Category: Experiment

Distance Effect on RSS For Dipole Antenna

The transmitter and receiver’s wavelength are in proportion to the antenna height. It indicates that the shorter the antenna, the greater the frequencies, and the larger the transmitter, the lesser the intensity. A specific frequency and antennae design should be picked from a list of “acceptable” wavelengths (Almalki & Angelides, 2022). Not necessary to get. The antenna’s length for a particular transmitted signal decreases as the recipient’s input resistance increases (Sinha & Guvenc, 2022). A “zero-length” antennae will take up the same amount of information as a larger one. The frequency response is unlimited.

Power Level Impact on Dipole Antenna’s Returned Signal Strength

The power level impacts the dipole antenna for effective height for a simple horizontal antenna with no compensation circuitry is around 1/4 of the resonant wavelength. This implies that frequencies are inverse proportion to the antenna’s height. i.e., the maxim “larger is superior” does not really matter in this situation (Elkenawy & Judvaitis, 2022). In the horizontal position, these antennas are unidirectional. These antennas could be made unidirectional and will have more power in the locations where it is supposed to be successful by incorporating other components.

How the Results Compare

The antenna’s predicted signal intensity is determined by its main beam, which is determined by the antenna’s orientation and emission velocity. The bandwidth depends on various elements, including antenna type, layout, inclination, and wireless communications (Ghaleb & Asif, 2022). Like any other Antenna array, the feeding susceptibility of a monopole is determined by a multitude of factors such as length, feeding location, surroundings, and so on (Elkenawy & Judvaitis, 2022). In space available, a quarter centrally fed directional antenna has a radiative admittance of 73, making it excellent for feeding with 75-ohm feeders.

It is critical to start with a thorough Wi-Fi site investigation when producing a wireless connection (Kai et al., 2022). There are various reasons for this, but just a questionnaire will reveal some elements that can impair the functionality of the Wi-Fi connection. Here are some examples of items that can interfere with the transmission. No, despite how your structure is very well, some unexpected variables can prohibit your digital connection from reaching its maximum range and effectiveness. The fabric utilized in the building and the layout of those components are the most prominent of these. For instance, metal, reflectors, and cement are all extensively employed in modern construction architecture. They can cause significant radio frequency interference as well.

Competing connections in the neighborhood, such as those from a neighbor organization or even a neighborhood hotspot, significantly affect the performance of the wireless connection. It is significant today, but a Wi-Fi assessment can tell you if the adjacent disturbance is a problem at your home or business. We will be capable of making these simple fixes, and you will be on the right distribution channel since we are establishing your connection. Network encryption algorithms and other security features are critical, particularly when protecting business consumers’ information (Pánek et al., 2022). However, on outdated or even less suffer from high, any security measures could prevent your wireless connection from performing at its best, although this is not advisable altogether. When your company’s networking was established long ago, and you have not upgraded that in a while, the software may have been outdated, slowing down finished functionality.

Whether your customers are church members or office employees, standing too far from the network usually results in a poor connection and is a regular source of irritation. Whether the company occupies a vast space, including an entire department floor or even a shopping district, we will be capable of offering the technologies you will need to ensure good reception in the form, no matter wherever people access the system on your property.

Impact of Dish Misalignment Antenna Performance

The disarrangement of the dish impacted the antenna signal intensity since it is mainly affected by the beam width, which is determined by the antenna’s direction and irradiation frequency. The spectral efficiency depends on various elements, including transmitter design, construction, direction, and wireless communications (Liu et al., 2022). Numerous things can cause hindrance to these signals, which include physiological impediments, additional wireless devices available, gadgets and other electronic devices, proximity, and mechanical conditions.

Observations from the Experiment

Finally, retardation might be caused by the length between the transmitter source and the end-user; this significantly impacts the return signal (Pánek et al., 2022). The greater distance a communication must travel, the more and more noise it will encounter along the way, resulting in dampening (Gundlach, 2012). Even electromagnetic frequencies begin to lose intensity as they go further. Signals that are inadequate, intermittent, or even of poor quality might occur in various circumstances (Sinha & Guvenc, 2022). Poor service can be caused by bad weather, construction supplies or topography obstruction, distance from your closest cellphone tower, or networking congestion.

Inside the transmission phase, an omnidirectional antenna’s job is to convert Radio frequencies into electromagnetic wave propagation in the space available. Figure 1 above shows that the signal received reduces with an increase in distance. Figure 1 also shows that the signal received is strongest when the medium is free space and weakest when the medium of transmission is a concrete obstacle. The receiver section’s job is to change electromagnetic energy back to Rf communication (Wei et al., 2022). Transmitters are symmetrical, meaning they function the same as in both receiving and transmission modes. When it comes to communication networks, an antenna is proposed wherever there would need to be a wireless connection (Zhong et al., 2022). An antenna is a device that may make and receive electromagnetic energy again for communicative purposes in areas in which a cabling infrastructure cannot be installed.

References

Almalki, F. A., & Angelides, M. C. (2022). An enhanced 5G MIMO antenna design for fixed wireless aerial access. Cluster Computing, 25(3), 1591-1606.

Elkenawy, A., & Judvaitis, J. (2022). Transmission power influence WSN-based indoor localization efficiency. Sensors, 22(11), 4154. Web.

Ghaleb, B., & Asif, M. (2022). Application of solar PV in commercial buildings: Utilizability of rooftops. Energy and Buildings, 257, 111774.

Gundlach, J. (2012). Designing unmanned aircraft systems: a comprehensive approach. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.

Kai, K. A. N. G., Kun, F. A. N. G., Yanbo, Z. H. U., Yuan, L. I. U., Zhipeng, W. A. N. G., & Qiang, L. I. (2022). Impact of receiver inter-frequency bias residual uncertainty on dual-frequency GBAS integrity. Chinese Journal of Aeronautics.

Liu, J., Dona, K., Hoshino, G., Kirk, S., Kurinsky, N., Malaker, M.,… & Bread Collaboration. (2022). Broadband solenoidal haloscope for terahertz axion detection. Physical Review Letters, 128(13), 131801.

Pánek, D., Orosz, T., Karban, P., Gnawa, D. C. D., & Neghab, H. K. (2022). Performance comparison of quantized control synthesis methods of antenna arrays. Electronics, 11(7), 994.

Sinha, P., & Guvenc, I. (2022). Impact of antenna pattern on TOA-based 3D UAV localization using a terrestrial sensor network.IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 1-1. Web.

Wei, C., Gu, D., Shao, K., Liu, P., Zhu, W., Zhu, J.,… & Wang, J. (2022). In-flight performance analysis and antenna phase center calibration of MEMS GPS receiver on board TianQin-1 in the nadir-pointing and Sun-pointing modes. Advances in Space Research, 69(2), 1050-1059.

