Category: Exploration

INTRODUCTION

On the eve of independence, the African countries ranked among the least developed, least industrialized and least secure place in the world. The nationalist movement didn’t know what lay ahead for them. According to Thandikaa Mkandawire a Malawian economist, Africans were naive about the prospects for a democracy and high level of accountability by their new leadership. He further argued that they were also naive about the status and fairness of the international system to which they were joining. The exploitative and oppressive regime of colonialism had made Africa to stagnate in all aspects. As such, the period of colonialism can safely be referred to as a period of retrogression, oppression and stagnation not a development one. The retrogressive and backward policies by colonial powers continues to affect modern African Countries.

ECONOMIC LEGACY OF COLONIALISM

The period of colonialism was marked by under industrialization of Africa. While African countries provided raw materials, all industries were set in metropolitan countries.

Historian Albert Adu Boahen summarized Africa’s predicament during colonial period as below “All African states were , in accordance to the workings of a capitalist economy ,turned into markets for consumption of manufactured goods. Walter Rodney a Guyanese historian was more blunt in assessment of the colonial period. He asserted “If an African entered colonialism with a hoe, he emerged at independence with a hoe. In other words, they did not add any value to industrialization of Africa”. After independence African started from a weak position, almost zero and this is why to date, African countries are the least industrialized. This caused unequal trade transactions between manufacturing powerful nations and third world African nations. As a result of the exploitation of resources, the continent has been forced to rely on the importation of foreign products. This has compelled African states to import very expensive manufactured goods from outside yet the raw material from which these products made fetch them very little. This has led to unequal exchange of market products and trade deficit in favor of stronger and developed economies. Africa was admitted into the world capitalist economy with its less valuable tools and value added products. To make matters worse colonialists heaped unnecessary debts on African countries. For instance, before granting Anglophone countries their independence, France hoodwinked them to convert whatever development they had done into loans. Anglophone countries are still paying France to date. This is despite the fact that any small development that was undertaken by colonialists was for their selfish benefit. This coupled with the fact that African countries found it difficult to de-link themselves from their colonialists due to weak economic ability has confined African countries to mere beggars in the global marketplace

Rich countries have been accused of using foreign aid to dominate third world countries. China has emerged on the global scene wielding the Belt and Road Initiative(BRI) as a tool for engaging poor African countries. Critics including United states of America have responded to China’s aggressive infrastructural engagements in Africa with skepticism. They have accused China of seeking to impoverish African countries. While this argument makes a lot of sense given the reports to the extent that some countries have attached their national assets as collateral for these loans, it should not come from the Americans who view China as their archrival in the second scramble for Africa’s resources.

After independence, African countries due to weak policies failed to fully delink themselves from their colonial masters. African states remained subservient to colonialists. When the whites granted independence to blacks they had a plan on how they would continue to influence operations of independent African countries. Only Portuguese was worried of ceding her direct rule because they lacked the economic wherewithal to engage in neocolonialism. These countries are bound by power patterns established during colonialism. For instance, Congo Zambia and Zambia governments are at the mercy of multinational companies who exploit minerals for but very little benefits locals. These multinational corporations have huge power that enables them to extract wealth from Africa for a song.

After independence, African countries were ushered into unfamiliar ground of global trade. African countries found themselves in unfavorable position because of the nature of international economic system and its inequalities between the rich and the poor countries. Even today the current economic system does not favor Africa.

Economic policies of African countries have been affected by growing conflict between the west (capitalist) and the east (communist) world blocks. African have found themselves between economically powerful nations that compete among themselves to have a piece of Africa. African states without the economic muscles to engage in high voltage global trades are shepherded to either the west or the East by factors that don’t favor them

In fact, today colonialism rears its ugly head indirectly through foreign aid bodies like the IMF, World bank, French government and aid agencies of developed countries. Those institutions are the ones who determine Africa’s economic path. Another challenge that critics of foreign aid pose is why wealthy countries are very keen to assist African countries to address short term problems which are as a result of long term problems. This made skeptics to argue that perhaps foreign aid bodies are not interested in helping Africa out of the its problems but provide small token donations that it dependent on them. Foreign aid organization ignored the root causes of Africa’s problems.

Our land policies have been messed by colonialists. The issue of land grabbing is a FOREIGN concept introduced to us by the whites. in precolonial African rulers never grabbed land. According to Desmond Tutu, the white man came with nothing but the bible but when his time to leave home reached, he went with too much. During the period of colonialism, Tutu thinks the white Man made us close our eyes for a prayer, but when we opened them, they had taken our land and we had their bible

Indeed, they more interested with land more than anything else. In Kenya for instance, white settlers allocated themselves fertile arable lands in areas that came to be known as white highlands. They were so obsessed with Kenyan land to level of wanting to make it a White man’s country. In his book White Man’s Country Lord Delamere alluded to that. After the exist of the colonialist the leaders in nationalist movement allocated themselves and their cronies fertile lands left by the whites. This how our land policy has remained a thorny issue in this country. The Ndung’u report which documented the extent of skewed land ownership is yet to be implemented. During the inquiry, the commission came face to face with glaring and blatant skewed land allocations in the country. However, the political class is unwilling to implement the report because of its radical proposals that might see some of them loose huge tracks of land.

POLITICAL COLONIAL LEGACY

African countries assumed the models of their colonial masters. Even in countries that practiced decentralized political systems, they an adopted a centralized governance structure borrowed from colonialists. Leaders who took over from the white men became just as brutal as the colonialists towards their own fellow Africans. In Kenya, the chiefs act and public officers acts a colonial tenets remained in force until late 90s. The chiefs of post-independence became very brutal. Those who have studied African political organization in pre-colonial period will agree with me that most African kingdoms were largely peaceful and their leaders empathetic. However, after going through colonialism, those who emerged as new leaders reigned terror on the same citizens they pretended to have fought for.

Because a system of governance that foreign to them was imposed on them, African countries have not been stable. as a result, there are very countries in Africa where democracy is thriving. African reluctantly bought the idea of multiparty democracy however political remain personality and not ideologically driven.

Colonialists succeeded in separating once homogeneous ethnic communities and lamping them together with unrelated communities to form new states. Example are the Somali of Somalia, Somali of Djibouti the Somali of Kenya and Somali of Ethiopia who should have ideally form state. This has resulted in wars among nations that host communities that were once together. In 1962, Somali of Kenya voted overwhelmingly to be part of Somalia. Kenya refuse to accept the verdict. This slammed breaks on the plans by Mogadishu to form what had offered as “great Somalia “by annexing all Somali-populated areas in the region. this included Djibouti and Ethiopia. When seceding through a referendum came a cropper, the Somali of Kenya resorted to a separatist uprising between 1963 to 1967. This one of those cases are as a result e of colonial powers annexing and sharing themselves African continent among themselves without considering they existed before.

SOCIAL COLONIAL LEGACY

Immediately after independence, African countries adopted languages of their colonizers as the language of instructions in schools. Countries that were colonized by French started using French those colonized by Britain started settled on English as the national’s language. even the system of education was modeled on the basis of the colonial masters. Many efforts today to reform the education system in Kenya are done with British template in mind. We still use English as our national language.

