Category: Experiment

Introduction

The Triaclyglyceral compounds refer to the group of lipids found in plants and animals; that are easily metabolized to acetyl coenzyme as they are twisters of glycerol as the main constituent of compounds. In most cases, the basic structures of most prevalent triaclyglycerals are not complex; but are composed of long-chains saturated and non-saturated carboxylic acids which are easily metabolized into other forms of lipids (Dole, 1956).

Identification of Triaclyglycerals from the Appendices

As it has been observed in the experiment, various triaclyglycerals and other fragments were obtained in the process of extracting the compound from the linseeds. Perhaps, examples of f the triaclyglyceral compounds obtained in the appendix include the compounds with [M+H] ⁺ ions; whose ECN values were of a wide range like the OOO, OPO and OPL. More so, several fragments were also obtained like PO⁺, OL⁺ and PL⁺ fragment ions which were found together with the suspension of extracts. Generally, the particles named above were the main constituents of the extract of the linseeds; whereby the process of purification followed thereafter (Sukhija and Palmquist, 1988).

Tabulation of Data of Data in the Order of Elusion

The data obtained from the experiment of the extraction of linseed oil; which is a vegetable oil could be presented in various ways, where the enhancement of easy understanding of the data was facilitated. In this case therefore, the table below was used to tabulate the data obtained whereby various components linseed oil in various forms were presented (Mashek and Grummer, 2003).

From the above table it can be observed that; the mass of triacyglyceral compound obtained was relative to the number of fragment ions, where the relationship was a positive correlation. More specifically, the amount of triacyglyceral compounds obtained in the experiment and the level of the number of ions present as fragments in each compound was observed to be positively related (Carneheim, Olivecrona & Hultin, 1995).

Further, from the results obtained it can be inferred that; the fragmentation of triacyglyceral compounds conform with the expected modes of fragmentation. As the results depicted, it was easier to lose a central ester group in which a secondary carbenium ion would be given out. On the other hand it would be a bit difficult to lose one of the two terminal ester groups as the molecular bond in it would be stronger for easy breaking than as it was in the one central ester group. Based on the experiment, triacyglyceral compound would require more energy to break the molecular bond in order to yield a primary carbenium ion and thus it was difficult for it lose one of the two terminal esters (Ferezou and Bach, 1999).

The Reverse-phase Chromatography Column

In the reverse-phase chromatography, the column is lipid-like which contains C₁₈ chains that are attached to Si-OH groups on the surface of silica gel. In this process, aqueous organic solvents are used to elute samples and retained solutes are eluted by increasing the organic component of the whole solvent system. Meanwhile, this process has been observed to work very well with triacyglycerals that contain saturated acyl groups because they elute longer retention than those with instauration in the side chains due to difference in the constitution of the carboxyl groups (Dole, 1956).

Conclusion

As it has been observed in the results obtained, the sequence of the triacyglycerals match the published data for linseed as a source to extract triacyglyceral compounds; through the use of reverse phase chromatography because many triacyglyceral compounds contain saturated acyl group.

Reference list

Dole, P, A Relationship between Non-Esterified Fatty Acids and Glucose in Linseeds, J Clin Invest Publishers, New York, 1956.

Ferezou, J, and Bach, C, Structure and Metabolic Fate of Triacylglycerol- And Phosphoplipid-Rich Particles of Commercial Parenteral Fat Emulsions,

Washington University Press, Washington, 1999.

Hultin, M, Carneheim, C and Olivecrona, T, Intravenous Lipid Emulsions: Removal Mechanisms As Compared To Chylomicrons, J Lipid Res Publishers, London, 1995.

Mashek, D and Grummer, R, Effects of Different Long Chain Fatty Acids on Lipid Metabolism and Gluconeogenesis in Monolayer Cultures of Bovine

Hepatocytes, J Dairy Sci. Press, New Jersey, 2003.

Sukhija, P and Palmquist, D, Rapid Method for Determination of Total Fatty Acid Content and Composition of Feedstuffs and Feces, American University Press, Cairo, 1988.