Zhong, W. M., Liu, Q. X., Jiang, Y. P., Deng, M. L., Li, W. P., & Tang, X. G. (2022). Ultra-high dielectric tuning performance and double-set resistive switching effect achieved on the Bi2NiMnO6 thin film prepared by sol-gel method. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 606, 913-919.

Method

Social norms could be defined as a set of appropriate behaviors accepted by society at a certain period of time. These patterns regulate peoples actions and the way they interact with other members of the community. For this reason, disregard these norms might be confusing for individuals who adhere to them. For the experiment, I decided to affect peoples personal space by engaging in very intimate interactions with them.

On February 27, 2018, at 8.15 p.m., I came to different individuals at the entrance of Al Wanda mall and said “I tried to call you, twice, why didn’t you pick up? I got your number from (random name), and honestly, it hurt my feelings”. The given action is not considered appropriate behavior, and usually, it is accepted only by close people. Respondents belonged to different nationalities and were of different ages which apparently impacts the conclusion about how people react if a social norm is broken.

Findings

Discussing the experiment, I should first evaluate my feelings before, while, and after the planned breach. First, I was excited because of the plan. I also adhere to social norms and try not to disturb unknown people. That is why I was nervous and even scared because of hypothetic negative reactions or responses. However, communication with the first individual helped me to calm down.

Hereafter, I felt confident and nonchalant during my conversations with respondents. After the experiment, I admitted mixed emotions. On the one hand, I felt uncomfortable because of the unusual character of actions I performed. On another, I was puzzled by some reactions. Additionally, there was a great relief that the experiment was over and I did not have to break social norms anymore.

I should also outline two individuals responses to this intrusion. In the first case, I came to a tall Indian male in his early thirties. He was well dressed and looked solid. Thus, my appearance and actions obviously confused him. He was not able to understand what happened and stood with his mouth wide open. I noted that he started sweating and avoided looking into my eyes. Instead, he stared into vacancy without saying a word. It was apparent that he wanted me to disappear and stop bothering him. In the second case, I communicated with a short Filipino male of the same age. He wore informal clothes and looked at his phone.

My question apparently surprised him and caused significant discomfort. He was confused and did not know what to do. However, in the middle of my speech, the man apologized calling me Madam, and walked away. He also tried not to look into my eyes as if he were afraid that it would make the situation even worse. In general, both these reactions were alike and could be considered typical ones as the majority of participants responded to my appearance and speech in similar ways.

Analysis and Discussion

Peoples reactions to my actions could be explained using several significant concepts. First, all individuals behaviors are preconditioned by their mentalities and cultural background (Higgs 39). These two issues impact decision-making and precondition the appearance of one or another response to a particular stressor. The fact is that in the majority of cultures familiar attitude to strangers is not appreciated (Higgs 39). On the contrary, people try to be polite and tactful not to hurt somebodys feelings and preserve their personal space. In such a way, my words and actions were inappropriate for participants regarding their cultural backgrounds and previous experiences.

Moreover, existing social practices introduce cautious and even suspicious attitudes to unknown individuals who demonstrate inappropriate behaviors and break accepted norms. Social practices are predicted behaviors that representatives of a particular culture typically try to follow. As we have already stated, there is a specific treatment for strangers in the majority of cultures. For this reason, I faced the behaviors described above. People followed partners they acquired in their childhood (Reynolds et al. 50). These presuppose avoidance, disregard, attempts to suppress awkward behaviors not responding to them.

Negative or confused responses might also be preconditioned by the existence of particular expectations that are traditionally used when judging people’s actions. In other words, a common person will not come to a stranger and start talking to him/her in a familiar way (Steckl). This person also excepts that no one else will do it because of a particular social norm that exists in society. In this regard, the majority of participants were confused because of the discrepancy between their expectations and reality.

Therefore, there are specific interpersonal communication patterns that are established in different cultures and determine the choice of words, verbal and non-verbal communication patterns to align an efficient face-to-face communication not hurting someones feelings (Baum 54). These depend on culture, age, mentality, experience, etc. (Baum 54). However, the majority of people asked by me had a similar cultural background which condemns breach of social norms and interference into the private space. For this reason, their reactions were quite predictable. They did not try to keep the conversation, on the contrary, people wanted to escape and forget about this very situation.

I should also say that there were some differences in verbal and non-verbal responses. Some individuals kept silent and stood still pretending that they do not hear me whereas others excused and tried to leave. These divergences are stipulated by the diverse experiences and beliefs of individuals who participated in the experiment. The fact is that the set of values an individual has shaped the way he/she behaves and communicates in multiple situations (Henrich 78). These factors also precondition the manner a person acts in stressful occurrences that imply the breach of social norms. That is why some individuals preferred to ignore me while others just left.

Conclusion

Finally, I admitted that some people (especially Filipinos) evaluated my status and actions regarding my nationality. This fact also stipulated their behaviors. In such cases, they called me Madam and demonstrated high respect. At the same time, they tried to leave quietly as if their emotional response would be considered misconduct and result in some negative circumstances. Additionally, individuals treated me as if I were of a higher authority and had some power to impact their lives.

This example perfectly demonstrates the significant impact culture and mentality have on our actions and behaviors (Mlodinow 23). Having a stereotypical image of an Emirati and associating this individual with high authority, power, and wealth, people tried to behave in a way that would not make me angry and leave.

In general, the experiment shows that the breach of social norms is confusing for people who have specific behavioral patterns and use them to interact with other members of society. Additionally, the cultural background preconditions individuals actions and the way they respond. My attempts to extravagate and trigger specific reactions prove it.

Works Cited

Baum, William. Understanding Behaviorism: Behavior, Culture, and Evolution. Wiley-Blackwell, 2017.

Henrich, Joseph. The Secret of Our Success: How Culture Is Driving Human Evolution, Domesticating Our Species, and Making Us Smarter. Princeton University Press, 2017.

Higgs, Suzanne. “Social norms and their influence on eating behaviours.” Appetite, vol. 86, 2015, pp. 38-44. Web.

Mlodinow, Leonard. Subliminal: How Your Unconscious Mind Rules Your Behavior. Vintage, 2013.

Reynolds, Katherine, Emina Subasic, and Karen Tindall. “The Problem of Behaviour Change: From Social Norms to an Ingroup Focus.” Social and Personality Psychology Compass, vol. 9, no. 1, 2015, pp. 45-56. Web.

Steckl, Carrie. “How Social Norms Affect Our Decisions.” MentalHelp.net. 2013. Web.

