linking the MMR vaccine which treats mumps, measles, and rubella, to autism. He quoted: “I believe there is a causal association between the MMR vaccine and autism in many children for several reasons” (Cook, 2016). Since the release of his research paper, he has become one of the most controversial figures in the eyes of vaccinators, as well as in the autism spectrum. His ‘theory’ began when in 1995, a small group of parents approached Wakefield and said their children had developed autism after receiving the MMR vaccine. He quickly looked into a possible connection, but when one wasn’t proven, he came up with the theory that if the vaccine had caused inflammation in their intestines, the children could develop what’s known as ‘leaky gut syndrome’, which makes it possible for harmful chemicals to make their way to the children’s brain. Then, without getting it peer-reviewed, he published his research, causing chaos in the medical industry. However, the General Medical Council ruled this to be untrue. Newspapers tend to overexaggerate every headline as it gets them good press. Looking at an article from 2019 about the MMR vaccine and autism, the headline states ‘What Is the MMR Vaccine, What Are the Side Effects, When Was It Introduced and Why Was It Linked to Autism?”. The article then goes on to mention how you should ‘protect’ your child from the vaccine. Considering the GMC crushed the theory years ago, it’s a shocker that articles like this are still being allowed out, especially because they’re so factually incorrect.

Another non-peer-reviewed scandal was in 2015 when an ISU scientist went to jail for fraudulent research. Dong-Pyou Han was a research scientist at Iowa State University when he faked the results of his AIDS-vaccine experiment research paper. He wrongfully spiked some rabbit blood samples with human HIV antibodies, making it appear that his vaccine can allow animals to become immune to the deadly virus. Not only did he fool hundreds of thousands, but he also collected more than $20 million in federal grants to help with his research. Han was sentenced to 57 months in prison and has been fined $7.2 million.

Due to constant non-peer-reviewed articles tricking the general public, there’s now a lot more resistance to new theories and it is a lot harder to get an idea out there. The acceptance of a theory takes a long time to be approved and it needs to be proven that it’s true. Because of this, it may take months to years for a theory to be published, however, even longer if an idea gets turned down. One example of resistance to new scientific theories is ‘the atom’. When the Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann proposed that all matter was made up of molecules and atoms in the late 1800s, his idea wasn’t taken lightly and it was strange to a lot of people. Ludwig Boltzmann had stumbled on the idea when he developed his theory on gases, but for those questioning his theories, he had no way to prove that these atoms actually existed. Ernst Mach, a very big scientist during that period, laughed at the idea that something so small could exist. However, it wasn’t until 1906, that Albert Einstein noticed slight movements of pollen grains in water which was perfectly still. Einstein was able to prove Boltzmann’s theory, but unfortunately, Ludwig Boltzmann had died a year previously, so he wasn’t able to see his theory be accepted.

Evolution is something that even now, isn’t taken too seriously due to personal opinion or even religion. Darwin’s theory of evolution came around in the mid-1800s when the Bible’s creation of Earth was at its prime. Darwin’s theory is not easily taken as it challenges the Bible in the sense that God made animals, plants, rivers, people, etc. Darwin proposed that the characteristics that allowed the species to survive will be passed on throughout each generation and that individuals with characteristics most suited to the environment they are present in are most likely to survive and breed. This is known as natural selection and it is still a theory as no one has confirmed it to be true or false.

In conclusion, I believe that peer review is incredibly important to make sure that whatever is being published, is published to its best ability. Peer review is also important for the upcoming theories that are not yet published, as scientists are struggling to breakthrough through scientific resistance which is still rather prominent in theories today. To break this resistance, I personally believe that peer review should be mandatory in every piece of scientific writing that is awaiting to be published.