Since we live in a society, we need to adhere to the social norms, and they have long become part of our life. With many years of adhering to the social norms, we stop noticing that we unwillingly and unconsciously obey them. Deviation from the accepted norms and behavior concepts will result in social disapproval and criticism.

An array of social experiments has been carried out when people knowingly broke the socially-accepted norms, a great example may be seen at Andrew Hales YouTube channel, where he uploaded multiple videos of him breaking the socially-accepted norms (Wade, 2012). As it is seen from the clips, even such minor deviations such as holding the door for people when theyre far away, walking close to other people, or staring at them and never breaking eye-contact may result in a negative reaction.

For the experiment, I chose to break the informal norms of gender issues. It has always been considered that females are the weaker sex requiring protection and seeking to obtain it from men, the stronger sex. However, if one hints that a woman now is the actually weaker sex, this may result in a confrontation or a heated argument. Feminism has become a part of our life now, and actions by men labeling women as weaker sex are frowned upon. Since it is now socially accepted that men and women are actually equal, I decided to conduct a social experiment in which I asked random females to help me carry a box full of textbooks upstairs while Id be carrying a seemingly lighter plastic bag. The experiment appears worthwhile because, according to the norms, I am expected to ask men to help me. Similarly, women are expected to seek help from men when they want a hand with something heavy.

I expected that some of the participants would help me, although with signs of reluctance and disapproval. Since the norm I chose to break was not really a harsh one, I did not expect a strong negative reaction.

In a crowded university lobby, I stood near the stairway with a reasonably big box of books and a smaller plastic bag, which seemed lighter. I saw a young female student approaching the stairway, I blocked her way and asked her to help me carry the box upstairs, interestingly she agreed and asked me to lift the back off the floor and place it in her hands. No sooner did I do that than a guy appeared and grabbed the box from her hands, offering his help without being asked. I carried the bag downstairs and asked a couple of ladies for help when one of them tried to lift the box and feeling how heavy it was, she put it down, saying that I should get someone stronger, probably a friend or a male acquaintance. The experiment showed that every second lady refused to carry the box on the grounds that it was too heavy, recommending that I find someone else to do it. Those who did agree were rather reluctant and disapproving. Interestingly, if the same request was addressed to men, it may be assumed that nine out of ten would give a hand with no questions asked.

The social experiment presents a contradiction between the socially-accepted norms and the understanding of equality between men and women. Sadly, there are cases when females are offended if offered help with such trivial things as opening or holding the door, offering a hand with something. More worryingly, our society has become so politically correct that trivial comments, remarks, or jokes may be regarded as sexual assault (Sherlock, 2015). In the course of the experiment, I have learned that norms have become an integral part of society, and people are expected to follow them.

Reference List

Sherlock, R. (2015). How political correctness rules in Americas student safe spaces. Web.

Wade, L. (2012). Norm Breaching: Social Responses to Mild Deviance. Web.

There are so many hidden patterns in our world that may not be obvious at first glance but have the potential to have a noticeable impact on society. Among these, of great research interest is the idea of a link between an individuals smoking and his or her income level. The hypothesis is that people who smoke cigarettes daily tend to earn more than others: this is a personal observation that requires careful experimental testing. Thus, this project will be characterized by several research questions. First, is there a relationship between smoking and income among individuals? Second, if a relationship is found, is it accurate to say that wealthier people smoke more often than less wealthy people? Third, is high dependence on smoking a predictor of an individuals affluence?

For this project, the general population will be represented by many adults in my environment. I will ask each of the adults over the age of thirty if they smoke and their average annual salary range. Understandably, not everyone I know will agree to participate, but the people who send in answers will form the final sample. Since the number of adults I can contact is roughly over three hundred, it seems that at least thirty people will not be hard to recruit for the sample.

The sample will be generated by a convenient mechanism that saves time in a meaningful way. So, with calls, e-mails, and social media, I will contact the entire general population  it is not limited in number, but once thirty sample members are assembled, the enumeration stops  directly. Not every individual has the same chance of getting into the population, which means the sample is nonprobability. A convenience sample may not always be representative and does not minimize systematic error, which means that additional research into the reliability of the results will be necessary.