The United States experienced tremendous industrial development in the twentieth century. It is in the twentieth century that technology was developed to a modern scale, with inventions and innovations being the order of the day.

These new scientific creations and findings needed verification as viable innovations. Since this century was plagued by the most destructive wars in the history of humankind, inventions for military applications were many, and were often tested using human beings as specimen.

Some non-military tests of inventions and processes involved human specimen. Since the United States of America was one of the leading powers in the scientific developments, some of the experiments involving humans were conducted within the United States (Moreno, 2000).

Effect of Nuclear Radiation on Soldiers

Immediately after the Second World War, the United States was in fear of being attacked by communist powers. The tension between the two ideological blocs called for development of some of the most potent nuclear weapons.

Some tests were carried out in Nevada to investigate the effect of a nuclear radiation on military personnel. Military officers were exposed to nuclear fallouts after detonation of a nuclear bomb to orient them to the logistics used to fight in a battlefield with a high level of nuclear radiation.

The psychological effects of the sight of an exploding nuclear weapon on soldiers were investigated in preparation of the troops for engagement in an anticipated nuclear war. However, the use of human subjects for such potentially dangerous tests faced criticism.

Ethical issues arose due to lack of consideration of the fatal disorders and the permanent damage that the radiation may would cause (Moreno, 2000).

Use of Radioactive Iodine

Scientists at the University of Iowa conducted an experiment using pregnant women to investigate the effect of the iodine on the expectant women.

The experiment was intended to investigate the amount of the lethal substance that would cross the placental barrier, which is known to have highly selective membranes. Experimentation with radioactive iodine continued with use of human subjects.

Humans were exposed to radioactive iodine in an effort to determine the effect of the iodine on mature and premature fetuses. Critical ethical issues arose due to the inability of the participating individuals to give a well informed consent to the scientists conducting the experiment.

Some of the experiments involved direct injection of the potentially dangerous substance into infants (Cantwell, 2001).

Vanderbilt University Experiment

Scientists at the Vanderbilt University gave a substance the medics claimed would improve the health of unborn infants to more than eight hundred pregnant women. The officials lied to the women that the substance that they were being fed with was a vitamin supplement.

The truth was that the substance the women were ingesting as a supplement contained dangerous levels of radioactive iron meant to investigate the amount of the radioactive substance that would reach the unborn babies (McCally & Cassel, 1994).

Several babies died as a result of the ensuing illnesses and typical disorders caused by radiation exposure. A significant number of women involved in the experiment died after suffering from diseases associated with high levels of radiation exposure.

Those who did not develop a terminal disease on exposure to the radioactive material experienced acute symptoms of radioactive poisoning (McCally & Cassel, 1994). Leukemia and cancerous tumors are some of the diseases that result from exposure to radiation.

The United States has a grim history of experiments that involved severe exposure of human subjects to lethal levels of radiation. The experimental trials resulted in death of the subjects, or extremely adverse clinical conditions.

Most of the experiments were conducted without the consent of the subject. However, laws have been instituted to protect any subject of an experiment from experimental trials without consent and due legal procedures.

References

Cantwell, A. (2001). How scientists secretly used US citizens as guinea pigs. The Human Radiation Experiments, 1(October), 2-15.

McCally, M., & Cassel, C. (1994). U.S. Government-Sponsored Radiation Research with Humans 1945-1975. Medicine & Global Survival, 4(1), 5-20.

Moreno, J. D. (2000). Undue risk: secret state experiments on humans. New York: W.H. Freeman.

Literature Review

The present-day reality in the American society make many people recall the time when African-American people were discriminated and oppressed. But these recollections are determined by positive events – for the first time in the US history an African-American person can become President of the country. In this situation, I consider it necessary to revisit the Clark & Clark experiment and apply its methods to the modern Americans. Special importance in my study will be given to the attitudes of children of 4 – 6 years towards their skin color and identity.

This topic has been widely studied by scientists and researchers who developed its most important aspects. Thus, according to Meyers (2002), the attitudes and racial preferences of children studying in a European-American environment and in an African-American environment are rather similar in terms of African-American children’s not being ashamed of their identity and race. Moreover, their parents and kindergarten teachers were the supporters of inclusion of race study in their curricula. This topic finds its reflection in the study of two groups of children, white and black, regarding their identity and group preferences. Using the Clark & Clark Doll Experiment modified to some extent, Gregor and James (1966) managed to demonstrate the high rate of self-identification and group preferences displayed by African-American children (over 95 %). At the same time, the examples of low self-esteem and changed identity can be found in the recently published research. Thus, according to Powell-Hompson (1992), who implemented the Clark & Clark Doll Experiment technique, black children are more inclined to identify themselves with the socially predominant white race and to be ashamed of their color of skin. The situation, what is more important seems not to have change at all over the last decade. As Bagby-Yound testifies, black children still tend to reject their races when offered to choose between a white and a black doll as Clark & Clark proposed (2008).

Taking into consideration all the above presented pieces of evidence, the need of the new research in this field is as evident as can be. There is a necessity to study the recent changes that have or have not happened in the national and racial identity of African-Americans, and especially among African-American children. Consequently, the research by Ramirez (1996) is one of the attempts to do it. The author presents the accurate research findings of the survey conducted by her, and these data are not very optimistic. Despite the fact that over the latest decades the numbers of people of color in the world, and especially in the United States of America, has increased dramatically – from 10% of the total population to 25% thereof, the attitudes towards the so called “minorities” still leaves much too be desired, and the roots of this problem should be looked for in the black community itself. The author draws readers’ attention to the issues that are observed in the African-American children who tend to be ashamed of their identity and display low self-esteem because of this while communicating with white children.

The proof of the rather problematic situation regarding the race stereotyping and self-identity are the attitudes of children towards their class-mates in school and in kindergarten. The surveys of such attitudes presented in the works by numerous scholars are rather relevant and valuable sources of the most updated information. Thus, the article by Boulton (1996) is the bright example of the survey that was carried out in a school in Great Britain. The aim of the aim of the researcher was to find out the attitudes of white and non-white children to each other in terms of whom they “like the most” and “like the least”. The findings impressed the researcher greatly as 100% of white children “liked the least” their non-white classmates while among the latter, boys “liked the most” their classmates of the same race and girls displayed no difference in their attitudes towards whites and non-whites. These findings are manifestations of the still existing issue of race and self-identity, and its solution should be first of all developed for children because people’s attitudes are formed in the early age.

