Category: Exploration

On the 20th of July 1969, the human race achieved one of its greatest achievements to date. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin set foot on the surface of the moon for the first time in human history. A truly remarkable feat that captivated the hearts and minds of some 600 million people who watched as 2 humans did what was once unthinkable. Now over 53 years later plans are in action to go once again to where no one has gone before. As NASA sets its sites on Mars and explores beyond our solar system, however, many would argue that the exploration of space is a futile endeavor that wastes money and valuable resources that could potentially be put to better use. I could not disagree more, I believe that the exploration and colonization of space is a vital step in human history that must be taken.

One of the arguments against the exploration of space that is repeatedly brought up is the suggestion that it is a waste of money. However, this could not be untrue, and in a lot of ways, the truth is the opposite of that because the space industry has an overall incredibly positive effect on the global economy. The biggest space program in the world with the most funding is NASA, who were provided with around 21.6 billion dollars of funding in 2019 which seems a lot more than it is. From some perspective that is 0.47% of the US federal budget, not only that but in that year, NASA generated more than 64.3 billion dollars in total economic output as well as supported more than 310,000 jobs in the US alone and as the industry expands the numbers will only increase.

The innovative technology we have gained as a byproduct of exploring space has improved the healthcare industry through innovations such as surgical robots and digital microscopes allowing for greater safety and efficiency in the operating room. There have also been benefits to our day-to-day lives due to inventions such as air purifiers, memory foam, and cordless vacuum cleaners according to the Canadian Space Agency space exploration has also helped us improve GPS technology and our ability to predict the weather, grow food, access clean water and our ability to predict natural disasters.

The new knowledge and scientific breakthroughs that go with exploring space are, yet another reason space exploration is extremely beneficial as they provide us with a better understanding of the universe, some recent breakthroughs include the confirmation of the existence of gravitational waves something hypothesized by Albert Einstein one of the greatest minds in human history over 100 years ago, as well as information collected by telescopes and space probes confirming that the number of planets in the universe is even greater than we thought, meaning that

there is still so much that we don’t know, which further insensitivities us to go where none have gone.

A further benefit of exploring space is the positive cultural impact it has on the population, by this I means the fact that it inspires young people to study in areas such as engineering the sciences, and other STEM subjects which leads to more growth not only in the space industry but in other areas such as medicine, technology and construction as well. “A 2009 survey found that 50% of the internationally renowned scientists who published in the prestigious journal Nature during the previous three years had been inspired by Apollo to become scientists 89% of the respondents also agreed that human spaceflight inspires younger generations to study science- published by Nasa in a paper looking at benefits of space exploration Most of the jobs in the industry are extremely well paying and due to the high public profile of government agencies like NASA, more and more people are becoming interested in the future of space exploration and what it might hold, meaning that the industry will continue to expand and progress.

Another benefit of space exploration that is often overlooked is the prospect of colonization, the reason being that most people see it as an unrealistic idea that we will only ever see in sci-fi movies. However, the colonization of other planets is a far more reasonable idea than you might think, in fact on the 16th of October 2015, the BBC reported on NASA’s plan to have humans living on Mars in the 2030s meaning that this might happen within the next decade if everything goes as they expect. Now that we know colonization is a plausible and real possibility you are probably thinking about what we could gain from such an endeavor, well the potential new information and technology that could be unlocked through exploring the universe is unparalleled and extremely exciting to think about.

A common argument against the idea of colonization and space exploration is that instead of trying to expand, we should be focusing on fixing the many issues on our planet, such as climate change, pollution, and world hunger. The counterargument to this is quite simple, in the current state of the world all these problems are only getting worse, this is down to several factors, but I would argue that the main contributor is the ever-increasing human population and lack of means to support such exponential growth. Most studies estimate that the number of humans the earth can support is less than 8 billion people. The current world population is around 7.9 billion people, essentially in the next few decades we will need to massively increase the amount of food, houses, drinkable water, and other essential products that we produce to accommodate such growth. Therefore, I think that expanding elsewhere as well as gaining new knowledge is a great idea and not a waste of time.

To summarize, the exploration of space is a process that yields many benefits to human society such as economic and cultural benefits as well as increasing our knowledge and our ability to positively affect the safety, health, and daily lives of everyone on the planet, and hopefully in the future on the multiple planets inhabited by the human race. For all these reasons I believe that the exploration and colonization of space is a vital step in human history that must be taken, and the exploration of space should be looked at by all as a vital conquest that is of absolute importance in the advancement of all human society.

Well known to generations of readers and reaching almost a century of age, the novel Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad has not lost any of its ability to astonish and dismay. The novel continues to be, to many degrees, a significant starting point for discussions on modernity, coloniality, glorification of Western hypocrisy, and societal ambiguities. However, in more recent analyses of the novel, many have found that it offers a less than inclusive approach to racial issues and that it, along with its messages should be left in a time when this kind of philosophy was considered acceptable by society. While some people speculate that Conrad delegitimizes Heart of Darkness as an achievement on literary grounds due to it’s racism and oppression of the African natives, these events must be scrutinized with a historical, not a contemporary lens. Consequently, Conrad isn’t being deliberately racist; he simply represents the popular views of that epoch, and thus Heart of Darkness should remain a valuable part of the world’s literature.

Within the long list of individuals who have come to believe that Conrad is a racist is Chinua Achebe, a distinguished Nigerian novelist and essayist who believes that Conrad’s main goal in writing Heart of Darkness was to comfort Europeans in their sense of superiority: “Heart of Darkness projects the image of Africa as ‘the other world,’ the antithesis of Europe and therefore of civilization, a place where man’s vaunted intelligence and refinement are finally mocked by triumphant bestiality,” (338). He also believes that Heart of Darkness is a strong perpetrator of the common Western habit of characterizing Africa “as a foil to Europe, a place of negations . . . in comparison with which Europe’s own state of spiritual grace will be manifest,” (Achebe 337). In his analysis, Achebe fails to recognize that although such comments are regarded as highly racist at the political level of today, the main intention of Conrad was not just to place one race above another– it was to expose the ugly, true nature of people in general. He wanted to demonstrate that evil is a human entity that can become extremely degenerating without the need of ethical restraint, so long as it is free to do so. As he wrote: “‘It would be interesting for science to watch the mental changes of individuals, on the spot.’” (Conrad 162). In this particular instance, Conrad talked about how easily people can change their opinions and become thoughtless beasts, murdering innocents without seriously considering what they were doing for even a second. The fact that Conrad seemed to provide Europeans with a sense of superiority seems a bit unintentional and comes across as simply a translation error between two separate timelines more than anything. After looking into the points that Conrad tries to make most clear to the reader, it is almost obvious that his main intent was to showcase that the human race as a species is capable of evil.