The inherent need to be a part of the community is often seen in modern society as a negative phenomenon, yet, in essence, it is a neutral force that may incite one to take a specific action. The latter, in turn, may be positive or negative, yet the very concept of conformity cannot be seen as the representation of either, being a neutral phenomenon in itself. In his series of experiments in 1959, Solomon Asch proved that social conformity is affected by the factors such as the size of the group in which one experiences social pressure, the difference in the age and social status between the participants, and the use of stimuli for encouraging conformity.

The experiments conducted by Ashe were designed in a way that allowed exposing the participants to a series of stimuli and a range of factors that could potentially impact the probability of their misjudgments. When being placed under the peer pressure of a group composed of respectful individuals, some of them being older than the participants, the latter showed the tendency to agree (Fujita & Mori, 2017; Lazzaro et al., 2019). Similarly, the creation of a mixed-gender and mixed-class setting affected the results, thus helping Ashe to isolate the factors that led to the increase in conformity.

According to the results of Solomon Ashes experiments, the factors such as the difference in age and culture of the participants, as well as their gender, the status of the group as it is perceived by an individual, and the application of case-specific stimuli define the levels of compliance. The researcher has managed to prove his statements with the help of a masterfully designed setting and balanced use of appropriate factors to evaluate the impact of each. The outcomes of Ashes experiment still have a profound influence on the global community and individuals compliance with global trends.

References

Fujita, Y., & Mori, K. (2017). Group versus Individual Reward in the Asch Experiment without Confederates. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 5(5), 396-402. Web.

Lazzaro, S. C., Weidinger, L., Cooper, R. A., Baron-Cohen, S., Moutsiana, C., & Sharot, T. (2019). Social Conformity in Autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49(3), 1304-1315. Web.

Introduction

Setting an experiment is a crucial step toward a better understanding of a specific phenomenon (Groebner, Shannon, & Fry, 2014). An observable experiment, in its turn, is defined as the experiment in which the independent variables cannot possibly be controlled by the person or person setting the test. In the course of the experiment, the outcomes retrieved from testing a sample are inferred to the population under the analysis. For example, the differences in the choice of coping mechanisms among pregnant and not pregnant female patients with depression issues can be viewed as an observable experiment, since pregnancy is not the factor that the researcher can add or remove in the course of the experiment.

Justification

Indeed, a controlled trial among the identified members of the population can be defined as an observable experiment since the researcher cannot compel the participants either to get pregnant or to terminate their pregnancy. Instead, careful observations must take place so that the corresponding behavioral patterns and the development of coping mechanisms could be spotted (Welham, Gezan, & Clark, 2014).

Dependent Variables

Among the essential independent variables, pregnancy must be mentioned first. Similarly, the mood swings that the target audience is likely to be influenced by and caused by changes in the hormone balance. Likewise, the stress factors that women are exposed to in their workplace and home can be interpreted as independent variables.

Independent Variables

The coping patterns that the participants of the experiment develop when facing stressful situations can be considered the essential independent variable that will have to be observed in the course of the experiment. The study of the variable in question can be viewed as the primary goal of the experiment. More importantly, it is crucial to determine the effects of several essential variables, such as the current physical state (e.g., pregnancy and the co-morbid issues, as well as the absence thereof), etc., have on the development of new coping patterns, the change in the current ones, and other reactions that the target audience has.

Factors/Levels

According to the existing definition, experimental levels of the population consist of several essential factors that define the specifics of the experiment participants. In the identified study, the factors involve the marital status (e.g., married, not married, or divorced), the number of children that the participant already has, the relationships that she has with her colleagues (e.g., friendly, distanced, cold, conflicting, etc.), and other elements. Going into detail, one may assume that there are approximately three essential factors (i.e., the marital status, the type of relationships, and the existence of family support), each having two or three levels. It could be argued, however, that the addition of new levels is required to make the research more detailed (Hahs-Vaughn & Lomax, 2013).