Therefore, researchers deal with this issue with special attention. The topics of children’s identity and attitudes towards their races are under constant consideration. Scholars try, and this research paper will try as well, to understand the attitudes of children towards themselves as reflections in the mirror. To achieve this, Clark & Clark Doll technique is widely implemented in research. For instance, according to Alarcon and Szalacha (2000), whose research was based on the Clark & Clark method, children seem to be ashamed of their color of skin and identity because of the public attitudes and greater mainstream popularity of the white race and all images including toys and dolls that are of obviously “white race”.

However, this situation is in some cases a matter of personal preferences and psychology of this or that child. For instance, based on his or her preferences and reasons, a child can refuse to play with a white doll just because he or she can not identify it with his or her complexion, etc. The article by Ducille (1994) for instance, develops this topic and presents examples of such surprising attitudes in children, mainly of the African-American race. At the same tome, Levander (2005) is concerned with the issues of whiteness, thus presenting the information about the opposite side of the issue – the attitudes of white children towards their identities in the context of domination of white mainstream culture in the modern society. This dominance is the subject of the article by Cross & Cross (2005) who are concerned with reasons for it and with the influence of the social moral standards and means of their proper improvement.

On the basis of the above presented data, I can assume that the Clark & Clark Doll experiment needs to be revisited and applied to the modern children in order to understand their motivations for being ashamed or not ashamed of their race. There is, moreover, the necessity to examine the ways in which children identify themselves and what factors affect their identification choices.

References

Alarcón, O., & Szalacha, L. A. (2000). The Color of My Skin: a Measure to Assess Children’s Perceptions of Their Skin Color. Applied Developmental Science, 4(4), 208-221.

Bagby-Young, Valencia L. (2008). Mirror, mirror on the dresser, why are Black dolls still viewed as lesser? When Black children turn a blind face to their own race: The doll study revisited. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 69(2-B), pp. 1351.

Boulton, Michael J. (1996). Liking and peer perceptions among Asian and White British children. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 13(2), pp. 163-177.

Cross, J. R., & Cross, T. L. (2005). Social Dominance, Moral Politics and Gifted Education. Roeper Review, 28(1), 21+.

Ducille, A. (1994). Dyes and Dolls: Multicultural Barbie and the Merchandising of Difference. Differences, 6(1), 46-68.

Gregor, A., James, U. (1966). Racial attitudes among white and Negro children in a deep-South standard metropolitan area. Journal of Social Psychology, 68(1), pp. 95-106.

Levander, C. (2005). Witness and Participant: Frederick Douglass’s Child. Studies in American Fiction, 33(2), 183+.

Myers, R. (2002). Young children’s perceptions and attitudes about race and ethnicity. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences, 62(11-A), pp. 3684.

Powell-Hopson, D. (1992). Implications of doll color preferences among Black preschool children and White preschool children. African American psychology: Theory, research, and practice, pp. 183-189.

Ramirez, Deborah A. (1996). Multiracial identity in a color-conscious world. The multiracial experience: Racial borders as the new frontier. Root, Maria P. P. (Ed); pp. 49-62.

Introduction

Going through life oftentimes is difficult especially when we are not in touch with the basic principles upon which life operates. We are the handiwork of a craftsman, and only the craftsman knows how to handle us. That is the massage Stanley Cavell is sending across the parables; he thinks that using the illustration of a craftsman working on an automated system will send an impactful message to his readers, and he is sure to achieve his aim. All he has done through his writing is carry us through the various stages of development of the automated system to the stage the system began to function as a human being. The interesting thing about the experiment is that while the craftsman was on the job, the system complained of pain at some point. Even though the system complained, it did not hinder the craftsman from completing the development to suit his original conception.

Stanley Cavell’s Experiment

Stanley Cavell started his essay by taking us through a brainstorming session, and by presenting us with the picture of a doll and its owner first. In the analysis of the story of the doll, what Stanley seems to be telling us is that, when you buy a toy, you are rightfully the owner. But he went further to make us understand that the fact that, being the owner of a doll does not transcend to absolute control over it, or that the owner possesses unlimited powers of control. What Stanley is saying is that the owner of the doll is under control by some other stronger powers or authorities. He further went on to show that even as the owner exerts powers over the doll, the doll, on the other hand, has no say in the way it is treated, thus it is subjected to the owner. According to Stanley, in the illustration,

“I recognize his authority over the doll, his having the last word over it; hence I hold him responsible for it. The most this demands is that the doll is his to play with, for a while, in a particular place. Even if he owns it, his authority is not unlimited; there are still rules in this house” (Stanley 402).

At this point, Stanley seems to take us somewhere, but he is yet to land. In another statement, he made us understand that the owner of the doll and we, humans, know the insight of the doll, gradually landing us in the direction he is taking us to the thought-provoking experiment of a craftsman and an automated system.

Stanley began by making us understand that improvements have been made in the field of robotics. On several occasions, he was meant to look inside of such systems to make him believe that they were not true human beings. In the experiment, Stanley wrote,

“What would fit this idea? How about perfected automation? They have been improved to such an extent that on more than one occasion their craft t man has had to force me to look inside one of them to convince me that it was not a real human being”.( Stanley 404)

At this point, desiring to awaken anxiety in us, he paused and asked questions regarding what was the content of what he saw when it was opened. Stanley, at this point, took us back to the beginning to give us a better grasp of what picture he intends us to have.

In the experiment, a visitor visited a craftsman who took him around his laboratory, clad in his usual lab attire. After moving around for a while, the craftsman explained to him all that has happened over time; the progress he has made in his research on automation to the amazement of the visitor the craftsman offered his friend a seat. The friend effortlessly responded to the craftsman and received a cigarette from him with an air of appreciation. To show the visitor, some progress was made; he opened the legs of the friend and taped them. It was made from metal, but that was big progress for sure. The craftsman again asked the friend to remove his hand gloves, and the friend responded gracefully. This also amazed the visitor who was not sure of where to place the automated system and whether to refer to it as a complete human or not. The craftsman then opened the hat of the automated system revealing the skull. He continued with the process of stripping the system to acquit his visitor of the latest developments he made over time. This process was repeated every time the system was carried out.

To further express his point and burning desire to continue with the work, Stanley explained how the craftsman accepted the fact that the work was still very far from being perfect. At this point, the craftsman showed the visitor that more work was needed to be done on the internal organs to make them more effective. He made special mention of the blood that improvements needed to be made on the blood circulation. At this stage of the experiment, the major concern of the craftsman was the response of the system to stimulus, which was not consistent with him. By proving his point, he then touched the system’s hand of which the response was almost spontaneous; the only noticeable problem was that the movement was mechanical. The craftsman was concerned with the response to pain that it has to be simultaneous with any touch. At this point, the visitor wondered in thought trying to figure out what the craftsman meant by the pain in it.