CULTURAL COLONIAL LEGACY

As we have already discussed elsewhere, colonialism interrupted the life of Africans. Before the white man came, Africans had their own way of life. They had their own religion. In Kenya’s case, the Kikuyu called their God Ngai the Luo called him Nyasaye and Luhya Were Khakaba. Africans had prophets, medicine men and seers who cured who diseases and helped communities unravel mysteries that threatened human life. However, when the White man came he introduced a new way of life Africa. The Colonialist made Africa to view their way of life as primitive and rudimentary. With time, Africans gave up their way of religion and embraced Christianity. Today more African practice Christianity than those who still embrace the old way of religion.

Before the arrival of the colonialist, African had their own value system that was enforced through formation of age sets and by the powers that was wielded by elders. This has since been replaced by foreign values with the help of education.

CONCLUSION

Some individual have argued for what they feel should have seen independence of some African countries delayed. These critics of current African leadership and which they justified to critics, argue that African nations were handed their independence prematurely. Some have further argued that since the Britons build a railways during colonialism, it is only recently that Kenya made an attempt build a Standard Gauge Railway SGR, which has built on Chinese loans. What they forget is that railway line was to serve the interests of the colonialists. It is therefore safe to brand the period of colonialism the darkest moment in the life of Africans because policies that stifled agriculture, economic activities and muscled our dignity and pride were adopted during that period and continue to define our way of life today. They made sure Africans were ashamed of their heritage and culture. Most African leaders are dictators and overbearing in nature because that is what they learned from the white man. Today, we mirror our former colonial masters almost in all aspects of life. our problems in respect to the period when colonialists disarmed us economically, politically, culturally and socially if we are to unyoke ourselves from neocolonialism and slavery. colonial period was a dark age in life of Africans.

Through describing a life changing journey experienced by protagonist Charlie Marlow in the Congo River, Joseph Conrad successfully exposes the loathsome evil and savage horror within the center of European colonialism. In the novel Heart of Darkness, Joseph Conrad challenges a dominant view by exposing the metaphorical “darkness” placed within the hearts of European colonialists. Portraying the European colonialists as “blind light bearers” who claims to bring civilization and education to the African Natives, yet are blind of their actions, Conrad establishes his critique of European colonialism through contrasts and oppositions of the light and darkness within a series of primary and secondary characters.

With his unbalanced priorities presented through the extreme importance given to the obtainment of ivory and the mere interest in human lives, the manager signifies the total darkness within one soul, and in this case, the darkness behind the facade of “light” that colonialism claimed to bring. At the beginning of the book, Marlow, upon contact with the accountant, encounters “the grove of death” (Conrad 23), where black workers who are no longer able to function adequately were left to self-defect and die. At the same time, Marlow also witnesses the horrible sighting of “six black men [advancing] in a file” with “iron collars [on their neck], connected together with a chain” (Conrad 18). These abominations against the African natives that tortured slaves so emaciated that “every rib [could be seen]” and every “limp were like knots in a rope” (Conrad 18) are the results of the activities of the manager, a character who sees lives merely as tools required towards the ultimate goal of ivory. Therefore the manager, who is supposed to be the “bringer of hope” that pushes culture and improvements for the natives is, in fact, the real darkness that hides behind the mask of light, representing the evil that lives alongside the European colonialism in Africa.

To further demonize colonialism, Conrad utilizes Marlow and Kurtz to illustrate the oppositions of light and darkness behind it. Marlow, who pushes against the idea of colonialism, is at first shocked and horrified by the frightening results due to the ivory company’s dreadful treatment of the natives and ultimately rejects the white brutality in favor of the civil and reality he sees within the black natives. Marlow’s ability to cling onto his moral goodness led to his ascendence as the “light”: what Kurtz would have become if he did not lack the restraints he did. Starting from the beginning of the story, Marlow establishes forefront his thoughts on the European colonialism, “[a] robbery with violence, aggravated murder on a greater scale, and men going at it blind-as is very proper for those who tackle a darkness”. (Conrad 7) For him, the white Europeans were “no colonists” but “conquerors only [using] brute force”. (Conrad 7) This establishment illustrates Conrad’s message that although European colonialists are being described as light bearers, they are in fact taking actions blindfolded, and it could bring nothing but darkness: exactly what violence and murder would bring. As Marlow moves further onto his journey, he slowly realizes the potential damage that European colonialism can cause. He states,

“I’ve seen the devil of violence, and the devil of greed, and the devil of hot desire; but, by all the stars! These were strong, lusty, redeyed devils, that swayed and drove men—men, I tell you. But as I stood on this hillside, I foresaw that in the blinding sunshine of that land I would become acquainted with a flabby, pretending, weakeyed devil of a rapacious and pitiless folly. How insidious he could be, too, I was only to find out several months later and a thousand miles farther”. (Conrad 19)

This repetition of devil emphasizes Marlow’s thoughts on the brutality that lies within European colonialism. In Marlow’s sight, colonialism is destroying more than just the natives, but also the nature for their gains and benefits. At the same time, the choice of the word “pretending” is ironic as it not only describes in context that it is a “pretending” devil, but also emphasizes colonialism as a pretending light bearer, one that does not bring real benefit for the African natives. At the end of his journey, Marlow was “so changed by [his] experience of the Congo that they turned against imperialism not only there but everywhere”. (Hawkins 287)

On the other hand, Kurtz who seemed almost identical to Marlow when he was first employed at the ivory company, is unable to hold on to his moral senses through the extreme hardships from the manager and eventually descends as the “dark”: what Marlow would have become if experienced the same hardships Kurtz did. become if he faced the same hardships as Kurtz did. Being a strong representation of order and power, Kurtz surrounds his hut with skulls of men who do not obey him. With ‘their face turned [towards] the house’, Kurtz wants his power to be recognized by the natives. The sole idea of killing the natives who do not obey his power directly reflects the brutality and violence behind the supposed “light” that colonialism is said to bring. However, although reflecting the “darkness” that colonialism brings, Kurtz ultimately makes a turn and grasps onto his morality upon his death. As Kurtz reflects on his violent life led by greediness and cruelty, he realizes the terrible consequences that his actions had caused and at the same time, finally recognizes the pathetic fact that, even until the end, he still remains a puppet of colonialism, unable to escape. The realization of his “despicable and tragic losing battle against [the] corrupt colonialism” (Kuehn 20) and regret of his cruel undertaking is the reason behind Kurtz’s dying words of “The horror! The horror!”(Conrad 86) Being the powerful figure that symbolizes the Europeans who imposed colonialism upon the African natives, this directly depicts Conrad’s perspective of the “horror” behind the acts of European colonialism: dark, violent, and consuming. Kurtz’s ultimate realization also reveals another layer of meaning behind his writing of “exterminate all the brutes!” (Conrad 62) at the end of his report. The brutes did not refer to the natives for the conventional depiction of white as good who brings “light” and black as evil who brings “darkness”, the true brutes were, in fact, the white pilgrims in this story. While the white pilgrims are characterized as materialistic, violent, and savage ivory seekers who possess “dark souls”, the black workers are in fact portrayed as civil and spiritual with “light souls”. Presenting Kurtz as a victim of colonialism and portraying a reversal of the conventional light and darkness, Conrad successfully delivers his message on the evil and darkness that lies behind the white Europeans colonialists who claim to bring good and “light” to the black natives. This division of light and dark between Marlow and Kurtz also acts as the critiques for the European Colonialism as the true “light” half of the soul, Marlow, ultimately rejects the white “colonial light” that caused Kurtz’s shift towards darkness. This is yet another reversal of dark and light that proves the real darkness is from what is seen as the “light”, the White, European colonial society.