Recently, Edward W. Said, one of Columbia’s most prominent critics and writers, has also addressed aggressive and crippling concerns regarding Heart of Darkness. He believed that Conrad was limited to the mindset of colonial supremacy and therefore could not imagine anything outside it, as his characters Marlow and Kurtz suggested. “But Marlow and Kurtz are also creatures of their time and cannot take the next step, which would be to recognize that what they saw, disablingly and disparagingly, as a non-European “darkness” was in fact a non-European world resisting imperialism so as one day to regain sovereignty and independence, and not, as Conrad reductively says, to reestablish the darkness,” (Said 428). The assumption is made here that Conrad could therefore only presume that Africans could be governed by Europeans. While Heart of Darkness contains some wide-ranging and equivocal remarks which seem to praise the idea of British dominance, one must question how significant these findings are against the overwhelming pressure of everything else. The novel includes a series of scenes depicting a horrible feeling of desolation caused by physical turmoil, which induces death and destruction surrounding the entire plot- as described by Marlow: “It was just robbery with violence, aggravated murder on a great scale, and men going at it blind—as is very proper for those who tackle a darkness,”(Conrad 13). Through Marlow’s thoughts, Conrad is expressing that the darkness of humanity is what causes these terrible occurrences. Part of humanity’s darkness is indeed the “non-European world resisting imperialism” according to Conrad, however, simply stating that that is the entirety of his message is obstinate.

Paul B. Armstrong claims that Conrad’s portrayal of the novel is not an act of racism, as Achebe and Said allege, but an audacious and systematic search for the complexities of recognizing “cultural otherness”, “The novella has received these divergent responses because its enactment of the dilemmas entailed in understanding cultural otherness is inherently double and strategically ambiguous.” (Armstrong 431). Heart of Darkness offers an accurate picture of how people see other cultures by sticking with Marlow’s subjective point of view. Yet, according to the critic, the pictures themselves are not actually any less offensive due to this. When describing black men at the station, Conrad recounts, “All their meager breasts panted together, the violently dilated nostrils quivered, the eyes stared stonily up-hill. They passed me within six inches, without a glance, with that complete, deathlike indifference of unhappy savages.’ (Conrad 36). These definitions tend to be distinctly beliefs and biases at first glance. When you look closer to the precise word selection, however, it’s clear that Marlow does not describe these men from a political point of view, he just portrays their appearances with a historical lens that doesn’t fully disclose how to describe people politically correctly today. The way Marlow regards other cultures is a good example of how most white people look at separate cultures – simply by relying on social norms and on their general appearance.

C.P. Sarvan decided to adopt a more rational tone for the novel and found that some ideas could be considered racist, but that didn’t mean it was the work in its entirety was prejudiced. In his words, ‘This is not to claim that Conrad was free of all prejudice, nor to deny that he has wholly resisted the temptation to use physical appearance and setting as indicators of nonphysical qualities,’ (Sarvan 284). While Conrad’s character, Marlow may have a bit of racism in his ideology, so did everyone from that time period. For centuries racism used to be ingrained in the very livelihoods of everyone from that epoch. Hence is why these issues of race are just now coming up about the novel Heart of Darkness. When it was written, most of these phrases and ways of describing other races were completely acceptable and normal. The reason that it may seem like even more than the average work of that time period is that Conrad’s main message was to bring out that true evil lies in everyone, in humanity itself. Something this heavy cannot bring out the best in anyone, let alone someone that was already viewed as lesser by the general public at that moment in time.

In the end, Conrad can be viewed as either a man of extreme prejudice or as a man of deep examination of the human race. Through careful analysis of Heart of Darkness, it can be justified that his racial prejudice is simply distinguished through the lens of his timeline, and the message he is attempting to portray to his audience. Since one of his main goals was to showcase that humanity is capable of evil, his reasoning and examples of showing so does not put anyone in the limelight. In general, without his involvement in imperialism’s destructive energy, the incredible scope of Conrad’s work is unthinkable. Achebe and Said have their own clear understandings of what Conrad’s intentions were, however with a novella as controversial and deep as this, the true goal of the author is up for the interpretation of each reader. Despite his translation errors between timelines, Conrad will never be dropped from the list of great literary authors. The mere fact that his work is still in debate and discussion almost a century later confirms his centrality to the modern age.

Works Cited

1. Achebe, Chinua. “An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad’s Heart of Darkness.” Heart of Darkness: A Norton Critical Edition. 4 th ed. Ed. Paul B. Armstrong. New York: W.W Norton and Company, 2006. 336-349.
2. Armstrong, Paul. “Reading, Race, and Representing Others.” Heart of Darkness: A Norton Critical Edition. 4 th ed. Ed. Paul B. Armstrong. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2006. 429-444.
3. Conrad, Joseph, and Joyce Carol Oates. Heart of Darkness and The Secret Sharer. Signet Classics, 1997.
4. Said, Edward. “Two Visions in Heart of Darkness.” Heart of Darkness: A Norton Critical Edition. 4 th ed. Ed. Paul B. Armstrong. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2006. 422-429.
5. Sarvan, C.P. “Racism and the Heart of Darkness.” Heart of Darkness: A Norton Critical Edition. 3rd ed. Ed. Robert Kimbrough. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1988. 280-285.

In the Land of the Kappiris was a travelogue written by S.K. Pottekatt. It was originally written in Malayalam language under the title Kappirikalude Naattil and it was published in the year 1951. S.K. Pottekkatt (1913-1982) or Sankaran Kutty Pottekatt was an Internationally acclaimed Malayalam author. He was a prolific writer and has authored more than sixty book including ten novels, twenty-four collections of short stories, a couple of books based on personal observations, three anthologies of poems, eighteen travelogues, four plays, and a collection of essays. He was awarded the Kerala Sahitya Akademi award in1961 for his novel, Oru Theruvinte Katha (The Story of a Street). Oru Deshathinte Katha (The Story of a Place), his autobiographical work was the winner of the Keala Sahitya Academi Award in 1972, Kendra Sahitya Akademi Award in 1977, and the Jnanpith Award in 1980. It was made into an award-winning film. His works have been translated into English, Italian, Russian, German, and Czech, besides all major Indian languages.