In another scheduled visit, more improvements have been made, from the head to the hands, everything was moving almost effortlessly. As it was in the character of the craftsman, he still wanted to show the progress that had been made in detail, so he opened the hat and revealed the skull of the system for the visitor to have a look at what progress he had achieved since the last visit again. In narrating the experience he wrote,

“One day the craftsman is quite beside himself with suppressed excitement. He insists that I pay attention to each of the procedures. The legs and hands are by this time very astonishing. the movement of the legs crossing and of the cigarette being lit is simply astonishing. I want to see it all again.and for the voice, I could bet anything that no one could tell”( Stanley 409)

Since the concern of the craft man was the response of the system to the stimulus at this stage of the work, he wanted to show his visitor the progress he made in that light so far. He then reached for a knife; as soon as the system recognized it, it leaped and started making unusual movements. As the craft man came closer, the system spoke and expressed its tiredness to the treatment it was subjected to. The visitor, at this point, wanted to intervene, but, at a second thought, questioned himself why. The visitor thought of all that has happened. There was an expression of happiness, then frustration, displayed in all the struggling and the body movements. To the visitor’s amazement, that was how the system was programmed to operate. What caused him to have a rethink over intervening in what was happening was that it was the creator dealing with his creation, and in such a case, he had no say in all that was going on between the two. He also considered that maybe, in the instance of questioning what the craft man was doing, he would have ended up yelling at him for making the system complete that it turned to revolt against the creator, but at the end, the answer would have been that, that was how it was designed to be.

In all the drama that ensued what the craft man wanted to achieve was to show him the structure of the brain, the computer devices inserted in the head of the system. The visitor insisted on the craft man use an x-ray instead of a knife to avoid the drama. The visitor’s interest to see the inside of the brain was not to convince himself that the friend was not just a system that he only wanted to know. In his perception, he opened that who knew if humans were made of such microprocessors in their brains. The visitor held himself from asking certain questions about what he saw. To him, it was better to accept things the way they were than insisting on asking questions that would undermine the handwork of the craft man (Stanley 408).

One great and touching deduction the visitor made was that if the friend grabbed his hand, and subsequently, he had been inpatient with the friend, then he saw the craft man coming with a knife towards him to perform all that was done on the friend to him. He wondered what the feeling it would have. He imagined the craftsman’s view was that the only thing the two of them share was pain and nothing more. This is to say that both, the visitor and the product of the craft man’s work were the same. As the final events were unfolding, the experimental work turned out to be more of a reflection. The visitor was questioning his difference from the developed system; to his opinion, they both had the same feelings (Bradley 45). So, what was the difference between him and the handwork of the craftsman? He felt so strongly about the fact that you could not tell what another person was going through unless you were in the same shoes.

Cavell’s Conclusion

Finally, Stanley Cavell concluded; he felt that all humans were the same and that we shared the same grieve. What he was saying was that if you were not in the condition of another, you would not understand what they were going through. And basically, he felt that all the humans were created or made by a craftsman who alone knew how to remote his handwork, when and how he wanted. He drew this conclusion based on some key incidence that occurred in the illustrated experiment. First, his conclusion is drawn from the first instance in which the craft man called his creation so that he would show it to the visitor, the system was on its own may be thinking or doing something else until its creator beckoned on it to come. What this means from his conclusion is that we do not have programs of our own, even when we seem to be busy with other events any time our creators call us, we will have no option but to respond to the call.

Secondly, Cavell’s conclusion is derived from the point where the visitor imagined himself being subjected to the pain the system was going through, immediately the visitor placed himself in the position of the system, it dawned on him that before now he had a little idea of what this system that was modeled after humanity was experiencing at every stage the craft man wanted to improve his craft. This is the point where Cavell drew his conclusion of the fact that we will hardly know what someone else is going through unless we place ourselves in the person’s shoes.

Analysis of Cavell’s Conclusion

If we take our bearing from the experiment, it will prove itself that life is a walk to perfection. At every point, when the visitor was invited, significant progress was made in the development of the system by the craftsman. The visitor always came, but he had no contribution to the work that was done, he was to stand and look at the work of the craftsman in progress. What the craftsman does to onlookers is to show them his work in progress. Everyone living on this earth is like a piece of art that the craftsman is constantly working on, improving it to be better. What others are to do is to watch God’s perfect work in our lives. The funny part of it is that while the crafty man is working on us, we might be subject to certain treatments that will make us want to revolt, but the end of it is that the craft man only wants to make us better persons. What he wants is a final and perfect final version of us. While the visitor was watching, at certain points, he felt like intervening in the work that the craftsman was doing but not intervening made him learn his greatest lessons. He knew that his intervention would yield no reasonable result as only the one who creates knows what he wants with his work. The lesson from that deduction is this, the people we meet with and live within this life have limited contributions to make in our lives, they impact us only when the creator accepts their suggestions concerning us.

Conclusion

This is not just another piece of work for us to read and dump, but it is a paper that will cause us to reflect more on who we are, and how we relate to our fellow human beings. Often, we are quick to condemn because we are not in the shoes of the person who is going through pain. For better judgment, Stanley Cavell proposes that we should fix ourselves in the situation of the person who we want to condemn before we do that. Finally, the work proposes that we are all the handwork of a master craftsman. Whatever we want to do, we must be guided by his plans for our lives. Often, we might want to protest when he is in the process of carving us, but all that he is doing is for our good. One important deduction we can make from this experiment and conclusion based on Cavell’s view is that we have limited control over whatever it is that we do. Putting it in another way, we might say that we are controlled by a much higher power that dictates all our actions. Going about our daily activities with this consciousness, help guide our decision-making. It also enhances the quality of our relationships, since we have a deep understanding of life we are slow to judge, and as such, it is natural that people are attracted to us. Finally, it is important that we recognize the genius of Stanley for bringing us an interesting experiment to ponder upon, all the strong details in Stanley’s writing are hidden in between the lines.

Works Cited

Bradley, Andrew. Shakespearean Tragedy. London: Macmillan and co.Ltd.1951.Print.

Stanley, Cavell. The Claims of Reason. New York: Oxford University press, 1979. Print.

Introduction

Psychologists and scientists conduct experiments to explain the existence of different phenomena in the human environment. However, experiments carried out on humans without informed consent or knowledge are unlawful and thus considered unethical. This essay will summarize and compare Stanford Prison Experiment and Little Albert Experiment by John Watson. In addition, the essay will detail which particular statements from the APA Code of Ethics were violated during each study.