As Marlow describes Kurtz’s painting, he ultimately brings together all of the past and future contrasts of light and dark that Conrad delivers as a message of his critique towards colonialism. Marlow states the painting as a “sketch in oils, on a panel, representing a woman, draped and blindfolded, carrying a lighted torch. The background was somber—almost black. The movement of the woman was stately, and the effect of the torchlight on the face was sinister” (Conrad 30). The woman directly presents the ivory company, and thus colonialism, as blind light bearers who claim to enlighten the African natives. However, in the end, the only “light” they shine is on themselves, their “face”. The use of the word “sinister” further illustrates Conrad’s thoughts on the evilness of European colonialism, for him, colonialism is just like the ivory company, and the only good it brings is greed and materialism. Still another layer of meaning lays within the painting. The mere fact of Kurtz being the one who painted the picture shows Kurtz’s understanding of his position within the ivory company and thus, critiques the European colonialists of knowing the damage they may cause, but still choosing to continue. The fragile and impermanent torch light is again another symbol critiquing colonialism: that although they claim to bring “light” in terms of civilization and education, it is just a flash in the pan, and what comes afterward is the true darkness full of violence and cruelty.

The journey into the heart of darkness is more than a story between the two primary characters, Marlow and Kurtz. By presenting the darkness within the manager and the contrasting light and dark relationship between Marlow and Kurtz, Conrad successfully conveys his extreme rejection and deep critique towards the “greed and thirst for power [that] lay behind [colonialisms] claims to progress”. (Raskin 118)

Works Cited

1. Hawkins, Hunt. “Conrad’s Critique of Imperialism in Heart of Darkness.” PMLA, vol. 94, no. 2, 1979, pp. 286–299. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/461892.
2. KUEHN, JULIA. “One Colonialism, Two Colonialisms: Teaching Heart of Darkness in Hong Kong.” Victorian Review, vol. 38, no. 1, 2012, pp. 20–25. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/23646850.
3. Raskin, Jonah. “Imperialism: Conrad’s Heart of Darkness.” Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 2, no. 2, 1967, pp. 113–131. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/259954.

Introduction

Juan Ponce de León, a Spanish conquistador and explorer, holds a significant place in the annals of history for his expeditions and contributions to the exploration of the New World. Born in 1474 in Spain, Ponce de León embarked on daring journeys that shaped the course of exploration and colonization in the Americas. This informative essay delves into the life, accomplishments, and impact of Juan Ponce de León, shedding light on his role in the early European exploration of the Americas.

Early Life and Background

Juan Ponce de León hailed from a noble family in Spain and grew up during a time of great exploration and expansion. He received an education suitable for a nobleman, and as a young man, he distinguished himself in military campaigns against the Moors in Granada. Ponce de León’s military experience would prove valuable in his future explorations.

Exploration of the Caribbean

Ponce de León’s first notable expedition took place in 1493, when he accompanied Christopher Columbus on his second voyage to the New World. During this voyage, Ponce de León explored several islands in the Caribbean, including Puerto Rico, which would become a significant part of his legacy. He later became the first Governor of Puerto Rico, contributing to its colonization and development.

The Search for the Fountain of Youth

One of the most famous aspects of Ponce de León’s legacy is his quest for the legendary Fountain of Youth. It is believed that in 1513, he set sail on an expedition to discover this mythical fountain, hoping to find the secret to eternal youth. While the Fountain of Youth remains a legend, Ponce de León’s exploration of Florida during this expedition established Spanish claims to the region.

Exploration of Florida and the Gulf Coast

Ponce de León’s voyage to Florida in 1513 marked the first European exploration of this region. He named the land “La Florida” in honor of the Easter season, as the expedition landed on the peninsula during the celebration of Pascua Florida. Despite conflicts with indigenous peoples, Ponce de León continued to explore the Gulf Coast and establish Spanish presence in the area.

Legacy and Impact

Juan Ponce de León’s explorations and colonization efforts had a lasting impact on the history of the Americas. His establishment of Spanish control in Puerto Rico and exploration of Florida paved the way for further Spanish colonization in the region. His expeditions also contributed to the European understanding and mapping of the New World.

Furthermore, Ponce de León’s voyages inspired subsequent explorers and settlers, sparking further interest in the lands he had discovered. His legacy can be seen in the subsequent Spanish presence in the Caribbean and the southeastern United States.

Conclusion

Juan Ponce de León’s life and expeditions played a significant role in the early exploration and colonization of the Americas. From his early experiences in the Caribbean to his search for the Fountain of Youth and exploration of Florida, Ponce de León left an indelible mark on history. His efforts opened up new lands for European settlement and expanded the knowledge of the New World. Juan Ponce de León’s legacy as an explorer and colonizer continues to be remembered and studied, highlighting his contributions to the exploration and shaping of the Americas.

The so-called Europeans were well-versed in science and technology; with this power in their possession, the Europeans decided to use it to their advantage to dominate the world. Studying other cultures and societies played a significant role in enabling Europeans to send their scientists overseas with the conquerors to expand their understanding of those cultures and societies. They justified their colonization and exploration of the world by claiming that it was necessary to search for variable natural resources such as gold and gain global glory for their respective governments. In addition, to establish a monopoly on trade routes to the lucrative Asian market. The main reasons why Europeans pursued the conquest of other parts of the world will be discussed in detail in this essay.

When looking at the world in the year 800 AD, the European peninsula would have escaped the notice of the average spectator. Rome had been destroyed, and there had been no adequate centralized power to take its place. Instead, an array of narrow-gauged tributary territories fought over who had the right to inherit the broken Roman legacy. With the fall of the Roman Empire, the center of political and economic gravity shifted eastward to Byzantium’s ‘new Rome’ and the Muslim Caliphate. A spectator six hundred years later, in the year AD 1400, would have noticed a substantially different Europe, as well as a significant shift in the continent’s relationship with neighboring Asia and Africa. The various empires had merged into a smaller number of influential institutions due to this consolidation. These nation-states were successfully competing with their neighbors to the south and east, and they were ready to embark on great international adventures of their own.

Thereupon, Europeans gained control of 84 percent of the world’s area between 1492 and 1914. Hoffman (2015), on the other hand, establishes the validity of conventional theories such as geography and the Industrial Revolution. The arguments fell short of providing satisfying explanations for why Europe was the dominant force in the world. For centuries, the Chinese, Japanese, Ottomans, and South Asians were significantly more technologically advanced than others. Hoffman provides light on the two millennia of economic, political, and historical changes that have set European states on a distinct path of development, military rivalry, and war, as well as the reasons for these changes. A strong proponent of economic and political history. Hoffman confirms that Europe would have lost its dominance if certain circumstances had been altered. Another nation could have taken over as the world’s dominant force. Consequently, the military sector in Europe grew at an incredible rate, and Europe gained an insurmountable advantage in gunpowder technology innovation. Which countries built colonial empires or controlled the slave trade and which economy was the first to industrialize were determined by the repercussions of the war. Hoffman uncovers the startling factors contributing to Europe’s long-standing global dominance by disproving traditional theories.