Being a versatile writer who enriched Malayalam literature by his fictional and non-fictional works, S.K. Pottekatt is considered the pioneer of travel writing in Malayalam. The travel bug in him woke up and he made his first visit abroad in 1949. He travelled many times to countries in Europe, the Americas, South Asia, and the Far East. He mingled with the common people in these countries. This was a period when Malayalam language and literature flourished with contributions of S.K. Pottekkatt. His notable works like Nepal Yatra, Kappirikalude Nattil, London Notebook, Indonesian Diary, Pathirasuryante Naattil, Bohemian Chitrangal, Bali Dweep, have enriched the language. The chance of transferring reading experience to visual experience adds charm to travel literature. He made Malayalis aware of the geography, life, and culture of various countries and people abroad more than any other author. His popularity lies in the lyrical quality of his travelogues sprinkled with humour, keen observation in depth study, and vivid images. As apioneer in Malayalam travel writing, his works led to the popularization of this genre in Malayalam. Some of his Travelogues enjoyed greater readership and popularity in Malayalam than the novels and plays of the same period.

Pottekkatt was a socially committed writer with a political vision. He was involved in politics along with his literary career. He won a seat at Lok Sabha from the Thalassery constituency in 1962 with a majority of 66,000 votes, defeating the popular Malayalam literary and social critic, Sukumar Azhikode.

In the Land of the Kappiris describes what Pottekkatt saw and experienced during his African tour. It gives an insight about the life of African natives as well as Indian expats under the British rule, during 1950s. This travelogue has been divided into nine sections and each of the titles has been titled as “On the African Soil”, “Beira”, “In South Rhodesia”, “The Victorian Falls”, “The Indians of East Africa”, “From Blantyre to Dodoma”, “Looking Back at Nyasaland”, “Swahili”, and “The Indian Bwana.” In each of these chapters, Pottekkatt had done a vivid description of African land and their people, their life style, and culture. When we deeply analyze this book it is evident that how far the African people had been exploited and tortured by the colonizers.

In the first chapter of this book called “On the African Soil”, Pottekkat describes about his very first impression upon an African land when he reached the Mombasa port in Africa.

“Mombasa port, said to be the eastern gateway to the African continent When I looked I saw the figure of a tall, half-naked Kappiri standing on the terrace of a ware house of the wharf, looking at our ship in amazement. He was the first Negro I set eyes on the land of the Kappiris. To me, he seemed the entire black race of Africa.

He must have stood there similarly wide-eyed when the ship f a few new adventurous Norwegian sailors tried to open the doors to the Dark continent in the eleventh century. He might have stood and stared similarly at Vasco da Gama’s sail as it neared the shore in 1497.The passage of centuries has brought no change in his sense of wonderment. That is precisely why he has not made progress even now”.

From the above references from the text gives us an idea about the un civilized and un educated community of negroes who are the major part of the population of Africa. The colonizer, the whites made use of this condition of the Negroes and they continued their process of colonization even in the twentieth century. Not only the colonizers but also the nature was also against the Negroes as the melting of glaciers of Europe increased the sea level. As a result, the rivers and lakes dried and temperature increased by making the Northern part of Africa a huge desert. This made the negro race to move to the central Africa which made them to be isolated in between the desert and the dense forest of the south. Hence they were forced to live the primitive existence.

The Negroes lived a slave like living under their White master. He went numb with the fear of the tortures inflicted on them by the man and nature. When he commits crimes his master gives three options as punishments for him like prison sentence, fine or lashing. The Kappiri usually chooses brutal lashing. He has no place in his mother land and every adult Kappiri has to levy taxes for the white man to live in his native land. He doesn’t have the right to come out of his hut after 8 pm, if he did so he may be punished. It is a criminal offence if a Negro raped a white woman. If he did so, he may be sentenced to death. It is funny to notice that it was the white man’s lust that caused Africa to have lakhs of colored people. This is a significant instance of the impact of colonization in the African land. Though it is a very serious issue Pottekkatt had presented it humorously.

In the second chapter called “Beira”, Pottekkatt writes about his next destination town in Africa called Beira. It was an important city in Portugal ruled Africa. Though it was a Portuguese Colony they were against British and the English language. As compared to other African countries Beira was free of racial discrimination. In this chapter, we can see a different side of colonization which is very much different from the British colonization. Here blacks and whites are considered equal and there is only one restriction that was don’t speak English. But, as Portugal is a dictatorship they will destroy the voices against them. This is also seen in Beira. “Once the Government closed down a newspaper just because it said that there are no public Latrines in Beira…there are rules that the work force in any office should be 90%Portuguese”. This also an important instance of the domination of colonizers upon a colony.In their colonial glorious life they wanted good job, food, and drinks.

Towards the end of this chapter, we can see the beautiful description of beauty Beira land and its seashore. For a reader, it gives a real like feeling on reading this passage. At the same time, he expresses the harsh realities in the land about the scarcity water and the high expense of food. In the last part of this chapter, Pottekkatt remembers the meeting with a man from Madras who came to Beira before thirty years and now a citizen of Beira. In Pottekkatt’s long journey through Arica, this meeting gave him full of warmth and hospiatality from him. When he saw the garden of the Madras Man it made Pottekkatt to recall the thoughts about Kerala and his Home. Here we can see a diasporic life of man who is living in a society which is distinctively different from his native culture.

In the third chapter called “In South Rhodesia”, Pottekkatt deals a place in South Rhodesa where there is astrong practice of social discrimination. Just like South Africa, it was also a self-governed country and it was ruled by the White people .The frequency of the discrimination is examined on the instance of Pottekkatt’s journey to Rhodesia by Train. In that train there was separate bogey for the Negros and the whites. The Negros’ s coach was labeled with the words ‘Natives’ in huge letters. It was avery dirty bogey just like a cow shed There was no adequate light in it and the negros were forced to travel like cattles. The second class coaches close to the author’s coupe was reserved for the Asians and even when there are plenty of seats in it none of the Whites came to it.