References

1. BBC Bitesize, 2020. Evolution. [Online] Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zyv83k7/revision/1 [Accessed 10 11 2020].
2. Cook, L., 2016. How the MMR Vaccine Is Linked to Autism and the CDC Cover-Up. [Online] Available at: http://www.stopmandatoryvaccination.com/parent/vaccine-injury/how-the-mmr-vaccine-is-linked-to-autism-and-the-cdc-cover-up/ [Accessed 10 11 2020].
3. Dvorsky, G., 2015. The Most Notorious Science Scandals of 2015. [Online] Available at: https://gizmodo.com/the-most-notorious-science-scandals-of-2015-1748385638 [Accessed 10 11 2020].
4. Gritt, E., 2019. SPOT CHECK What Is the MMR Vaccine, What Are the Side Effects, When Was It Introduced and Why Was It Linked to Autism? [Online] Available at: https://www.thesun.co.uk/fabulous/5181092/mmr-vaccine-autism-side-effects-introduced-jab-injection/ [Accessed 10 11 2020].
5. NHS, 2010. Ruling on Doctor in MMR Scare. [Online] Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/news/medical-practice/ruling-on-doctor-in-mmr-scare/ [Accessed 10 11 2020].
6. Reardon, S., 2015. US Vaccine Researcher Sentenced to Prison for Fraud. [Online] Available at: https://www.nature.com/news/us-vaccine-researcher-sentenced-to-prison-for-fraud-1.17660 [Accessed 10 11 2020].
7. Rudy, L. J., 2020. Andrew Wakefield’s Theories About MMR Vaccines and Autism. [Online] Available at: https://www.verywellhealth.com/who-is-andrew-wakefield-260623 [Accessed 10 11 2020].
8. Science Alert, n.d. What Is Scientific Peer Review? [Online] Available at: https://www.sciencealert.com/science-peer-review#:~:text=What%20Is%20Scientific%20Peer%20Review%3F%20In%20science%2C%20peer,in%20the%20same%20or%20similar%20field%20of%20study [Accessed 10 11 2020].
9. Science for the Public, 2020. Resistance to New Ideas. [Online] Available at: http://www.scienceforthepublic.org/science-issues/resistance-to-new-ideas [Accessed 10 11 2020].

Introduction

Being a young adult can be a confusing moment. Not only is it a period of physical and psychological growth and development but also marks transition from puberty to adulthood. Adolescents face multiple demands from their parents, peers, school work, and social media life, and try to meet all these demands while still trying to maintain their autonomy. During this period, adolescents can battle a number of emotions which when coupled with their lack of knowledge, and identity crisis can cause constant emotional distress and even depression. Despite all these negative forces operating against them, they are still vulnerable to worse situations. Death of loved ones, life-threatening illnesses, and trauma are some of the worst experiences that any young adult can have to deal with. This essay discusses the distinctive psychological outcome of each situation and how the adolescents facing such situations can be helped to cope with it.

The Grieving Adolescent

The death of a loved one is undeniably one of the most painful and devastating kinds of losses. The life of a grieving teenager is particularly more complex considering their developmental teenage issues. Young adults can react to grief in different ways. These reactions can be classified as behavioral responses, cognitive responses, affective responses, and somatic and psychological responses. An adolescent’s reaction to grief can be influenced by a number of things such as the kind of relationship that they shared with the deceased, how their loved one died, their previous experiences with death, their support system, and also how strong and stable they can be when dealing with stress and high emotions.

Bereaved adolescents who experience psychological reactions show some depressive and anxiety symptoms. While depression happens due to the loss of close relatives that as siblings or parents, studies have shown that the death of other distant relatives like grandparents can also cause depression. They worry and question whether they may be the next to die, who will take care of them once the breadwinner has died, and worry that the remaining relatives could also die. Such kinds of depression and anxiety syndromes may follow young adults for a long depending on the care and support they receive during that period.

Though most studies focus on depression and anxiety as the main reactions following a bereavement, some studies report psychiatric disorders that exhibit both emotional and behavioral symptoms (Johnson, Torres, Sykes, Gibson & Baker, 2017). During the first few months after the death of a loved one, young people may be less verbally expressive and instead show behavioral changes ranging from reserved to aggressive behaviors. This change of behavior is linked to low coping mechanisms which discourages young adults from doing their normal activities such as hobbies and sports. Their school work and performance are also affected due to difficulty in concentration and emotional distress especially when memories of their loved ones are evoked. They may also become rowdy and rebellious and lose their self-worth due to the loss of the meaning of life. How adolescents behave goes down to their coping efficacy.