According to Hoffman, Western Europe outperformed all other regions of the world in terms of military innovation, not because of higher GDP per capita or greater industrialization, but rather because of their ‘tournament model’ of (military) competition, which dates back to the late Middle Ages and has continued to the present day (14th century onwards). Specifically, Hoffman explains why Western Europe possessed a unique combination of four specific factors that enabled extremely high levels of military innovation. In contrast, China, Japan, India, the Ottoman Empire, and Russia lacked these factors and did not possess any competitive military model to drive military innovation. However, Western Europe was thus uncommon in meeting all four conditions required for advancing the gunpowder industry, which was executed without downtime. In any other region of Eurasia, a claim of this magnitude would be unthinkable.

Furthermore, the tournament model of competitive military innovation could not be successful unless each of the four essential requirements is met, both individually and collectively, to be successful. Until at least the early twentieth century, these four requirements could only be found in Western Europe during the early fourteenth century. Substantially, there were frequent battles similar in size geographically and economically. Western leaders invested enormous resources in the conduct of war, such as military expenditures, which were exceptionally high to succeed. They prioritized using gunpowder technology heavily and faced minimal setbacks in adopting military advancements, which played a significant role in conquering the world. Simultaneously, China, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire were engaged in a battle against nomads, an adversary against which gunpowder was not particularly successful. As a result, they were forced to devote a portion of their military expenditures to outdated technologies required to combat nomads. They were only able to spend part of their efforts on the development of gunpowder. Again, they were confronted with a civil war, regional upheaval, and competition among governments of similar size, all of which should have spurred them to make aggressive investments in military technology. Despite this, the mindset did not exist in their geopolitical.

In conclusion, the history of Western Europe in the year 1400 AD serves as a demonstration of how science and technology have transformed them into militarily superior forces with solid institutional foundations. Learning about different cultures and societies helped them broaden their knowledge and apply it to their advantage, allowing them to conquer 84 percent of the world’s land surface.

References

1. Aktürk, Ş. and Hoffman, P. (2017). ‘Review of Why Did Europe Conquer The World?’, HoffmanPhilip T., Insight Turkey, 2017, Vol.19, No. 3, pp. 243-246. [online] http://www.jstor.org/stable/26300540 [Accessed 15 Nov. 2021].
2. Hoffman, P. (2015), ‘Why Did Europe Conquer the World?’. Princeton: Princeton University Press. [online] https://doi.org/10.15159781400865840 [Accessed 13 Nov.2021].
3. Wolf, E. and Diaz, N. (2010). ‘Europe and the People Without History’. New ed. Berkeley: The University of California Press.

Panfilo de Narvaez, a Spanish discoverer and soldier that helped defeat Cuba, also served as a captain and leader for the Florida expedition in the early 1500’s. The purpose of this expedition was to colonize Florida. Narvaez was able to lead this expedition by being a part of the Spanish court, which was granted to him by King Charles. Although, he was granted with such an important role for this expedition, this did not mean it was an easy process to do so or that it would have turned into a successful journey. Narvaez had complications along the process of starting this expedition because the Spanish court had to deal with the death of the former King Ferdinand which made the process be detained for a couple of months. But the conflicts do not just end there, Narvaez also had to deal with a lot of preparations for the expedition since he would be sailing along with thousands of men and women and multiple horses and ships. A few of these men and women would be taking an important role during the colonization of Florida. Some of these individuals were Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, Alfonso de Castillo, and Andres Dorantes. By having such a large amount of people, horses and different ships, Narvaez had to prepare by overcoming the surfacing conflicts like the cost of the expedition, the space for a minimum of 200 settlers, receive some tax exemptions, and the title of governor of Florida along many other things (Resendez, 44). Narvaez made sure to do this before beginning his long journey to the Florida coast to make the long-awaited trip would run smoothly.

Although, Narvaez did most of the precautions to avoid any further issues along the way, there was still a lot of issues that surfaced like poor preparation, navigation problems, multiple hurricanes, the division of the expedition some by foot and others by vessels, and by their need of food and water throughout the expedition all of which contributed to the unsuccess of the Florida expedition (Resendez, 21). Narvaez believed that by resolving the cost issue, obtaining the tax exemptions, and by getting the government title he would have been well prepared for the long journey ahead of them. Unfortunately, this wasn’t the case at all, as the expedition continued to its destination more and more complications surfaced which made the expedition not run as smoothly as Narvaez anticipated. As a result of this, a lot of critical issues occurred during the expedition.

One of these issues was a huge navigation issue along the pilots which resulted in the whole expedition being delayed even more. This occurred because Miruelo, one of the pilots in charge of the expedition, didn’t have the required skills to navigate the ships using the 16th century ocean navigation system, which resulted in a huge issue that affected everyone in the expedition (Resendez, 77). This expedition had issues with navigation due to the fact that the pilots lack of skills and experiment with the ocean navigation system in the 16th century. This navigation system was known as ‘dead reckoning’. Dead reckoning was used by pilots steering ships from an origination point and estimating the direction and the distance traveled, and to know the distance they have traveled they would use a compass (Resendez, 77). Although, this was the most basic way to navigate through the ocean in this century, it was also inaccurate because it was possible for the pilots to misinterpret the total amount of distance that has been traveled or to calculate how close they might actually be from their destination. For these reasons, the Florida expedition had crucial navigation issues, since Miruelo miscalculated the Florida’s coasts by more than 500 miles (Resendez, 77). Miruelo had these miscalculations because it was possible that he didn’t have the latitude, if he would have had these calculations the expedition would have been in the right path. However, by having these miscalculations the ships drifted along one of the fastest currents in the world, known as the Gulf Stream (Resendez, 80). This not only resulted an increase in dangerous situations along the pilots and expeditioners, but it also caused a delay to the fulfillment of the expedition as it tested Miruelo skills as he issues increased.

Miruelo’s skills were tested by the fact that the ships were heading toward Gulf Stream, which is known for its large number of reefs, shallows, and sharp rocks (Resendez, 76). Gulf Stream begins at the Gulf of Mexico and has the speeds of around 100 miles per hour (Resendez, 81). This current wasn’t firstly experienced by this expedition because it is a current that has been experienced for decades before this expedition, but it wasn’t fully discovered and charted until the 18th century. This current was extremely dangerous for this expedition because not only could it have easily damaged the ship and put everyone’s life in danger, but it was also an extremely hard task for the pilots to try and sail across these conditions. It was especially hard to sail across this current because Miruelo just like everyone else didn’t have much knowledge about this current either which made it complicated for Miruelo to be completely aware of what possible ways he could have navigated through it with the least amount of catastrophes possible (Resendez, 81).