In the fourth chapter called “The Victoria Falls” Pottekkat has done a complete and detailed description about Victoria falls which is a significant spot in African land. On watching the beauty of Victorian falls he recalls the saying of Lord Livingston that “It had never been seen seen by European eyes; but scenes so lovely must have been gazed upon by angels in their flight”. More than a travel writer here Pottekkat is seemed as a historian and also a mythologist who digs history and the mythological of Victorian falls which was a pilgrimage spot for the Batoka tribe and who pray before it and also sacrificesd human beings to please the supreme god of Barimo.

The fifth chapter “The Indians of East Africa” deals with the Indian community in Africa. There were Gujartis as Businessmen, Malayali people in the clerical jobs, and the Tamilians in the manual labour sector. The British were not favorable to the large number of Indians in Africa. This stemmed out from different reasons. Mainly, the Indians knew the dialect exceptionally well and had an awfully inviting demeanor towards the Africans. They had everything from meat to dress at one single put which the English may never dream around. Be that as it may, Pottekkatt does not have exceptionally great things to say approximately these greedy Baniyas. He says that they are too of the same form as the British are abusing the Africans to make benefit. By the by, the British needs to drive out Indians from Africa so that they can have a imposing business model in abuse. In degree, the Indian misuse is much less when compared to the Europeans. Pottekkatt at that point brings on an passage from the discourse of Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru who continually inquired the Indians settled in Africa to work for the welfare of Africa, which is seconded by the creator. Not at all like other chapters, here we see a baffled Pottekkatt criticizing the Indians who are pleased of their Indianness, but modest absent from its substance.

In the sixth chapter “From Blantyre to Dodoma” At Mbeya, Pottekkatt realized that the whites don’t permit the locals to live inside the city. They have partitioned space exterior the city limits called the Local Towns. The Whites are on a civilizing mission attempting to make the Kappiris modern, he remarks jeeringly. However he does not generalization the complete white populace like that and affectionately recalls Mr.V, an Englishman who is basic of the English ways.

In the seventh chapter “Looking Back at Nyasaland” tragically, Pottekkat in this chapter has looked at Nyasaland with a stereotypical vision of Africa being a dim landmass. Nyasaland may be a “dark nation, its fields burnt and blackened by timberland fires, its dark individuals hung in dark clothes.” Pottekkatt looks at Nyasaland with an outsider’s eye as he is one. But he does not appear a enormous heart which is accommodating enough of others’ traditions and convictions. Instep takes the tone of a self-aggrandizing mission of civilization which the Europeans fondly call as the white man’s burden. Nyasaland may be a protectorate of the British. Be that as it may, they have not done any massive developmental exercises there since their, as it were deliberate, is that of misuse. For instance, Nyasaland has tremendous mineral wealth, but The British does not need to enjoy in long term projects since they don’t know for how long they would be in Nyasaland. Subsequently, they only concentrate on tobacco cultivation. Nyasa lake is the third biggest lake in Africa. They have a custom called unyongo, where the boys and young ladies are taught conjugal customs and the craftsmanship of adore making. The Ngrus are another tribe and have cannibalistic traits. They record their upper teeth and make them sharp and pointed. They don’t indeed waver to feed on their possess kith and kinfolk. Be that as it may, cannibalism has diminished impressively since the advent of the British.

In the eighth chapter “Swahili” Pottekkatt tells about a unique language prevailing in African land especially in, Uganda, Tanganyika, Zanzibar, and Kenya. It means the dialect of the coastal arrive. The uniqueness of Swahili is that they begin with tight consonant clusters like mtoni and msumku. Swahili has significantly borrowed from Arabic and indeed Hindi. It is a straightforward dialect with no script of its claim and employments the English script. Pottekkatt afterward unfolds an curiously account almost his ‘mastery’ of Swahili where he gets to be a interpreter of Swahili between a transport driver and a poverty stricken English man who boarded the bus.

In the ninth and the final chapter titled “TheIndian Bwana” Pottekkatt deals with the life of Indians in the land of Kappiris. They don’t draw profitable pay rates unlike popular conception. The Holmes Compensations Commission had prescribed a climb in their salary, but this no place come to the compensation of the whites. In any case, since Africa is much cheaper than India, they may manage a extravagant way of life with amazing living rooms and three to four servants. They were given four months take off and moment lesson tickets to visit their countries in every four a long time. After retirement, these Indians were doubtful approximately returning to India since they are uncertain approximately the way their homeland would treat them.

He too talks around the enmity or antagonism that individuals from diverse parts of India have for each other, which is reexamined and strengthened in Africa. North Indians slight the Madrasis, Goans revel in the colonial radiance and the moreover. Pottekkatt is profoundly bothered almost the direction of such intolerance and muses over how this seem hold a country together.

So, through this research paper, we can arrive at a conclusion that the travelogue In the Land Of Kappiris is indeed a clear depiction of the influence of Europen colonialism in the African land. The brutal exploitation and discrimination in the social-economic and the political life of negros by the colonizers are vividly portrayed in this book. This paper could trace the instances where the illiterate and alienated life of the Kappiris was exploited. We can also insist the proficiency of a native Indian author like Pottekkatt who is successful in portraying Africa before the readers by his letters. His solid contradiction against human subjugation and oppression can be seen in “In the Land of Kappiris.” This comment underlines that Africans had to put more exertion to achieve freedom in considerations and activity. Pottekkatt’s concern towards the individuals of Africa could be due to his possess individual encounters as a by item of colonization that happened in India. This comment too focuses that indeed in spite of the fact that other ex-colonies have begun to recapture their past radiance, the individuals of Africa don’t appear to show any sign of advance. This might have raised his concerns. This comment might be intended to bring mindfulness to the individuals of Africa for the have to be rise from the impacts of oppression that they endured from. Hence he had exhibited his mastery in explaining the life of a continent with a touch of humour and wit. Thus this paper could explore the influence of colonialism in African land as well as the proficiency of a native Indian writer in making a travelogue as the real travel experience for the reader

Ocean mapping consists of different techniques and resolutions of quality all of which have benefits. 100% of the ocean seafloor has been mapped with a horizonal resolution of 1 to 12 kilometres by the Geosat and ERS-1 spacecraft (Smith and Sandwell 1997). However less than 10% of the global ocean has been mapped by sonar technology (NOAA 2018). Although the knowledge of the ocean floors terrain and its depths are known, the detail of the floor its self is vague.