Young adults are also at risk of developing social problems following a bereavement. Their social network may be affected and they shut some people out of their lives or have minimal contact with the ones in their lives. These poor social relations make it harder for them to ask for help in dealing with the death of loved ones and make the grieving process a lot more difficult for them. These problems last for a short while or they may be prolonged into adulthood depending on the support system of those in their social life.

Although bereavement does not automatically cause psychiatric problems, timely interventions can help adolescents cope with the loss of loved ones and prevent the prolonged effects of grief. This could be informal interventions such as support from friends and families or formal interventions such as counseling and therapy. A wide range of services should be offered at different levels of grief Depending on the complexities of grief and the needs of the adolescent. Those with mild levels may deal with grief on their own with the help of media, booklets, web resources, or helplines. They may also join community support groups which offer a chance for them to share their common experiences and eliminate any feeling of isolation. However, the more complex types of grief may require counseling or psychotherapy where their individual needs are addressed by the psychologists. Generally, intervention provides the bereaved adolescents an opportunity to pour out their unsaid or subconscious feelings and helps them reconcile with the death giving them a better and easier method to cope with their grief.

The Traumatized Adolescent

Trauma is the physical or emotional response to terrifying and especially unpredictable or unexpected experiences. Every day, young adults are vulnerable to painful and possibly traumatic events such as domestic violence, gory accidents, divorce of parents, wars, and calamities, and even loss from death. They may experience these events from childhood and carry them to adolescence while some experience these events multiple times in their lives. Some still live in such conditions where they are frequently abused either physically, emotionally, or even sexually. Emotional responses to such traumatic experiences are mostly overwhelming. They may feel constantly terrified, helpless, and other extreme psychological emotions. Given the complex reaction and response to traumatic events, a lot of research has been directed towards diagnosing trauma and the possible and effective way to treat and help teens cope with trauma.

Trauma symptoms can be emotional, cognitive, physical, behavioral and also having interpersonal difficulties. These symptoms could also include other symptoms related to depression, anxiety, or substance abuse. The symptoms often occur due to triggers which are either internal or external such as places, photos, conversations, memories, smells, and sounds that remind the adolescents of their original traumatic experiences. These reminders make them feel as if the events are recurring even though they are now safe.

Emotional trauma symptoms include fear, sadness, anger, and frequent mood swings. The adolescent can be constantly frightened during the day and cause scary dreams at night. In addition to fears, young adults could also experience anxiety because of the sudden unpredictability and a sense of impending danger. Extreme sadness and depression mainly occur due to loss of faith and trust in the world example due to the loss of loved ones. They may also feel angry at the world because they feel that the traumatic experience was unfair.

Adolescents may also exhibit behavioral trauma symptoms as they try to escape the overwhelming feelings. Many teens inflict physical injuries such as cutting and burning to reverse the numbness they feel and also to escape the mental and emotional torture. The adolescents may also indulge in recklessness such as drug abuse and risky sexual behaviors. Adolescents who have experienced domestic abuse may grow up believing that violence and anger are accepted ways of dealing with problems and they employ violence when dealing with conflicts.

Trauma may also cause cognitive and interpersonal symptoms. Young adults change how they perceive themselves following a traumatic event. For instance, when they are sexually molested, they may blame themselves for not foreseeing or avoiding the event. For example, they may blame themselves for wearing a dress and for agreeing to go to the party where they were raped. The adolescents also develop cognitions that make them lose faith in God and in humanity and also lose hope for the future (Wamser-Nanney, Scheeringa & Weems, 2014). In addition, they develop changes in their interpersonal relationships. They become poor at communication and may even withdraw from peers because they feel stigmatized and ashamed for what happened to them and also due to trust issues. They believe that no one understands what they are going through.