Stanford Prison Experiment

For a social psychology experiment known as the Stanford Prison Experiment, 24 participants played the roles of either inmates or guards in a mock correctional facility. The experiment was conducted in August 1971 at Stanford University and was supported by the United States Office of Naval Research (Brady & Logsdon, 1988). Over two weeks, participants played various roles and were labeled to assess how those factors influenced their actions and interactions with others. When the abuse of prisoners reached an intolerable level, lead researcher Philip G. Zimbardo stopped the project.

Experiment subjects were “arrested” by real police and taken to a fake penitentiary in the basement of a university building. The inmates were then treated with humiliations meant to replicate life behind bars (Brady & Logsdon, 1988). The guards were handed mirrored sunglasses to ensure no eye contact between guards and inmates. So that Zimbardo’s desired “climate of tyranny” could be established rapidly, all inmates were required to wear a “dress” as a costume and walk around with a chain barricaded to one ankle (Brady & Logsdon, 1988). The experimenters watched and recorded all of the volunteers, both guards, and prisoners.

There was a prison mutiny on day two, which was a remarkable feat. The guards eventually devised a system of punishments and rewards to keep the inmates in line (Brady & Logsdon, 1988). Three inmates were released after only four days because they had grown so frightened by their experience. A number of the detainees got unhappy and disoriented, while a select few guards turned nasty and authoritarian during the experiment (Reicher et al., 2020). Zimbardo ended the experiment a little over a week from when it began, but only after an external observer arrived and expressed horror.

Little Albert Experiment

The Little Albert Experiment conducted by study behaviorist John B. Watson is well-known in psychology. The results of Ivan Pavlov’s studies with conditioned dogs inspired the current experiment, which aimed to expand existing knowledge of conditioning’s effects (Rilling, 2000). Watson sought to investigate whether or not comparable feelings may be observed in humans. Nevertheless, the experiment did not adhere to the code of conduct expected in such studies.

Albert, a 9-month-old infant, had never shown any signs of being afraid of rodents. Albert, who was 11 months old at the start of the experiment, showed no signs of fear or aversion when John Watson introduced a rat to him, along with other furry animals and items (Cornwell et al., 1980). When he was done showing Albert the rat, he turned around and began creating much noise by hammering on a steel bar several times behind the baby. After being conditioned to associate the rat with a loud noise, Albert sobbed whenever the rat was nearby (Cornwell et al., 1980). Even though he never heard the loud noise, he nonetheless exhibited fearful reactions when shown the other animals (Rilling, 2000). This classic conditioning experiment illustrates the concept perfectly. Watson’s investigation led him to postulate that primal emotions like fear may play a significant role in shaping one’s identity.

Comparison and the APA Code of Ethics

When the two experiments are compared, the Stanford Prison Experiment carried experiments on adults while the Little Albert Experiment participant was an infant who had not fully developed. The participants in Zimbardo’s experiment were confronted with taking part in an experiment and agreed that they were paid for their voluntary. In the Watson experiment, the participant Albert was not informed of the experiment nor his parent but was experimented on without his consent. However, both experiments were conducted based on the psychology and behavior of human beings when exposed to different conditions and environments.

APA (2017) Code of Ethics states, “Psychologists take reasonable steps to avoid harming their clients/patients, students, supervisees, research participants, organizational clients, and others with whom they work, and to minimize harm where it is foreseeable and unavoidable.” The fact that Little Albert was damaged during the experiment raised ethical concerns. This is because, unlike when he was a baby, Albert was not predisposed to dislike white rats; instead, he developed this aversion through classical conditioning. Prisoners in Stanford Prison Experiment also suffered harm since they experienced trauma from the treatment they received during the experiments.

According to the APA Code of Ethics, when conducting experiments, psychologists should seek the informed consent of the individual participants in an understandable language. In the absence of subject consent, informed consent from the authorized representative is required (APA, 2017). No such agreement was obtained from Albert’s mother, another ethical problem with Little Albert Experiment. Zimbardo was not certain of the experiment’s results, raising many ethical concerns about the study’s subjects’ lack of ability to give informed consent. The inmates also did not give their permission to be “arrested” at their homes.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Stanford Prison Experiment and the Little Albert Experiment both fall under the category of unethical research because they exploited human subjects as the focus of their psychological studies. Both tests had breached the APA Code of Ethics, specifically the code that required obtaining informed consent from the subjects and the code that required avoiding causing any harm to the test subjects. Both experiments also used human beings as the study subjects, which is considered unethical.

References

American Psychological Association (APA). (2017). Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. Web.

Brady, F. N., & Logsdon, J. M. (1988). Zimbardo’s “Stanford Prison Experiment” and the Relevance of Social Psychology for Teaching Business Ethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 7(9), 703–710.

Cornwell, D., Hobbs, S., & Prytula, R. (1980). Little Albert rides again. American Psychologist, 35(2), 216–217. Web.

Reicher, S. D., Van Bavel, J. J., & Haslam, S. A. (2020). Debate around leadership in the Stanford Prison Experiment: Reply to Zimbardo and Haney (2020) and Chan et al (2020). American Psychologist, 75(3), 406–407. Web.

Rilling, M. (2000). John Watson’s paradoxical struggle to explain Freud. American Psychologist, 55(3), 301–312. Web.

A probability experiment refers to the analysis that depicts the possibility an event occurring in the future through the performance of a series of examination. Based on the results of a probability experiment, one can ascertain the truthfulness of some results or the chances of a certain event of interest occurring.

The determination of a result in a certain probability experiment is termed as a trial. Some of the examples of probability experiments could be the act of throwing a dice or revolving a spinner.

In probability theory, an event refers to the set of results of an experiment that can take probability values. This means that an event is a subset of the sample space that takes probabilistic values. Considering a finite sample space, an event would be any subset of the sample space. Similarly, the subset elements of the sample space are events since they belong to the universal set.

In instances where the sample space is infinite, the outcomes would be values that lie within the real number line and thus the approach of the probabilistic event will fail. There exist two types of events. These are the simple and complementary events. The simple events, also known as elementary events are events that have a single outcome in the sample space.

The probabilities of simple events are always positive, zero or undefined. On the other hand, the complementary events are events whose occurrence of one event hinders the occurrence of the other event. Similarly, events could be regarded as independent or dependent events.

In this regard, the occurrence of independent events does not affect the occurrence of the other event. Concerning the dependent events, the occurrence of one event is subject to the occurrence of another event.

Probability refers to the chance or possibility that an uncertain event will occur. Therefore, probability estimates the likelihood of the occurrence of events under conditions of uncertainty. A number between one and zero depicts probability. At times, a percentage value may be used to indicate a probability. A zero probability for an event implies that the event will not happen.