Unfortunately, the issues don’t stop there because they also suffered from multiple storms and hurricanes along the way as well which only made the it even harder for the expeditioners. These storms and hurricanes continued to cause great issues along the pilots and those who traveled along the expedition, since these storms were also extremely dangerous that resulted in many lives in danger. One of these storms the expedition experienced, began in Guaniguanico along the ships pathway which resulted in the ship to be almost completely wrecked as Cabeza de Vaca states (Resendez, 76). However, this isn’t the only storm they faced because as Andres Resendez states in his book titled, ‘A Land So Strange’, the expedition encountered another tempest that lasted three days. After rounding Cape San Anton, Cuba’s westernmost tip, the fleet sailed upwind along Cuba’s northern coast, where it was caught by yet another storm before entering Havana’s harbor sometime in late February or March (Pg. 76). Not only did this expedition suffer from one storm, but in total the expedition ran up to a total of three storms along its pathway to the Florida coast. This resulted in many dangerous situations and exposures that all the thousands of men, women, and horses had been exposed too. Although this made it very hard for the expedition to continue, this didn’t stop Narvaez from continuing his expedition.

In fact, Narvaez along with his pilots and thousands of expeditioners continued on and later discovered a sight of land along the coast and figured it must be near Florida and the Rio de las Palmas (Resendez, 85). This caused Narvaez to come up with another plan that he thought would have helped the expedition. After the settlement by the coast, Narvaez and the expeditioners began to explore and create a camp by the coast. However, Narvaez discovered right away that almost half of the eighty horses they brought along with them were either dead or extremely ill by all the catastrophes, this causes Narvaez some issues even though the horses were not really needed at that moment (Resendez, 84 & 85). Despite the fact that these expeditioners had lost majority of their horses, Narvaez soon came up with a plan to divide the expedition into two, where the women and crew members would travel by vessels and the men along with the remaining horses would travel by foot (Resendez, 87). Although this type of expedition plan has been done successfully before. This plan wasn’t the best option for the Florida expedition because both the pilots and the expeditioners that went by foot didn’t have a good idea of where they would return together and could have the issue of losing contact with the Spanish controlled lands. This was upsetting for most of the expeditioners, but mostly for those who had their spouse or partner in the expedition with them because they had a high possibility that they might never see each other again, this caused an opposition along Narvaez and the expeditioners (Resendez, 88). Although some of his men might not agreed with his plan at first, they all continued with the journey but soon came across a persistent conflict along the journey which was their need for food and clean water.

This was just another concern these expeditioners had to constantly worry about, since the expedition took a longer amount of time than Narvaez had anticipated. This meant they were short on food as well as drinkable water. According to Resendez, “Food was constantly on the minds of the explorers. When the ships and the overland group became separated, every man had received 2 pounds of hardtack and half a pound of pork” (Pg. 92). This increased the conflicts for Narvaez because this was causing many of the men and horses to become weak through the journey. However, having these horses become weak wasn’t necessary a loss for the expeditioners because they were able to kill the horses and use the horses as a source of food for at least a couple of weeks (Resendez, 112). This source of meat was able to keep the expedition on for a while, but the need of clean water was also rising as time passed. As Resendez states, “As dehydration overtook them, Narvaez and his men must have progressed from dryness in the mouth and a mild sense of discomfort to more dangerous symptoms” (Pg. 122). Having the need for food and water only made this expedition harder for the explorers that continued with the expedition because conflicts continued to surface through the rest of the expedition which resulted in a loss of many expeditioners.

In conclusion, the Florida expedition had many dangerous situations that occurred throughout even though Narvaez did most of the precautions to avoid any further issues there was still a lot of issues like poor preparation, navigation problems, multiple hurricanes, the division of the expedition one by foot and others by vessels, and the need of food and water throughout the expedition all of which contributed to the unsuccess of the Florida expedition. Although, there are many other factors that contributed to the unsuccess of this expedition these were some of the main reasons why it was so unsuccessful and the reason why it turned into such a catastrophe since it cost many of the expeditioners lives without ever reaching their destination, which is something that Narvaez wasn’t anticipating at all. As a result of this, the expedition failed because they weren’t as prepared as they had thought. Although the climate issues weren’t something Narvaez and his team could have prepared for; the navigation issues, lack of food or water, and the split of the expedition were major conflicts that contributed to the unsuccess of this expedition. Being that these situations occurred the Florida expedition wasn’t successful because these men, women, pilots, and animals had faced terrible circumstance throughout the expedition which made it hard to survive and complete the expedition.

Numerous factors changed the balance of power in terms of trade between different regions throughout the world during 1400 to 1700. In the course of this time, Europe becomes a dominant force in the emerging trade market through discovery and colonization. When we look to the past many people presuppose that Europe was always going to become a big power in the growing world trade market. In actuality when you consider the leaders, merchants and technologies it’s seen that Europe was as a matter of fact very fortunate things worked out the way they did.

At the beginning of the 1400s Europe was seen as an unpleasant region to deal with, what came along with this is that Europe’s trade power was not significant at all. This image comes from their unseemly villages, constant regional warfare between one another, uprisings that would be stopped violently, and most importantly in terms of trading and or bartering, nobody wanted the European crude goods merchants had for sale or for barter. Another reason this is the case is the mindset of the European people in this era. The European people and nations were always attempting to conquer and believing they are superior this is proven by Christopher Columbus’s journal from the 1530s, “As I saw that they were very friendly to us, and perceived that they could be much more easily converted to our holy faith by gentle means than by force” showing that his first instinct is to take these people over. Later he continues to write to Spain’s monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella explaining how he would bring home six people as they can become servants for them because Columbus saw them as ingenious. “If It please our Lord, I intend at my return to carry home six of them to your highness [Spain’s monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella] that they may learn our language…”. Lastly, he goes on to write “I could conquer the whole of them with fifty men and govern them as I pleased…” further showing the mindset of Europe at the time. All in all, Europe did not position itself well to become a leader in global trade as of then, but that would change.

Even though all of those factors made Europe unappealing. Europe was about to kickstart its path to becoming the Europe we know. This can be displayed using statistics like the GDP per capita (in 1990 international dollars) where in the year 1500 was $771 and in 1600 it grows to $889 then to $997 in 1700. With the age of discovery came new concepts, developments, and a little bit of thievery for tools they used in travel. Tons of things that favour growth start to happen. Europe was introducing the idea of private property which would further the sense of stability civilians would feel since land would be normally owned by monarchs. Hunger was not as big of an issue anymore because the Columbian exchange from the Americas helped Europe create a lot more food for the population and eventually a surplus of 140000 tons of grain would then be sent to growing cities by water and land which expanded more opportunity for trade. Another factor that helped Europe were their birthrates. They were under the biological maximum limit which then meant that quality of life was getting better than the normal resulting in better everything in general. This helped people better afford goods. Then comes investing, wealthier citizens began investing money they had earned back into the economy. Over time this process really multiplies yields and profits if invested correctly. Lastly, Europeans benefited greatly off of other regional inventions. Inventions like the magnetic compass, the stern rudder, and hulls of watertight compartments are all ideas that they had got from the Chinese who they ultimately got from the Muslims. Not to mention the astrolabe and triangle sails for ships came from the Arabs. As well as cannons were a Chinese creation. We can now see how European travel was powered mostly by foreign invention and ideas. If it isn’t for other regions coming up with these inventions that aid travel so well Europe is not as effective when it comes to colonization and travel via water and in turn makes their trade less desirable, this would change a lot of history as we know it. During this time Nation-states were beginning to emerge in Portugal, Spain, France, England and other countries. These nation states would be aligned with monarchs and made alliances with powerful people for example merchants, bankers and entrepreneurs. These nation states were important because they frequently funded exploration and or colonization to profit for the monarchs. Overall all of these factors effected the development of trade for western Europe.