A number of strategies can be put in place to help the traumatized teenager. They include encouraging the adolescent to open up without judging them and showing them that you genuinely care and are interested in helping them recover. They also require lots of love and support during this period. In extreme cases of trauma, it is advisable to seek professional help from counselors and therapists and also medical assistance.

The Adolescent Living with a Chronic Illness

Thousands of adolescents die each year from chronic illnesses such as cancer, kidney problems, and AIDS. Having a chronic illness can be extremely tough for teens to deal with. They mourn for the person they were and the life they had before the diagnosis. They also lose their independence because they are forced to depend on their parent’s care. Some break their romantic relationship for fear of hurting their significant other due to the inevitable death. It is even worse when they are staring at a bleak future, with the uncertainties of whether they will come out alive. These life-threatening illnesses alter the developmental changes associated with adolescents and can be too much for adolescents to cope with.

It is even more challenging for the parents and palliative caregivers of chronically ill adolescents. They have to consider the developmental position of the teenager as well as ethical and legal issues. This is because though they are mature and capable of making decisions, the law does not allow them to make medical decisions such as discontinuation of treatment. They also have to deal with the emotional distress of watching their loved one terminally ill and coming to terms with the inevitability of their death.

Managing pain and other distressing symptoms such as nausea and lack of appetite is the best medical care that can be given to chronically ill patients. As the death of adolescents draws closer, the healthcare providers help the family give end-of-life care to their adolescents. This includes giving the teenagers honest information about their illness (Kaushansky et al., 2016). They should also not treat them like they are already dead but treat them with hope, not for recovery or a cure but for a joyful life for the remaining period and assurance of their remembrance after death.

Adolescents face unique challenges when faced with the death of loved ones, trauma, or chronic illnesses. If they are not well taken care of during such periods, the conditions can cause prolonged emotional and physical suffering. Although medical research has provided knowledge about the conditions and ways of handling them, adolescents require more care and support from close family and friends to help them get through difficult times easily.

References

1. Johnson, L., Torres, C., Sykes, A., Gibson, D., & Baker, J. (2017). The bereavement experience of adolescents and early young adults with cancer: Peer and parental loss due to death is associated with increased risk of adverse psychological outcomes. PLOS ONE, 12(8), e0181024. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0181024
2. Kaushansky, D., Cox, J., Dodson, C., McNeeley, M., Kumar, S., & Iverson, E. (2016). Living a secret: Disclosure among adolescents and young adults with chronic illnesses. Chronic Illness, 13(1), 49-61. doi: 10.1177/1742395316655855
3. Wamser-Nanney, R., Scheeringa, M., & Weems, C. (2014). Early Treatment Response in Children and Adolescents Receiving CBT for Trauma. Journal Of Pediatric Psychology, 41(1), 128-137. doi: 10.1093/jpepsy/jsu096

Peer review is an essential step when it comes to publishing an article or even a book. It is when you get someone in the same field or a field similar to evaluate work ready to be published. Peer review is extremely necessary as it ensures the quality of work is up to a good standard and has reliable information referenced. Peer-reviewed articles are important as they keep up with current trends and any other research in a variety of fields. Knowing how important peer review helps when research is being done as you know what you’re reading is factually correct.

Someone who didn’t consider peer review is Andrew Wakefield. He wrote a paper linking the MMR vaccine which treats mumps, measles, and rubella, to autism. He quoted: “I believe there is a causal association between the MMR vaccine and autism in many children for several reasons” (Cook, 2016). Since the release of his research paper, he has become one of the most controversial figures in the eyes of vaccinators, as well as in the autism spectrum. His ‘theory’ began when in 1995, a small group of parents approached Wakefield and said their children had developed autism after receiving the MMR vaccine. He quickly looked into a possible connection, but when one wasn’t proven, he came up with the theory that if the vaccine had caused inflammation in their intestines, the children could develop what’s known as ‘leaky gut syndrome’, which makes it possible for harmful chemicals to make their way to the children’s brain. Then, without getting it peer-reviewed, he published his research, causing chaos in the medical industry. However, the General Medical Council ruled this to be untrue. Newspapers tend to overexaggerate every headline as it gets them good press. Looking at an article from 2019 about the MMR vaccine and autism, the headline states ‘What Is the MMR Vaccine, What Are the Side Effects, When Was It Introduced and Why Was It Linked to Autism?”. The article then goes on to mention how you should ‘protect’ your child from the vaccine. Considering the GMC crushed the theory years ago, it’s a shocker that articles like this are still being allowed out, especially because they’re so factually incorrect.