Experimental Units

In the course of the study, the number of experimental units will hinge on the number of factors isolated in the course of the preliminary research. Thus, a detailed analysis of the ways, in which the coping strategies are shaped, can be identified (Lawless, 2014).

From Observable to Designed

In the identified scenario, the transformation from an observable to a designed type of experiment will require a change of research focus. Seeing that the designed experiment implies that the variables should be controlled by the researchers, it will be necessary to consider carrying out a study among non-pregnant women.

Reference List

Groebner, D. F., Shannon, P. W., & Fry, P. C. (2014). Analysis of variance. In Business statistics (9th ed.) (pp. 540-546). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Hahs-Vaughn, D. L., & Lomax, R. G. (2013). An introduction to statistical concepts (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

Lawless, J. F. (2014). Statistics in action: A Canadian outlook. Chicago, IL: CRC Press.

Welham, S. J., Gezan, S. A., & Clark, S. J. (2014). Statistical methods in biology: Design and analysis of experiments and regression. Chicago, IL: CRC Press.

The purpose of the experiment was to understand the differences between different types of ideal gas expansions, paying attention to the amount of work done.

Results

The temperature-time plot for the isothermal process when moving the piston quickly is indicated in Figure 1. Figure 2 shows the pressure versus time plot for the isothermal process when moving the piston slowly. It was noted that the temperature in adiabatic conditions increased drastically when the piston was pushed rapidly and decreased when the piston was pulled back. In the isothermal condition, the temperature remained fairly constant when the piston was pushed and pulled back. Figure 3a shows the temperature-time plot for the adiabatic process when moving the piston quickly, whereas Figure 3b shows the predicted graph of temperature versus time. Conversely, Figure 4a shows a pressure-time plot for the adiabatic process when moving the piston slowly, whereas Figure 4b shows the predicted graph of pressure versus time. Overall, the observed results had similarities with the predicted outcomes. The graph of temperature against time in Figure 3a followed the same trend as the predicted one in Figure 3b. On the other hand, the graph of pressure against time for adiabatic expansion (Figure 4a) aligned with the forecasted trend in Figure 4b.

Similarities between the experimental and predicted graphs were that the pressure spiked momentarily when the volume of the gas in the syringe was compressed. The pressures in both graphs appeared constant for short periods and decreased further when the gas volume in the syringe increased. However, the decrease in pressure after the flat region in the predicted graphs appeared sharper than the experimental graphs. For example, when the syringe was compressed, the temperature increased momentarily from room temperature (30^oC) to 80^oC between an interval of 0 to 5 seconds. The temperature remained fairly constant when the piston was held for 10 seconds. The temperature then dropped when the piston was pulled back and eventually returned to room temperature due to the heat flow from the surroundings into the syringe. The minimum and maximum pressures at room temperature were and 95.4 kPa and 421 kPa, respectively.

Discussion

Adiabatic processes occur in an insulating material. Heat neither enters nor leaves the system but remains constant throughout the entire process.

Heat (Q) = 0

The piston is compressed slowly during the isothermal process to prevent temperature variation within the system.

T = 0 and ”T = 0

According to the first law of thermodynamics, the change in internal energy is equal to the sum of heat and amount of work.

”U = q + w

A systems internal energy increases by the magnitude of the work done. Therefore, the internal energy of a system is directly proportional to its temperature.¹ Compressing the piston led to a dramatic temperature change over ambient conditions as shown in Figure 3a. Consequently, the internal energy increased with a rise in the temperature of the system. All the runs in Figure 3a varied to a small extent following the rapidity of compression and expansion of the piston.

The quantitative results due to the expansion and compression of the ideal gas showed a maximum temperature of 76.38^oC and a minimum temperature of 29.8^oC. The temperature rise during compression was caused by increased collisions of gas particles and an increase in intermolecular forces that generated kinetic energy, thereby adding to the internal energy of the system by generating heat.² The heat energy was equivalent to work done on the gas.