A huge part of this era is the takeover of Constantinople by the Ottomans. The Ottomans were a huge power that had land in current day Iraq, Israel, Syria, Saudi Arabia, eastern Europe, and southern Europe. Constantinople was described as by the ottomans using a famous Arabic quote” I’ve seen the towns of all the world but nowhere saw I one like this”. Constantinople was ceased by Sultan Mehmed the second. This is very important event because of where the city of located. This city captured a large percentage of trade passing through to Europe and the other way around, and to do business as a merchant a fee was needed from the Ottoman Empire. Eventually, with Italian traders in the Mediterranean and the ottoman empire blocking their way and making it tricky for them to do business east of Constantinople, Portugal Prince Henry ordered ship down the west coast of Africa to find another option to trade eastward. In the year 1487 they eventually reached the southern tip of Africa and about a year later finished the trip to India with the guidance of an Indian navigator. This discovery eventually resulted in trading posts. For about 100 years Portugal controlled this trade route. In the years 1500 to 1599 Portugal sailed 705 ships to Asia, where the second best were the Netherlands with a measly 65. Although this changed during the 1600s where the Netherlands sent 1770 ships compared to Portugal’s 371, England also sent 811 ships and France sent 155.

Disease was often imported and exported through trade and traveling. European exploration also infected nations in the New World with disease, smallpox, influenza, and measles which infected many natives. Many Europeans gave diseases to the Americas. In the time frame of the Age of Exploration, people understood little about disease before the invention of the microscope. Spanish did not know that they carried a contagious disease like smallpox and their bodies. The Aztec called the smallpox plague ‘totomonjztli’ and wrote that it lasted 60 days.The presence of the Spanish also resulted in the loss of life due to disease. Millions of natives died from smallpox or influenza. The natives died because they lacked immunity, or the ability of the body to fight a disease. The Spanish, by contrast, had built up resistance to smallpox, a disease that was common in Europe. Later epidemics killed even more, further weakening Aztec and Incan cultures.

One of the most common diseases was smallpox. Smallpox was an eradicated virus that used to be contagious, disfiguring, and often deadly. The symptoms of smallpox were similar to the flu. You could get a rash on face, hands, forearms, and later trunk. You could also have pain in the back or muscles. Lots of other things occurred such as rashes, small bumps, blisters, scabs, or scars on your skin. Some of the symptoms on your whole body include fever malaise or chills. Some other common symptoms are headaches or vomiting. There isn’t a treatment or cure to smallpox. A vaccine can prevent it. But, the vaccine side effect risk is too high to justify a routine vaccination for people at low risk of exposure to the virus.

It wasn’t until 1796 when Edward Jenner discovered a useful vaccine to smallpox. He noticed that milk maid who had caught cowpox before didn’t catch smallpox after by showing that treated cowpox protected against treated smallpox. He wanted to find a vaccination to smallpox because he was a forward-thinking doctor who wanted to prove his theory. He was born in Berkeley, United Kingdom on May 17, 1749 and died on January 26, 1823 also in Berkeley, United Kingdom.

Another important disease in the Age of Exploration was the influenza. Influenza was a viral infection that attacks your respiratory system, your nose, throat and lungs. Influenza is usually called the flu, but isn’t the same as the stomach ‘flu’ viruses that cause diarrhea and vomiting. For most people, influenza cures on its own. The pain areas include the muscles. Also, your coughs can be very dry. The whole body can have chills, dehydration, fatigue, fever, flushing, loss of appetite, body aches, or sweating. In the nasal area you could have congestion, a runny nose, or sneezing. Some symptoms that are also common are chest pressure, head congestion, headaches, nausea, shortness of breath, and sore throat. Some symptoms that are self diagnosable are a fever, chills, muscle aches, cough, congestion, runny nose, headache, and fatigue. Usually, you’ll need nothing more than bed rest and plenty of fluids to treat the flu. But if you have severe infection or are at higher risk for complications, your doctor may prescribe an antiviral medication.

One of the doctors in the Age of Exploration was William Harvey. William Harvey was a English Physician. William Harvey was the first person to describe blood’s circulation in the body correctly. He showed that arteries and veins form a complete circuit. The circuit starts at the heart and leads back to the heart. The heart’s regular contractions drive the flow of blood around the whole body. He was also the person to discover the human heart. He was born in Folkestone, United Kingdom on April. 1, 1578 and died on June. 3, 1657 in Roehampton, London, United Kingdom.

Another famous doctor was Ambroise Paré, a French barber surgeon. He is considered to be one of the most important people of surgery and modern forensic pathology and good in surgical techniques and battlefield medicine. He was born in 1510 in Laval, France. He died on December 20, 1590 in Paris, France. By 1552 he had he had become so popular that he became surgeon to the king, he served 4 French monarchs: Henry II, Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III.

As you can see, doctors, diseases, and cures shape lots of history and the people that were in it. Doctors help cure and discover, diseases change, form, and impact people, and cures help others survive.

Intro

Tension builds in the great Aztec city of Tenochtitlan as an ambitious Spanish explorer introduces himself to the ruler of the Aztec people. The two people are from completely different worlds in the sense that neither of them previously knew that the other’s culture even existed. Their words of initial contact are spoken through a translator caught in the middle, forced into this position of mediation between the two distinct cultures, perhaps failing to convey clearly the meanings of each individual in a different tongue. The year was 1519, a year in which Spanish Conquest of America reached its climax. Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes was meeting the Aztec ruler Moctezuma in the Mexica city of Tenochtitlan for the first time. Prior to this meeting, Christopher Columbus paved the way for colonization of the Americas by crossing the Atlantic for the first time in Spanish history. Cortes set out from Cuba to establish a colony in Mexico in 1518. After setting up a colony in Vera Cruz, Cortes traveled to the Aztec capitol of Tenochtitlan. The set of unique circumstances that led up to this encounter and the events that took place afterwards are surrounded by lies, lies that have turned into myths over the centuries since Spanish Conquest. The outcome of the event mentioned above is similar to the sad outcome reached by many of Spain’s encounters with native tribes, one ignored by the public until recent years. Though most people have learned about the Spanish Conquest through textbooks, movies, or primary sources, the widely accepted history regarding this event is often inaccurate and incomplete because of myths and miscommunication, both of which are closely connected to Western pride.

Myth of Discovery

In textbooks, movies, and literature, Spanish exploration of America is often taught from the European view, placing conquistadores in the position of heroes and dubbing first contact with America as “discovery”, popularizing this event as parallel to the moon landing. The exploration of America, in fact, was hardly a discovery by definition. Leif Eriksson, along with other Vikings, traveled to North America five centuries before Columbus supposedly “discovered” it. As has been recently accepted by the general public, the former part of this claim is also false in that the Spanish conquistadors were seldom adventurers wanting to discover new land and more frequently common people seeking to rise in the ranks or Friars on a mission to spread Christianity. The myths begin with the very first conquistador, whose persona has changed over time to shape him into the revered explorer he is today.