Another non-peer-reviewed scandal was in 2015 when an ISU scientist went to jail for fraudulent research. Dong-Pyou Han was a research scientist at Iowa State University when he faked the results of his AIDS-vaccine experiment research paper. He wrongfully spiked some rabbit blood samples with human HIV antibodies, making it appear that his vaccine can allow animals to become immune to the deadly virus. Not only did he fool hundreds of thousands, but he also collected more than $20 million in federal grants to help with his research. Han was sentenced to 57 months in prison and has been fined $7.2 million.

Due to constant non-peer-reviewed articles tricking the general public, there’s now a lot more resistance to new theories and it is a lot harder to get an idea out there. The acceptance of a theory takes a long time to be approved and it needs to be proven that it’s true. Because of this, it may take months to years for a theory to be published, however, even longer if an idea gets turned down. One example of resistance to new scientific theories is ‘the atom’. When the Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann proposed that all matter was made up of molecules and atoms in the late 1800s, his idea wasn’t taken lightly and it was strange to a lot of people. Ludwig Boltzmann had stumbled on the idea when he developed his theory on gases, but for those questioning his theories, he had no way to prove that these atoms actually existed. Ernst Mach, a very big scientist during that period, laughed at the idea that something so small could exist. However, it wasn’t until 1906, that Albert Einstein noticed slight movements of pollen grains in water which was perfectly still. Einstein was able to prove Boltzmann’s theory, but unfortunately, Ludwig Boltzmann had died a year previously, so he wasn’t able to see his theory be accepted.

Evolution is something that even now, isn’t taken too seriously due to personal opinion or even religion. Darwin’s theory of evolution came around in the mid-1800s when the Bible’s creation of Earth was at its prime. Darwin’s theory is not easily taken as it challenges the Bible in the sense that God made animals, plants, rivers, people, etc. Darwin proposed that the characteristics that allowed the species to survive will be passed on throughout each generation and that individuals with characteristics most suited to the environment they are present in are most likely to survive and breed. This is known as natural selection and it is still a theory as no one has confirmed it to be true or false.

In conclusion, I believe that peer review is incredibly important to make sure that whatever is being published, is published to its best ability. Peer review is also important for the upcoming theories that are not yet published, as scientists are struggling to breakthrough through scientific resistance which is still rather prominent in theories today. To break this resistance, I personally believe that peer review should be mandatory in every piece of scientific writing that is awaiting to be published.

References

1. BBC Bitesize, 2020. Evolution. [Online] Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zyv83k7/revision/1 [Accessed 10 11 2020].
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Introduction

Being a young adult can be a confusing moment. Not only is it a period of physical and psychological growth and development but also marks transition from puberty to adulthood. Adolescents face multiple demands from their parents, peers, school work, and social media life, and try to meet all these demands while still trying to maintain their autonomy. During this period, adolescents can battle a number of emotions which when coupled with their lack of knowledge, and identity crisis can cause constant emotional distress and even depression. Despite all these negative forces operating against them, they are still vulnerable to worse situations. Death of loved ones, life-threatening illnesses, and trauma are some of the worst experiences that any young adult can have to deal with. This essay discusses the distinctive psychological outcome of each situation and how the adolescents facing such situations can be helped to cope with it.