A probability of one for a particular event implies that its occurrence is definite. When calculating probability, the ratio between the numbers of occurrence of an event with the total number of set of outcomes has to be obtained. Additionally, in determining the probability value, one could adopt either theoretical or experimental probability.

Theoretical probability entails the calculation of probability based on the number of occurrence of an event dived by the total outcomes. An example of theoretical probability would involve rolling a six-sided die on the side indicated 3.

The sample event would be the 3 while the outcomes would be values between 1 and 6. Thus, the probability of occurrence of 3 would be 1 out of 6 implying it is a sixth. On the contrary, experimental probability refers to the number of times of occurrence of an event divided by the number of trials undertaken.

A sample space denoted by Ω or S refers to the combination every possible outcome expected in a probability experiment. An example of a sample space in tossing a coin twice would be where H denotes the head while T denotes the tail. A sample space subset indicates an event in the countable samples.

The process of defining the events from a sample event entails constituting of an σ-algebra to outline clearly the events. Despite the fact that σ-algebra is the general form of describing events within a sample space, it is usually theoretical since it defines the subsets of interest in relevance.

For the probability theory to be standardized, there exist properties, which must be satisfied. These properties relate to the nature of probability experiments, events, sample space, and probability values. Initially, the probability of events needs to satisfy the following properties given the denotation of the probability of φ by P (φ).

First, the range of probability should be 0≤P(φ)≤1 Secondly, the probability of the sample space, Ω, is know with surety as P (Ω) =1. Thirdly, the sigma-additive should hold.

This will imply that for two events, A and B, their union would be φ denoted as A∩B=φ which would imply P(AUB) =P(A) +P(B). Lastly, the finite additive principle states that the probability of occurrence of disjoint events is equal to the sum of the probability of the two events.

Similar to the above properties, the other sub-section properties include the probability of an empty set, complement events, union, and the monotonicity of probability. The probability of an empty set is zero.

The probability of complement events portrays that the sum probability of two complementary event is equal to one that is P(A) =1-P(A^c). The probability of a union of two events A and B is equal to sum of the probability of A and B less the intersection of A and B.

This can be denoted as P(AUB)=P(A)+P(B)-P(A∩B). This property replicates to any number of events. The property of the monotonicity of probability imply that for two events, A and B, where one is the subset of the other, then P(A)≤P(B). This property can be demonstrated by the range property where P (A∩B^c)≥0. Thus P(A) =P(B) +P(A∩B^c) ≥P(B).

Two events are independent if the occurrence of one event does not affect the occurrence of the other event. This implies that the following conditions are essential for events to be independent. Given two events, A and B, the probability of occurrence of event A should be equal to probability of A given occurrence of B. This can be illustrated as P(A/B) =P(A).

Secondly, the probability of the occurrence of event B should be equal to the probability of B considering the occurrence of event A. Finally, the probability of A union B should be equal to the product of the probabilities of the two events.

Therefore, P(AUB)=P(A)*P(B). For example, in an experiment involving the throwing a dice, the appearance of a three-sided face in the first trial does not affect the occurrence of any face in the second trial.

During the sampling process, with or without replacement processes determine the independence of events. Sampling with replacement involves that the possibility of one element of the group being chosen more than once. This indicates that during the process, events are termed as independent since the occurrence of one outcome does not affect the probability of the second occurrence during the next trial.

Sampling process without replacement entails the effects of the occurrence of the first outcome on the possibility of the occurrence of the next outcome in the subsequent trial. Thus, such a sampling process involves dependent events. In situations where it is difficult to determine the nature of the events, it is essential to regard them as dependent until the otherwise established.

Introduction

Different psychological set ups can induce a variety of impacts on individuals subjected to such set ups. The prison set up is thus expected to have similar impacts on its inhabitants. Establishment of such impacts of the prisons set upon prisoners or prison guards was the basis of Stanford prison experiment that was carried out by Philip Zimbardo. This paper seeks to discus the experiment. The paper will look into the results of the study and apply such findings to the real life events that are experienced today.

The Stanford Prison Experiment

The experiment was meant to investigate the response that people develop when they are exposed to different environments from their original environmental set ups. Taking volunteers and posing them as prisoners was the test that was to reveal the acquired responses of such individuals.

Nature of the experiment

The individuals who were to assume the role of prison guards were not subjected to any form of formal training but were only offered a range of actions that they could take with respect to the experiment. The prisoners were on the other hand given shocking arrests that was followed by blind folding before they were driven to the experimental location. They were then subjected to humiliating experience that involved being stripped off their clothes, chained and subjected to an assimilated real prison setups.

Results of the Experiment

One of the results that were realized from the experiment was the level of rebellion that the prisoners developed after some time within the prison set up. The guards then called for reinforcement and resorted to forcefully counter the rebellion of their prisoners. Measures like confinement of rebellion leaders and intimidation of individual prisoners were then adopted by the guards.

An adopted psychological treatment of the prisoners that involved interchange of privilege treatment was then proposed by one of the guards and adopted on the prisoners.

This resulted in distrust among the prisoners and eventually weakened the organization of another rebellion. A level of psychological complications that included “acute emotional disturbance, disorganized thinking, uncontrollable crying and rage” (Zimbardo, n.d., p. 1) were however developed by the prisoners with difference in degrees leading to the release of one prisoner within two days. There was also a development of a planned escape by the prisoners (Zimbardo, n.d.).

Review of the result of the experiment also revealed some developed characteristics. It was, for instance, realized that induced situations cause significant inconsistent reactions on individuals. Role acting was also realized to create some sense of actual individual reactions when circumstances are pushed to the extremes.

It was also realized that changing an individual’s set up can also induce changes in individual’s behavior. Good people will for instance adopt bad characters if put in evil conditions (Zimbardo, Maslash & Haney, n.d.).

Application of the Findings

People generally react to any form of change that they are exposed to. One of the identified responses to changes in environmental set ups include attempts to withdraw from such changes. Such was the identified attempt by prisoners to escape from the set up (Leadership, 2004). Reactions of disorientation and emotional set ups are also common reactions together with anger (Resources, 2003).

Conclusion

The result of the experiment reveals that any induced change in environment induces psychological changes in people and consequently people find or develop ways to counter that.

References

Leadership. (2004). Pennsylvania child welfare training program. Web.

Resources. (2003). Normal emotional reactions to change and transition. Web.

Zimbardo, P. The Stanford prison experiment. Web.

Zimbardo, P., Maslash, C & Haney, C. Revelations on the Stanford prisons experiment. Web.