The information taken from ocean mapping can give a lot of insight into the biological and geological history and the change in sea levels. It can also help provide information on volcanic rifts and seamounts. It can benefit in the construction of sea structures such as wind farms by providing information as to where is best to build them. Changes to the Oceans climate can be monitored to help provide data towards climate change. It can also help with assessing an area and help coastal management preserve and protect the oceans ecosystem.

The ocean was first mapped in 1957 (Maxwell 2013) and published in 1968 by Marie Tharp and Bruce Charles Heezen using echo sounding which is a type of sonar. Sonar stands for sound, navigation and ranging and was first used in world war one (Bellis 2017). This is where high frequency sounds are sent out and the time delay of the returning echo is recorded, the data is then plotted to record a profile of the sea floor (Mason 2017). It was at this time noticed that the floor had many rift valleys which supported the continental drift claim.

Sonar continued to advance and there are now many different types and ways of using sonar to map the ocean, even some fishermen use sonar to locate large schools of fish. Swath-sounding/multibeam echo sounders is one type which was developed in 1960 by the Royal Navy (Vilming 1998). One of the more updated versions of this is the Tangaroa’s Kongsberg EM302 multibeam system (Pallentin 2016), upgraded in 2010, which is mounted on to the hull of the boat and it sends out a signal which is divided into 288 separate beams forming a swath on the seafloor. The width of the swath is increased with water depth and can map depths of up to 8000 metres with a width of up to 7 kilometres. This is then reflected off the seafloor and sent back to the ship’s receiver. This then provides the distance from the bottom of the ocean giving the reader the depth. There is also a similar high-resolution shallow water multibeam system called Kongsberg EM3002D (Kongsberg 2006) which has a max of 508 beams and covers a range of 1-200m. Most simple sonar echosounders transmit sound at 12 kiloHertz to discover the depth. Whereas some use a lower frequency of 3.5 kiloHertz, which are used to penetrate the sea floor and see the layers of sediment below (Dive and Discover N/A).

Another modern sonar technique is the side-looking sonar. This sonar is towed behind a water vehicles and ships and although works similar to a multibeam echo sounder, it focuses more on intensity of the return echo. This means it is better for finding objects in the sea such as ship wrecks and providing information on the sea beds makeup. They also work well in varying water conditions and can measure the ocean floor with up to 10cm of resolution (Pennstate N/A).

To then turn the information received by the multibeam system and the side-looking sonar into a map the data must be analysed. The seafloors denseness is provided by the strength of a returning signal, for example; weak returning signals indicate soft mud while strong returning signals suggest rock (NIWA 2016). Also, louder echo’s suggest a darker area in comparison to quiet echo’s suggesting it to lighter. This data is then combined with satellite data to produce a picture of the seafloor.

Benthic habitat mapping is a combination of satellite imagery, underwater photos, data from samples and acoustic surveys. All of which give a picture of what the bottom of the ocean is like in certain areas. Benthic is a term which refers to anything at the bottom of the ocean on or in the sea bed. It is mainly shallow waters which have been mapped in this way, mainly due to it being easier to map than the open ocean but also for management and preservation reasons. An example of using benthic habitat mapping is the mapping of the Florida coral reef ecosystem, in which a 9-year project was done to map 3000 square kilometres of shallow water which was less than 25 metres deep. This particular coral reef is important because of the endangered and threatened marine life which live within, the vital fishery which generates and estimated $4 billion in total revenue, and it provides protection from hurricane driven waves and storms.

There are many ways of exploring the ocean with technology but to get the best view of the sea floor you must view it with human eyes. One way this is possible is by scuba diving, which can be done in shallows of up to 40 metres. Divers can take photos or videos of the routes they take which can be used to provide a data base of the area. Another way that humans can view the oceans depths is by using a submersible, an example being Alvin. This particular vessel can submerge 2 humans into depths of up to 4500 metres for up to 10 hours (WHOI 2018). Alvin has two robotic arms which can obtain samples and with its current dive depth it can reach around 2/3rds of the oceans floor. Scientists also believe they can improve this depth to 6500 metres, meaning it would have access to around 98% of the ocean floor. Although this procedure can provide a lot of information about the sea floor it can be very time consuming and very expensive.

All the techniques discussed have their benefits and disadvantages, however, to map the ocean in the highest revolution it would be best to use all methods simultaneously. Satellite mapping provides an all-round good view of the ocean topography, however, it leaves out the details. Sonars many different techniques and uses can fill in most of the blanks that the satellite misses out. Echosounders and side scan sonar are often used together to provide as much information possible. Then submersibles can be used on areas of interest given by other methods. These along with benthic habitat mapping technique it can produce a high-resolution profile of the sea floors, which can be used to provide lots of information for future science and help explain the environments history.

Ocean mapping is a great scientific advantage towards learning more about the environment. One group of scientists aim to map 100% of the topography of the ocean by 2030 (GEBCO 2017) to help understand the oceans circulation, tides, tsunamis, forecasting, fishing resources and lots more. There are doubts behind this project however due to the fact it would aid mining industries that could try to mine discovered spots for profit (Frischkorn 2017). It has been 61 years since the first map of the ocean was produced and although still only a small percentage of it has been mapped in any sort of detail, the interest in the subject has increased, meaning more is now being done to find out more. If by 2030 the entire ocean floor has been analysed, many doors into exploring science will be opened and much more can be learned about the planet.

The underwater environment consists of both biotic and abiotic sounds that closely related to reproduction and survival of marine organisms (Slabbekoorn et al., 2010).Biotic sounds are produced by living, non-human sources such marine mammals, fish and invertebrates, as for odontocetes (toothed whaled, dolphins and porpoises) where the sound generated by high-pressure air being blown over a bone structure called as phonic that enables the animal to recirculate and reuse air without loss toward the ocean (David L & Richard, 2008). Fish produce sounds in many varied ways, but it may broadly divided into incidentally and those generated by specialized organs or structure usually for communication (Tavolga, 1971). Invertebrates such as snapping shrimps (Alpheus heterochaelis) in the coastal sea, always make their sounds exist with the ambient noise such as the noise due to shipping and wind (Kim, Hahn, Choi, & Kim, 2010).