The Grieving Adolescent

The death of a loved one is undeniably one of the most painful and devastating kinds of losses. The life of a grieving teenager is particularly more complex considering their developmental teenage issues. Young adults can react to grief in different ways. These reactions can be classified as behavioral responses, cognitive responses, affective responses, and somatic and psychological responses. An adolescent’s reaction to grief can be influenced by a number of things such as the kind of relationship that they shared with the deceased, how their loved one died, their previous experiences with death, their support system, and also how strong and stable they can be when dealing with stress and high emotions.

Bereaved adolescents who experience psychological reactions show some depressive and anxiety symptoms. While depression happens due to the loss of close relatives that as siblings or parents, studies have shown that the death of other distant relatives like grandparents can also cause depression. They worry and question whether they may be the next to die, who will take care of them once the breadwinner has died, and worry that the remaining relatives could also die. Such kinds of depression and anxiety syndromes may follow young adults for a long depending on the care and support they receive during that period.

Though most studies focus on depression and anxiety as the main reactions following a bereavement, some studies report psychiatric disorders that exhibit both emotional and behavioral symptoms (Johnson, Torres, Sykes, Gibson & Baker, 2017). During the first few months after the death of a loved one, young people may be less verbally expressive and instead show behavioral changes ranging from reserved to aggressive behaviors. This change of behavior is linked to low coping mechanisms which discourages young adults from doing their normal activities such as hobbies and sports. Their school work and performance are also affected due to difficulty in concentration and emotional distress especially when memories of their loved ones are evoked. They may also become rowdy and rebellious and lose their self-worth due to the loss of the meaning of life. How adolescents behave goes down to their coping efficacy.

Young adults are also at risk of developing social problems following a bereavement. Their social network may be affected and they shut some people out of their lives or have minimal contact with the ones in their lives. These poor social relations make it harder for them to ask for help in dealing with the death of loved ones and make the grieving process a lot more difficult for them. These problems last for a short while or they may be prolonged into adulthood depending on the support system of those in their social life.

Although bereavement does not automatically cause psychiatric problems, timely interventions can help adolescents cope with the loss of loved ones and prevent the prolonged effects of grief. This could be informal interventions such as support from friends and families or formal interventions such as counseling and therapy. A wide range of services should be offered at different levels of grief Depending on the complexities of grief and the needs of the adolescent. Those with mild levels may deal with grief on their own with the help of media, booklets, web resources, or helplines. They may also join community support groups which offer a chance for them to share their common experiences and eliminate any feeling of isolation. However, the more complex types of grief may require counseling or psychotherapy where their individual needs are addressed by the psychologists. Generally, intervention provides the bereaved adolescents an opportunity to pour out their unsaid or subconscious feelings and helps them reconcile with the death giving them a better and easier method to cope with their grief.

The Traumatized Adolescent

Trauma is the physical or emotional response to terrifying and especially unpredictable or unexpected experiences. Every day, young adults are vulnerable to painful and possibly traumatic events such as domestic violence, gory accidents, divorce of parents, wars, and calamities, and even loss from death. They may experience these events from childhood and carry them to adolescence while some experience these events multiple times in their lives. Some still live in such conditions where they are frequently abused either physically, emotionally, or even sexually. Emotional responses to such traumatic experiences are mostly overwhelming. They may feel constantly terrified, helpless, and other extreme psychological emotions. Given the complex reaction and response to traumatic events, a lot of research has been directed towards diagnosing trauma and the possible and effective way to treat and help teens cope with trauma.

Trauma symptoms can be emotional, cognitive, physical, behavioral and also having interpersonal difficulties. These symptoms could also include other symptoms related to depression, anxiety, or substance abuse. The symptoms often occur due to triggers which are either internal or external such as places, photos, conversations, memories, smells, and sounds that remind the adolescents of their original traumatic experiences. These reminders make them feel as if the events are recurring even though they are now safe.

Emotional trauma symptoms include fear, sadness, anger, and frequent mood swings. The adolescent can be constantly frightened during the day and cause scary dreams at night. In addition to fears, young adults could also experience anxiety because of the sudden unpredictability and a sense of impending danger. Extreme sadness and depression mainly occur due to loss of faith and trust in the world example due to the loss of loved ones. They may also feel angry at the world because they feel that the traumatic experience was unfair.