Myths About Columbus

Contrary to popular belief, Columbus did not sail to prove that the world was round, nor did he sail to find new land. A merchant by trade, his main goal was to find a shorter passage to India. Columbus rejected the ideas of Ptolemy, claiming that the world was much smaller and that a shorter passage to India could be found by traveling West. Though in American history books, Columbus is praised solely for his discovery of North America, he actually turned back once he had reached Caribbean islands, the most notable of which being Hispaniola, or modern-day Haiti. Although he did form the idea of a larger continent from finding fresh water flowing into the Gulf of Peria, Columbus actually never set foot on American soil. His journeys did, however, open the way for other explorers to reach and colonize this new continent. These explorers, known as conquistadors, paved their legacy though a thick web of myths.

The Myth of Spanish Superiority

The myth of Spanish superiority overshadows all other myths regarding Spanish Conquest and has had a major influence in the behavior of the Spanish towards the native tribes in South America. The Spanish often paint themselves as superior forms like Aristotle had described centuries earlier, a notion which has tainted history. Unique cultural heritage in Spain was one reason why the Spaniards developed this elevated view of themselves. They took on airs as the preservers of ancient civilization and knowledge, a theme which had come back in style during the Renaissance. The underlying theme of superiority was projected by Columbus in several of his letters and even by those who advocated for the rights of native tribes, such as Bartolome de las Casas. Many conquistadores, such as Columbus, depicted the native tribes in their letters as either vicious or childlike, but nothing in between. They deemed several tribes cannibals due to exaggerated reports, sometimes giving them animalistic traits. This myth was later disproved by Columbus in his letters to the king and queen and no doubt myths about animalistic qualities were cast aside after knowledge of the newly explored Americas became widespread, but the myth of superiority remains to this day. The Spanish claimed superiority based on having more advanced weapons and clothing, ultimately weak reasons for this unfounded claim.

In fact, upon entering the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan, the conquistadores could not help but be struck by its great size. They also praised it for its remarkable beauty, having no frame of reference to compare it to. As for the people themselves, Mayans were moderately literate and displayed much similar literacy to the Spaniards. Though part of Spanish colonization efforts included teaching indigenous notaries to use writing for important documents such as land sales, it is likely that these individuals were already literate. Few Spaniards were fully literate, conquistadors being no exception. Actually, some conquistadors were completely illiterate, making written documents from the time of Spanish colonization rare. In regards to warfare, the Mexica were in some respects more humane in their treatment of the Spaniards than the treatment they received. They had many rituals surrounding war, including capturing their enemies instead of killing them immediately and refusing to launch surprise attacks. Historians have commented that Mexica battle strategies show respect for human life. This is a contrast to Spanish battle strategies, in which the Spanish frequently massacred thousands of innocent people. Disease, not superiority, was the real reason for Spanish victory over native tribes. Wherever the idea springs from, superiority remains a widespread misconception of many Western countries, a misconception which has led many to picture Spaniards alone as conquistadors in South America.

Myths About Spanish Conquistadors

The Spanish monarchy did not commission soldiers to go to the Americas, nor did it finance, organize, or plan the expeditions. Movies, textbooks, pictures, and scholarly articles, such as the painting “Veracruz N2” and the movie Conquest of Paradise, paint conquistadors as an organized army sent out by the Spanish government. In reality, most conquistadors, like Columbus, went to the Americas for their own reasons, such as out of curiosity and in search of gold. Though they had to plan the expeditions themselves, conquistadores were compensated with labor grants, pensions, titles, and partial share of the gold they acquired. Conquistadors were given the title adelantado, or licensed conquistador, signifying the loose backing of the monarchy. After this, titles would be bestowed according to the success of their conquest. Columbus received the titles of Admiral of the Ocean, Vice-Roy, and governor bestowed on him by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. Interestingly enough, the King and Queen put so much faith in Columbus that these titles were given to him before he completed a conquest. Columbus also kept a portion of the gold he found in Hispaniola, which provided him with a comfortable life for his last few years. Many conquistadors petitioned for pensions and titles in their letters to the Monarchy. These conquistadors often depicted themselves as great men through their letters. Though some conquistadors came to occupy government offices, later on, most were not sent by the crown. Many not only mistake conquistadors for soldiers, but for heroes.

Conquistadors often portrayed as “great men” or “heroes” due to their ability to conquer, often had questionable morals. Bartolomeu de las Casas vividly describes the widespread destruction that several conquistadors brought on the native people. Though barbarity was usually a term used by the Spaniards when referring to the native tribes, Casas instead uses this term when describing some of the conquistadores. This number may be exaggerated, but Casas estimates that twelve million native people were murdered by the Spanish. The Spanish would use displays of violence to force the natives to obey them, such as killing innocent women and children. Some would roast the leaders alive and do it slowly to add pain to their deaths. The survivors were kept as slaves and treated in the most brutal manner. Conquistadors frequently looted houses, so much so that one native American man named Hathuey thought that gold was the Spanish religion. Conquistadors also kidnapped people and forced them and their families into slave labor. Because of this immense lack of virtue on the part of the Spanish, Casas, a Dominican friar, makes the justified claim that the conquistadors’ actions dishonored God.

Impacts of Spanish Exploration

The Age of Exploration aka Age of Discovery was the period when the European nations instigated exploring the world. It began in the 1400s and continued through the 1600s to improve the economy by acquiring gold and better trading routes, aspired to spread their religion (Christianity), and hoped for their country to accomplish global recognition by discovering new land (Weber, 2000). In short, the European’s primary motive was the 3Gs: Gold, god, and glory. They discovered new routes to much of the Far East, India, and the Americas. According to Kelsey (1986), the Spanish exploration of the New World began in 1492 with a man called Christopher Columbus. The Spanish exploration aimed to find the Northwest Passage, the direct and efficient trade route they believed to boost their economy (Leonard, 1936). Christopher Columbus undertook a voyage or sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to find a new route to India supported by the Spanish government under the monarchs Isabella and Ferdinand. However, Columbus ended up accidentally discovering islands full of timeworn communities and cultures in the Americas. The Spanish exploration posed an immense impact both in America and Europe. Therefore, the paper reiterates the socio-cultural and economic impact of Spanish exploration in native America and Europe.

It is beyond doubt that Spain became the epitome of sociocultural and economic in the world after Columbus explored America. Despite the colonization of America, Spain fully subjugated the route to America along with the Atlantic Ocean. These exacerbated Spain’s becoming magnificent, powerful, and wealthy. Trade became easier and the economy flourished by obtaining precious metals like gold from the colonies. Moreover, Irving Leonard (1936) evaluates that Spain generated a huge harvest by cultivating in America. Additionally, Harry Kelsey (1986) asserts Spain prevalent the European belief in Christianity by spreading Christianity, and language became dominant. For the Europeans, Columbus’ exploration became the inspiration for it stimulated and made them explore even more (Kelsey, 1986). Consequently, other European nations such as England, France, and the Netherlands commenced to explore the new world. This brought competition among the nations in terms of colonies, economy, and glory. With colonies, the European nations boosted their economy as a result of convenient trade and commerce. Moreover, David Weber (2000) implies that raw materials were available from the colonies. Furthermore, the cultural norms of Europe disseminated in the new worlds making the Europeans the dominant race. Thus, Europe as a whole was glorified by the idea of exploration.