Snapping shrimp noise may affect ambient noise and sonar detection performance greater than the sound of dolphins (Kim et al., 2010). Moreover, the noise produced by the snapping shrimp could be translate as moderately busy boiler factory as in air (Loye & Proudfoot, 1946). An experiment was conducted by Versluis, Schmitz, Von der Heydt, & Lohse, (2000) to investigate the source of the snapping shrimp sounds, they reported that the sounds produced by an extremely rapid closure of its snapper claw.

During the rapid claw closure, a high velocity water jet is produced from the claw with a speed exceeding cavitation condition. Abiotic sounds is non-living sources which provides important information about surrounding environments to marine life and may be divided into two categories: natural background and anthropogenic sound (Peng, Zhao, & Liu, 2015). Typical natural background sounds comprise of undersea volcanic vent, ice cover cracking, wind blowing at the ocean surface, raindrops, mobility of sediment on the seabed surface, earthquakes, and oceanic turbulence (David L & Richard, 2008; Harland, Jones, & Clarke, 2005; Peng et al., 2015).

A number of early observations of natural background sounds suggested that wind-sea noise usually between 500 Hz and 25 kHz of ambient noise level depending on the wind speed (Harland et al., 2005). Ice cover change the ocean noise according on its category and degree(Hildebrand, 2005). Anthropogenic noise sources are becoming more powerful and more widespread, increasing background sound levels and peak intensity levels (Hildebrand, 2005). Anthropogenic noise sources could be further divided into two main types: high intensity impulsive noise and low frequency stationary noise (Peng et al., 2015). Seismic exploration, sonar, explosions, industrial activities and construction are typical high intensity impulsive noise (Codarin, Wysocki, Ladich, & Picciulin, 2009). While, acoustic deterrent devices (ADD) and various noise generated by various ship and vessels are categories as low-frequency stationary noise type (Codarin et al., 2009).

Seismic reflection profiling uses high intensity sound to image the earth’s crust, it is the most important tool in oil and gas exploration but can also applied for mapping of shallower underground structures such as buried valleys (Li & Zhao, 2014; Peng et al., 2015; Westbrook, 1991). According to Mondol (2010) seismic pulses for exploration survey could be generated out of these three ways, employing air-guns, vibrator or dynamite. Furthermore, he also reported that air-guns source is more functioning in marine acquisition while vibrator and dynamite are commonly used for land seismic survey. Therefore, in marine seismic survey, arrays of air-guns is the sound producing elements where it release a high pressure; specified volume of air that create a sound pressure wave from the expansion and contraction of the released air bubble (Hildebrand, 2005). Moreover, according to Hildebrand (2005) in oil and gas industry air guns arrays commonly involve 12 to 48 individual guns and operates at pressure of 2000 psi, and approximately dispersed over 400 m2 region.

Similarly, sonar the acronym for sound navigation and ranging is sound waves that helpful for exploring and mapping the ocean since it travels farther in the water compared to radar and light waves (NOAA, 2018). Sonar may be categorized into active sonar and passive sonar. Active sonar emit a high intensity pulse of sound wave into the water such as military sonar that cover broader frequency with higher source levels (Hildebrand, 2005; NOAA, 2018). Besides being applied for military and submarine, sonar also being designed for commercial fish industry, study of fish and invertebrate animals (Fornshell & Tesei, 2013). Construction activities can be very noisy, particular percussive pile driving of monopile foundations, these produce an impact sounds of considerable intensity above (Tougaard, Madsen, & Wahlberg, 2008).

Furthermore, they also reported that underwater noise from the operating turbines is produced and transmitted through the platform to the foundations from which it is radiated into the water, in normal condition the noise have a low intensity with energy concentrated at lower frequencies that means the sound may be noticeable to seals, odontocetes and fish at distances up to several kilometer from the source. Finally, source from ship and ports are the contributor to the increase of ambient sound of ocean. Humans are terrestrially bound and industrially driven by business-cost minimization, this mean the most efficient of moving raw material and goods are by ships that using shortest sea routes (David L & Richard, 2008).

We live on a blue planet, with oceans and seas covering more than 70 per cent of the Earth’s surface. Oceans feed us, regulate our climate, and generate most of the oxygen we breathe.

We can make a long list of how the oceans and marine life are important to us. Oceans cover more than 70 per cent of the earth’s surface. They contain 99 per cent of the living space on earth. Without this space for organisms to survive, there would be fewer phyla of animals on the earth. Perhaps this is the most important reason to protect the oceans to preserve the biodiversity of the Earth.We can make a long list of how the oceans and marine life are important to us. Oceans cover more than 70 per cent of the earth’s surface. They contain 99 per cent of the living space on earth. Without this space for organisms to survive, there would be fewer phyla of animals on the earth. Perhaps this is the most important reason to protect the oceans to preserve the biodiversity of the Earth.

They also serve as the foundation for much of the world’s economy, supporting sectors from tourism to fisheries to international shipping.

But despite their importance, oceans are facing unprecedented threats as a result of human activity. Every year, an estimated 8 million tonnes of plastic waste end up in the world’s oceans. At the same time, climate change is damaging coral reefs and other key ecosystems; overfishing is threatening the stability of fish stocks; nutrient pollution is contributing to the creation of dead zones; and nearly 80 per cent of the world’s wastewater is discharged without treatment.

UN Environment is tackling these challenges head-on. We work with governments, businesses, universities and civil society groups around the world to promote the protection and sustainable management of our precious marine and coastal environments. In doing so, we support the achievement of the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda, particularly Goal 14, Life Below Water.

Let’s talk about the continental shelf, slope, and rise!

The continental slope is the seaward edge of the continental rise, which we will talk about later. Now, let’s talk about the continental shelf! The continental shelf is a broad, comparatively shallow submarine deck of continental crust setting up the edge of a continental landmass. And lastly of the “continentals’, as I like to call it, is the continental rise! The continental rise is a major depositional arrangement made up of thick sequences of continental material that gather between the continental slope and abyssal plain, which we will talk about now! The abyssal plain is the level seafloor at an abyssal depth (3,000 to 6,000 meters [10,000 to 20,000 feet]). Now, we’re going to talk about ocean trenches and the depths (zones) of the ocean! Ocean trenches are steep depressions in the deepest parts of the ocean. For example, the Marianas Trench is 11,034 meters (36,201 feet) deep, which is in a place called the challenger deep. Now that we got that over with, let’s quickly talk about the 4 common zones of the ocean, with their depths!