Adolescents may also exhibit behavioral trauma symptoms as they try to escape the overwhelming feelings. Many teens inflict physical injuries such as cutting and burning to reverse the numbness they feel and also to escape the mental and emotional torture. The adolescents may also indulge in recklessness such as drug abuse and risky sexual behaviors. Adolescents who have experienced domestic abuse may grow up believing that violence and anger are accepted ways of dealing with problems and they employ violence when dealing with conflicts.

Trauma may also cause cognitive and interpersonal symptoms. Young adults change how they perceive themselves following a traumatic event. For instance, when they are sexually molested, they may blame themselves for not foreseeing or avoiding the event. For example, they may blame themselves for wearing a dress and for agreeing to go to the party where they were raped. The adolescents also develop cognitions that make them lose faith in God and in humanity and also lose hope for the future (Wamser-Nanney, Scheeringa & Weems, 2014). In addition, they develop changes in their interpersonal relationships. They become poor at communication and may even withdraw from peers because they feel stigmatized and ashamed for what happened to them and also due to trust issues. They believe that no one understands what they are going through.

A number of strategies can be put in place to help the traumatized teenager. They include encouraging the adolescent to open up without judging them and showing them that you genuinely care and are interested in helping them recover. They also require lots of love and support during this period. In extreme cases of trauma, it is advisable to seek professional help from counselors and therapists and also medical assistance.

The Adolescent Living with a Chronic Illness

Thousands of adolescents die each year from chronic illnesses such as cancer, kidney problems, and AIDS. Having a chronic illness can be extremely tough for teens to deal with. They mourn for the person they were and the life they had before the diagnosis. They also lose their independence because they are forced to depend on their parent’s care. Some break their romantic relationship for fear of hurting their significant other due to the inevitable death. It is even worse when they are staring at a bleak future, with the uncertainties of whether they will come out alive. These life-threatening illnesses alter the developmental changes associated with adolescents and can be too much for adolescents to cope with.

It is even more challenging for the parents and palliative caregivers of chronically ill adolescents. They have to consider the developmental position of the teenager as well as ethical and legal issues. This is because though they are mature and capable of making decisions, the law does not allow them to make medical decisions such as discontinuation of treatment. They also have to deal with the emotional distress of watching their loved one terminally ill and coming to terms with the inevitability of their death.

Managing pain and other distressing symptoms such as nausea and lack of appetite is the best medical care that can be given to chronically ill patients. As the death of adolescents draws closer, the healthcare providers help the family give end-of-life care to their adolescents. This includes giving the teenagers honest information about their illness (Kaushansky et al., 2016). They should also not treat them like they are already dead but treat them with hope, not for recovery or a cure but for a joyful life for the remaining period and assurance of their remembrance after death.

Adolescents face unique challenges when faced with the death of loved ones, trauma, or chronic illnesses. If they are not well taken care of during such periods, the conditions can cause prolonged emotional and physical suffering. Although medical research has provided knowledge about the conditions and ways of handling them, adolescents require more care and support from close family and friends to help them get through difficult times easily.

References

1. Johnson, L., Torres, C., Sykes, A., Gibson, D., & Baker, J. (2017). The bereavement experience of adolescents and early young adults with cancer: Peer and parental loss due to death is associated with increased risk of adverse psychological outcomes. PLOS ONE, 12(8), e0181024. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0181024
2. Kaushansky, D., Cox, J., Dodson, C., McNeeley, M., Kumar, S., & Iverson, E. (2016). Living a secret: Disclosure among adolescents and young adults with chronic illnesses. Chronic Illness, 13(1), 49-61. doi: 10.1177/1742395316655855
3. Wamser-Nanney, R., Scheeringa, M., & Weems, C. (2014). Early Treatment Response in Children and Adolescents Receiving CBT for Trauma. Journal Of Pediatric Psychology, 41(1), 128-137. doi: 10.1093/jpepsy/jsu096