The proper selection of the sample size and probability distribution techniques is crucial to epidemiological studies because the two factors significantly influence imperative variables such as variability, frequency, p-values, and significance level in a statistical study. Statisticians combine an array of mathematical models to guide the estimation of the chief factors used to test the hypothesis in a statistical experiment. Collaboration between clinicians and biostatisticians enables clinical experiments to provide feasible results. The essay will analyze the relationship between the fundamental variables in clinical statistical experiments.

The width of a confidence interval depends on the sample size, population variability, and confidence-level in a statistical experiment. Variability describes the difference between data points in a population. It decreases with the increase in the sample size because a small sample provides limited information for statistical analysis. A visual depiction of data in interactive media enhances the analysis of variability levels for different datasets. The visualization of the sporadic distribution of data provides either a representative or distorted picture of the population. Variability introduces challenges in the estimation of the sample size because statisticians can only determine the true variability of a population after conducting a test. Although statisticians can estimate variability using previous tests, assumptions regarding similar trials can lead to poor experimental results.

The practical sample size is essential to the determination of the effect of a treatment. An Overestimation of the sample size leads to a clinically or economically unviable outcome. On the other hand, underestimating the sample size leads to insufficient evidence to demonstrate the effectiveness of a test. Insufficient evidence is likely to influence the abandonment of treatment or healthcare policies that could benefit the healthcare sector.

The calculation of a probability distribution helps to determine the likelihood that an event will have the expected outcome. Statisticians can estimate a probability by dividing the frequency of observation with the total number of observations (sample size). Similarly, multiplying the sample size with a probability produces the expected frequency. Statisticians can modify important variables and obtain the desired value using the mathematical relationship between frequency, probability, and sample size (Faltin, 2012).

For example, a high frequency of alleles enhances the probability of determining the risks associated with DNA mutations. When the alleles under study are rare, biostatisticians can increase the sample size accordingly to gain the desired frequency to detect the risks of diseases. The p-values are significant in hypothesis testing. The values illustrate the probability that the results of a statistical experiment are due to a chance rather than an effect. A low p-value indicates a high probability that the observed outcome is due to a substantial effect. The statisticians will reject the null hypothesis for a low p-value. On the other hand, a p-value that is greater than the predetermined significance level leads to the acceptance of the null hypothesis. Statisticians obtain the p-values by dividing the frequency of each outcome with the sample size. Each p-value symbolizes the portion of the total dataset represented by a score.

Conclusion

The detection of an effect in a statistical experiment depends on the variability, probability distribution, frequency, sample size, p-values, and the significance level in the evaluation of datasets. Statisticians can determine one variable by initializing the other variables. For example, initializing the population variability, probability distribution, frequency, and significance level for a dataset enables statisticians to evaluate the appropriate sample size for an experiment.

Reference

Faltin, F. (2012). Statistical methods in healthcare. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley. Web.

Methods

The proponent of this study attempted to violate a social norm. The social norm that was violated can be described as “invading personal space.” In the Western world and other societies all over the world, there is a concept called “personal space.” In this cultural framework, strangers and to some extent, friends and relatives must learn to respect an imaginary line that must separate two people.

The best example of respecting personal space can be seen in public areas. For example, it is not acceptable to sit so close to a stranger because this is considered invading the person’s personal space. In this particular social experiment, the proponent of the study sat next to a stranger in public places like malls and parks.

Findings

It was a major challenge to violate a particular social norm. The one who attempts to violate a social norm feels uncomfortable. Part of the reason why this negative feeling comes up is due to many preconceived ideas. For example, members of society frown upon violation of social norms.

These are not legal rules. However, the social backlash is still the same. In other words, there are strong feelings involved when it comes to violating social norms. It will require a great sense of purpose to deliberately violate a social norm. It will require courage because of the anticipation of the negative feedback from strangers.

In this particular social experiment, a significant reaction is expected based on the proximity of two individuals sitting on one bench or sofa. A wooden or metallic bench is commonly found in public areas, such as shopping malls and parks. It is interesting to point out that in a typical bench there are only two people that can occupy it if they do not know each other.

In order to elicit a strong response from the person sitting on a bench or sofa, it is important to occupy the space that is intended for the one who is supposed to sit in the middle of the bench. Thus, if there is already a person occupying the bench, the one that came after him must sit on the farthest side of the bench.

Thus, if the social norm violator decides to sit in the middle area, the one occupying the extreme side will make a glance to make sure that the other side was not yet occupied. If the other extreme side is empty the stranger begins to feel uncomfortable. In most cases, they leave.

Discussion and Analysis

The struggle to violate a social norm and the sharp reaction to it is due to the culture that exists in that particular setting. The proponent of this experiment and the uninformed participants lived in a society where the shared culture enabled them to interpret beliefs, values, and norms (Lustig & Koester 28).

More importantly, this shared culture has affected the behavior not only of the participants but probably every person in the mall or park. Thus, any person who would have sat in the benches and sofas are expected to react the same way.

The hesitation to violate a social norm stems from a preconceived notion that it is wrong to “invade personal space.” It also comes from the unspoken agreement that social norms like this one enables people to know how to act. Therefore, social interactions are consistent, predictable, and learnable (Andersen & Taylor 62). It is through this unspoken agreement and the anticipation of a punishment for breaking the rules that make it difficult to sit close to strangers.

Social scientists pointed out the phenomenon called negative sanctions (Andersen & Taylor 62). There are different types of negative sanctions, ranging from “subtle mechanisms of control, such as ridicule to overt forms of punishment” (Andersen & Taylor 62).

In this particular social experiment, the negative sanctions came in the form of unfriendly behavior such as abruptly leaving the scene without saying a word. In other instances, the stranger will drop hints that there is enough space on the other side of the bench. These hints are meant to persuade the person invading his or her personal space to respect the imaginary boundary lines that no one should cross.

The desire for personal space is probably the result of the need to relax. It is comparable to a soldier that needed a place where he can remove his armor or lay down his weapon. In other words, people can only feel relaxed if they can let their guard down. However, having a stranger so close means that there is an element of danger that is present.

The element of danger comes from the fear that no one knows what the stranger is thinking or what the stranger will do next. Thus, it is normal to keep the guar up, and when this happens the person cannot relax. The consequence of this negative reaction means that the person cannot enjoy reading a book or sipping a cup of coffee. It is therefore important to respect people’s personal space.

Works Cited

Andersen, Margaret & Howard Taylor. Sociology: Understanding Diverse Society. CA: Thomson Higher Education, 2008. Print.

Lustig, Myron & Jolene Koester. Intercultural Competence: Interpersonal Communication Across Cultures. MA: Allyn & Bacon Publishing, 2012. Print.