• The sunlight zone (upper 200 meters [659 feet] of the ocean)
• The twilight zone (200 meters to 1,000 meters [659 feet to 3,280 feet])
• The midnight zone (1,000 meters to 4,000 meters [3,280 feet to 13,100 feet])
• The Abyssal zone (3,000 meters to 6,000 meters [9,800 feet to 19,700 feet]

Now, let’s talk about something that affects all parts of the ocean. Human impact.

The impact humans can have on the ocean is very extreme, and most of the time it isn’t a very good impact. Here are a few things that humans do that can make a harmful impact on the ocean

• Use single-use plastic
• Dump trash into the ocean
• Spilling oils (always ends up in the ocean)
• Throw recyclable items in the trash

All of this may not seem like a problem to you, but it really is. If you don’t believe me, then look at these photos.

See that? That’s a trash island. It’s created by trash dumped in the ocean, which is carried together by the currents, eventually creating a trash island like that one. What can we do to stop all of this from happening? Well, you can do the opposite of everything I listed before.

Anglerfish (chosen by yours truly) are very interesting! They are very scary-looking creatures found down in the abyssal zone. Their scientific name is Lophiiformes, a bit different from the word anglerfish, huh? Anyway, Anglerfish are carnivorous fish, that use the little bioluminescent “bulb” sticking out of their head to attract their prey (crustaceans, other fish, & snails.), and once they get close enough, the anglerfish uses its big mouth to gobble up their prey! Does this make you think that the anglerfish is a big, scary fish? Well, actually, they aren’t! They are only about the size of a teacup! Crazy, right? Well, this has been fun, but I think it’s almost time for me to go! Before we go, let’s review what we’ve learned!

Here’s a quick review of what has been said in this essay!

There are 4 zones/depths of the ocean (sunlight, twilight, midnight & abyssal)

Humans can make an extreme impact on the ocean, whether it be good or bad

Anglerfish use their bioluminescence to attract their prey (crustaceans, other fish, and snails)

And, that’s it! Thank you so, so much for reading my essay!

Plate tectonics is the driving force for most volcanic activities. At plate boundaries, the crust is either created or destroyed. Divergent plate boundaries, create new crust material from the rising of magma. This new crust slowly pushes the old crust until it gets destroyed by subduction. The sinking of this crust also causes volcanic activities above it. On earth, they are five volcanic environments in relation to plate tectonics and this is ocean-ocean island arc, oceanic hot spot, mid-ocean ridge, ocean-continental arc, and intercontinental rift as shown in Figure: 1.

Ocean-ocean island arc

Ocean-ocean island arcs form at subduction zones between two oceanic plates. The oceanic crust contains water, carbon dioxide, and other fluids. Since both oceanic crusts are dense, the crust that is subducted is the one that is older and colder making it denser. A trench forms at this subduction zone. The submerged oceanic plate is exposed to great temperatures that drive off most of its volatile components (water and gases). This volatile component stimulates partial melting of the mantle plate above it. This is because the volatile component reduces the melting point of the mantle. The melting of this plate produces magma, which is basaltic in nature. This type of magma tends to have more iron and magnesium than silicon. This magma has low viscosity and its eruption is not explosive (Lumen Learning, 2021). On the surface, this rising magma produces a curved line of islands, known as an island arc parallel to the trench. This is the case of the Mariana Islands, which run parallel to the Mariana trench in the western Pacific Ocean (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2021).

Oceanic hot spot

Oceanic hot spots occur in areas that are distant from plate boundaries. Volcanoes form above a column of super-heated magma called a mantle plume. As the plume rises, pressure drops, while the temperature remains high. This causes decompression melting of the hot mantle material which is more mafic and results in the generation of large volumes of low-viscosity magma (Volcano Discovery, 2021). The heat from the mantle plume causes melting and thinning of the crust, which leads to volcanic activity at the surface. A plume that feeds hot spot volcanoes is stationary relative to the mantle, whilst the plate above it usually moves. This result in a chain of volcanoes being created on the overlying plate. Moving away from the hot spot, towards the direction of plate movement, the age of the islands increase. The Hawaiian Islands are an example of a chain of volcanoes, which have formed due to the presence of a hotspot or mantle plume in the middle of the Pacific Plate as shown in Figure: 2 (British Geological Survey, 2021).

Mid-ocean ridge

The spreading of the oceanic plate results in magma generation and the formation of a mid-oceanic ridge. This spreading causes the mantle underneath to decompress, thus partially melting the upper mantle and producing basaltic magma which is low in silica, and less viscous. As the magma rises, it is quickly quenched at the bottom of the ocean to create bulbous shapes called pillow basalts which are not explosive. The mid-oceanic ridge produces low-lying elongated volcanoes from the combined effect of fissure eruptions from the low viscous magma (Rubin, 2016). This erupting basalt magma can generate vast submarine lava fields. This magma is constantly attached to the edges of the spreading plates creating a new oceanic crust. Thus, oceanic crusts are younger near the ridge but get older away from the ridge (Gamp, 2021).

Ocean continental arc

Ocean continental arc forms at subduction zones between oceanic and continental plates. The denser oceanic crust sinks into the mantle and is exposed to great pressure and temperature. The oceanic crust contains water, carbon dioxide, and other fluids, which are released into the overlaying mantle. This addition of fluids lowers the melting point of the mantle. As a result, the mantle rocks overlying the subducting slab melt to produce magma. This magma is less dense than the mantle and it rises above the subduction zones. The best examples are of subduction zones around the Pacific Ocean, often referred to as the.

Forget about traveling outer space, we should focus on something much imminent to home. Exploring our ocean floors is to learn more about our planet. Simply because only five percent of the ocean has been explored, it also contains ways to advance medical treatment, preventing and future foresight on natural disasters.