Similarly, the Spanish exploration and colonization accomplished positive impacts on Native Americans too. Culturally, the Spanish language introduced in America is still in use. For instance, in Trinidad and Tobago Spanish is considered the second official language. In addition to that the Columbian Exchange brought new European crops such as rice, wheat, olive, coffee, and banana in native America (Weber, 2000). Animals such as cows, horses, chickens, and pigs were also brought which gave a new approach to agriculture. Moreover, America was first introduced into the world of technology by Spain (Kelsey, 1986). They were introduced to the idea of shipbuilding and skills related to the usage of navigational apparatuses.

However, its negative impacts cannot be undermined with few advantages. As the spreading of religion was one of their motives, the Spanishweres identical to Christianity. Christianity was made obligatory and their religious beliefs were protracted by forcing them to adopt their culture (Leonard, 1936). According to David Weber (2000), Spanish stamped out the native traditional beliefs to deprive practicing their own culture. Additionally, Harry Kelsey (1986) asserts that the Spanish language became required while the natives were deprived of speaking their language. With these, native Americans lost their tradition and cultural practices. Economically, the indigenous people were deteriorated. The lands and resources were possessed by the Spanish settlers hampering the economy and causing starvation among the natives. They were forced to work in mines and plantations without payment. Moreover, social life became more intricate and miserable due to the defensive war. The native people were treated as slaves compromising their freedom and human rights (Leonard, 1936). On the other hand, diseases became rampant as a result of exchanging animals and planets under the provision of the Columbian Exchange. All those economic and social factors devastated the indigenous people in society. For instance, nearly 95% of the native Americans were wiped out through disease, slavery, and war.

Sociocultural and Economic Impact of Spanish Exploration

Columbus’s discovery of America in 1492 created a new history of colonization by European nations. Spain became too tenacious with its colonies or New World. Spain colonized America and completely dominated the Atlantic Ocean and route to America by 1492 which made Spain the dominant world power of the 16th century (Kelsey, 1986). Indeed, the antiquity of Spanish exploration is a unique aspect of our culture nowadays. However, its negative impacts were immeasurable. Due to its overriding approach to a new world, Spain deteriorated and destabilized America. Their traditional beliefs and cultures were eradicated. The Americans lost their life due to starvation and war against Spain. Indeed, Spain wiped out the whole of America.

References

1. Kelsey, H. (1986, April). Finding the way home: Spanish exploration of the round-trip route across the Pacific. Western Historical Quarterly, 17(2), pp. 145-164. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/969278
2. Leonard, I. A. (1936, March). The Spanish re-exploration of the gulf coast in 1686. The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 22(4), pp. 547-557. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/1897321
3. Weber, D. J. (2000). The Spanish frontier in North America. OAH Magazine of History, 14(4), pp. 3-4. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/25163375

Portuguese navigational technology – Portuguese technological innovations arose a need for expansion. A mountainous landscape provided insufficient space for agriculture, making it necessary for Portugal to look to new regions to support its existing population. Additionally, Ferdinand and Isabella had a desire to expand Christendom that made global exploration an even more worthwhile investment. Perhaps most important to Portuguese expansion were the innovations of Gil Eannes. Gil applied logic and mathematics to nautical navigation in a way that allowed Portuguese sailors to venture into unexplored territory in Southern Africa. This method, known as triangulation, allowed explorers to sail further away from land and navigate using the currents to their advantage. This combined with a change in sail shape to accommodate crosswinds more effectively made navigation more efficient and reliable than ever. Astronomical studies also led to the discovery of new constellations that could be used for navigating. These technological advances made it possible for Ferdinand Magellan to circumnavigate the globe, de Gama to arrive in India by sea, and Bartholemew Diaz to cross the Cape of New Hope. Portuguese exploration opened the door to globalization, leading to cross-cultural trade, colonization, and the rise of a new global empire.

Silver (as a currency/commodity) – While it carried value as a currency during the colonial period of Latin America, silver also carried inherent value that made it a global commodity desirable to many different groups. Silver was durable, stable, and had antibiotic properties, allowing it to be worn as jewelry without irritating the skin. These properties made silver a valuable substance across the globe. No matter what part of the world you were in, you could trade silver for any resources you needed. Additionally, the desire for silver led to a rise in smuggling and piracy. Piracy during the time period centered around obtaining “pieces of eight”, where a piece of eight was equivalent to one-eighth of a Spanish silver peso. While large amounts of silver were extracted in mines like that of Potosi and then extracted, it was also used in local transactions in the colonies and led to the establishment of credit. Silver was used as payment for trades in the intercolonial markets in exchange for mules, wine, cattle, and other resources necessary to maintain the labor force working in the silver mines. The silver market was stable for decades and demand remained high, allowing for the rise of the first round of colonial elites and millionaires in Latin America.

Piracy – Piracy began with the rise of silver as a currency and commodity and only grew from there as the colonies developed advancements in agriculture in the 18th century that led to the production of new commodities. These commodities, including tobacco, alcohol, gold, and even slaves, were seen as tools in the quest for silver. Imperial competition for silver and other commodities led to a rise in privateering and contraband trade, especially by the British and the French. The presence of hostile ships made the oceans between the colonies and their mother countries unsafe, causing large amounts of revenue and trade in remain on the colonial side of the Atlantic. Thus, this period marked the peak of development in the colonies and led to their increased independence. Eventually, anti-priacy laws and international treaties would effectively outlaw piracy, making the oceans safe to traverse again.

Audiencias and cabildos – Following Spanish colonization, new political centers were built where old world capitals existed. These political systems included governing bodies with purposefully overlapping jurisdictions. Audiencias served as a sort of judicial branch for the colonies. This type of governing body could function as a court of appeals and had direct access to the king. Cabildos functioned largely as a town hall and allowed local elites to participate in governance. Members of the cabildo were required to be “clean of blood” and to have descended from a family that hand not done manual labor for generations. The cabildo handled local politics and held elections, but also had the ability to write directly to the king. Both the audiencia and the cabildo were parallel to the viceroy. These governing bodies often sent competing agendas to the king, who was always the final decider. While the colonists were expected to remain loyal to the king, and largely did so, they were also allowed to disagree with local laws or judicial rulings and appeal directly to the king. While law was focused more on ideals than reality and punishment at the time, the Spanish political structure served as a balanced system that allowed some colonists to have a say in how they were governed.

Auxiliary industries – Silver, gold, and sugar industries required a large labor force and lots of land. Thus, these industries developed a need to fuel their labor forces with resources from other regions. For example, the silver mine at Potosi and other silver mines required specialized labor forces that included indigenous people as well as slaves. Secondary industries that produced cattle, mules, wine, grains, and other products were necessary to keep laborers fed and the mines and plantations producing at high volumes. The cattle industry was extremely important in both providing waterproof shipping containers and supplying dried beef to feed laborers at mines and plantations. Mules were important for transporting materials to, from, and around the mine. Wheat and wine nourished people throughout the colonies, including higher class individuals that owned mining operations. While these industries became globally desirable later as globalization and industrialization continued, they first became necessary to supply mines and plantations, which produced the most revenue for the colonies at the time. Auxiliary industries fostered the growth of intercolonial markets and strengthened colonial autonomy. Secondary industries also helped colonies establish trade relationships with other countries and produce revenue after they gained independence.