Only five, percent of the ocean floor has been explored, which leaves 95 percent of our oceans that no man or woman has never been before. Yet, we are quit to lunch and explore the cosmos. Earth resides one of the most underexplored places known to humans. Though, since the dawn of space exploration, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has thoroughly mapped Mercury, the dwarf planet Ceres, all most all the Venus and even the Red planet, some 140 million miles away. With stunningly detailed satellite images of the moon’s every nook and cranny. Larry Mayer, director of the Center for Marine Science and Coastal Engineering at the University of New Hampshire, told BBC. ‘We could map the entire deep oceans for $3 billion—no more than a single Mars mission.’ In the fiscal year 2019, Congress provided $21.5 billion to NASA. That is a 3.5% increase from the previous year and 8% above what the White House proposed. The extra funds were disbursed broadly throughout the agency profiting the science, aeronautics, and human exploration programs. Nothing here says anything about ocean these studies yields limited to no result since the first man landed on the moon. In the other hand, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) for the fiscal year 2019, received $4.6 billion, a decrease of $1,1 billion from the (FY) 2018. Our congress should consider studying earth before going beyond its confines. Whether ocean exploration will become more of a priority currently remains as unknown as parts of the ocean itself.

Sociologist Amitai Etzioni wrote of the distinct lack of equality in Issues in Science and Technology. ‘the oceans are nearby, and their study is a potential source of discoveries that could prove helpful for addressing a wide range of national concerns from climate change to disease.’ Oceanic exploration has led to countless novel discoveries, ideas, and theories, including numerous findings relevant to the field of medicine. Many new pharmaceutical gains have come from the ocean. According to an ocean commission report, chemical and biological materials from marine organisms are either currently in use or are being developed to fight HIV, cancer, inflammation, tuberculosis, fungal infections, and dengue fever. There are various distinct examples of aquatic creatures successfully being used in pharmaceutical research and testing for new drug treatments and therapies. A species of Caribbean sponges, for instance, has been found to create compounds used in producing azidothymidine (AZT), an antiretroviral drug used in the treatment of the HIV retrovirus that causes AIDS. Anti-cancer drugs and new antibiotics have been produced from Salinospera, which are small microbes over 100 million years old found only in deep ocean deposits. The government is well informed about all these findings, yet only 5% of the ocean floor has been explored and our seas and oceans cover 2/3 of our planet.

If the country wants to extend its claim farther onto the continental shelf, in the 200-nautical-mile extending out from its borders beneath the sea and claim the trillions of dollars’ worth of oil and gas deposits probably found there. Through ocean exploration, we can establish the baseline information needed to better understand environmental changes, filling gaps in the unknown to deliver reliable and authoritative science that is foundational to providing foresight about future conditions and informing the decisions we confront daily on this dynamic planet. This same knowledge is often the only sources for basic information needed to respond appropriately to natural disasters such as hurricanes, tropical storms, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, and landslides is crucial for preventing and for future predictions. Almost all-natural disasters are an element that is connected to the ocean one way or the other. Information from deep-ocean can help us understand how we are affecting and being affected by changes in Earth’s environment, and to ensure that ocean resources are not just managed, but managed well, so those resources are around for future generations to enjoy. It is more practical and significant to research our planet instead of studying space for future prospects. Space exploration is also very important but first humanity should explore more about its own planet given that 95% of the underwater world remains unexplored, and the space program has experience little to no progress. Do you think that the space program should remain a priority?  

When Columbus sailed the ocean blue in fourteen-hundred and ninety-two, the world as we know it changed forever. Kings and queens, as well as their subjects, were now introduced to the New World. Filled with new resources that Europe had lost, filled with new and different species of plants, and animals like turkeys and buffalo. They had a readily accessible guide and labor source in the natives who befriended them. Despite the legacy of the conquistadors and the decimation of native populations, at first, counters were far from hostile. They were encouraged as sources of trade and new tools. Most colonists were single men, the sons of writers, or those from the poorest agricultural regions of Europe who wanted to find their fortunes. They often married the native populations, producing the mestizo and mulatto populations, and were more tolerant of racial differences than later settlers. Even the natives were very peaceful, holding their own in early peaceful trading for metals, communicating through sign language, and generally rejecting attempts to become ‘civilized’ by European standards. Europeans treated natives as part of prehistory and uncivilized. Thinking that the natives were people who had been isolated and cut off from humanity, thus unable to be exposed to the civilizing influences of Christianity and classical learning. Many European explorers viewed the accomplishments of earlier tribes, such as the mounds of Cahokia, as being beyond the abilities of the Native Americans they encountered. Unfortunately, their accomplishments were attributed to ancient European visitors or natural features of the landscape. Others attributed the achievements to lost civilizations, which truly led to many theories that these lost civilizations had been defeated by the natives they now found. The idea was that Jesus and the apostles of the Bible had visited the New World and because the natives had rejected them Christians should reclaim their ‘lost Possession’. This allowed for the European conquest of lands without one ounce of guilt, much as the Christian ideology of the Crusades had allowed for the prolonged warfare and death in the conquest of God’s holy lands in the Middle East. This ideology would continue for hundreds of years, into the nineteenth century, despite those who tried to convince the Europeans otherwise.

Whatever the reasons behind conquest, it seems almost inevitable. Perhaps, then, European conquest was part of human nature: our desire for more, for better, no matter the cost. That may be why myths of cannibalism, of the decimation of previously glorious civilizations like the lost city of Atlantis, and many other rumors were spread to help shred the guilt of murder and conquest. Or, perhaps, it would have happened by nature anyway, as new diseases and the uprooting from their traditional lands ravaged native populations and decreased their numbers from millions to only thousands of mixed descent. Smallpox, influenza, and measles were only some of the culprits that thrived in the close quarters of native settlements and slavery quarters. Aided by the Europeans’ superior military technology and resistance to diseases through centuries of exposure to foreign lands, it would have been easy to enslave populations that were dying. In general, however, most historians attribute colonization to mixed causes. The thirst for land. The need for resources to support growing populations in Europe. The desire for new trade routes and luxury goods. The ideology of existing slavery and indentured servitude. The religious backing of the Church whose ideology seems to have changed to fit the circumstances and expand its pockets. All and all it comes down to the three G’s: God, Gold, and Glory. And a combination of the right time, the right place, and the right people to not only explore the New World but to conquer it and thereby change the world as we knew it forever.