When the piston was compressed, the gas volume was reduced with the collision of the gas particles. However, the collision of the gas molecules with the walls of the syringe increased, which raised the pressure. Conventionally, pressure and temperature are directly proportional following the ideal gas law, meaning that high pressure increases the temperature of the gas molecules.³ The average kinetic energy (K.E.) of gas molecules also increases as the temperature increases. It was noted that the temperature and kinetic energy reduced when the piston was pulled back. This observation was attributed to the collision of gas particles in the syringe with each other and against the walls of the container. The movement of the gas particles resulted in a rise in pressure. Conversely, an increase in gas temperature during compression explained why the particles moved faster when expanded due to an increase in kinetic energy given that temperature is directly proportional to speed. The energy transferred to the gas particles enabled the gas inside the syringe to heat up during compression.¹

Compression of a gas based on Boyles law was achieved by assuming that the syringe so tight that the amount or mass of air stayed the same. Compressing the syringe reduced the volume of the gas and increased the air pressure. Uncompressing the syringe increased the volume of the gas and reduced its pressure, which was in line with Boyles suppositions. Boyles law that states that the pressure of a gas is indirectly proportional to its volume at a constant temperature.⁴ Thus, the product of volume and pressure is constant for a fixed mass of an ideal gas at a constant pressure.

P₁×V₁= P₂×V₂

Boyles argument in Figure 4a helps to predict how pressure change relates to time implying that if the volume decreases twofold, then pressure also increases by the same magnitude. Pressure stabilizes during the first ten-second hold. It then returns and remains at ambient atmospheric pressure. During compression of an ideal gas, the maximum and minimum pressures were 421 kPa and 95.4 kPa.

Figures 5 and 6 above show temperature as a constant and involve pressure and volume changes where heat is neither generated nor absorbed. The work done during compression increases the internal energy of the gas. Usually, work done under the adiabatic process is equal to the area under the curve and can be calculated using the cubic p-function as follows:

y = -3E+07x³ + 6E+06x²  365062x + 8552.5.

The polynomial function above can be rewritten as:

y = -365029x + 8560.6548.

The above equation can further be integrated using an upper limit of 60 and a lower limit of 30 as follows:

Therefore, work (W) done under the adiabatic process is equal to 4.925J.

On the other hand, work done under isothermal conditions can be calculated using the following polynomial function:

y = -131.23x³ + 1158.1x²  3696.3x + 5043.1.

The above equation then becomes y= -1773.79x + 5043.1.

The simplified equation can then be integrated to give rise to the following equation:

Therefore, work (W) = 2.24 J.

From the work calculations above, the work done under adiabatic conditions was higher than that done under isothermal conditions. Comparing the adiabatic and isothermal compressions and expansions revealed that the adiabatic graph had a steeper slope than the isothermal one, implying that the adiabatic curve enclosed a greater area than the isothermal curve.

The principle of ideal gas expansion also explains why spark plugs are not used in diesel engines. A diesel engine can burn fuel without spark plugs because its compression ratio is twice that of the petrol engine. This difference generates a very high temperature when the air inside the diesel engine cylinder is compressed. The high temperature evolved is enough to burn or ignite the fuel supplied. In contrast, within the petrol engine, the temperature generated is not enough to ignite the fuel, hence, sparks plugs are needed

The momentary increase in temperature from 30 to 80^oC within the first 5 seconds of compression and return of temperature to 30^oC when the piston was pulled back could be explained by Charles law.⁵

The pressure results of the experiment could also be explained by the kinetic molecular theory. When the syringe was compressed, the gas volume in it reduced, thereby increasing the collisions of the gas particles with each other and the walls of the syringe. Consequently, the high collisions increased the kinetic energy and internal energy of the gas molecules. Therefore, the pressure increased due to the increased kinetic energy of the molecules. Conversely, temperature and the kinetic energy reduced when the piston was pulled back because the gas particles in the syringe had enough space to avoid collisions with each other and against the walls of the container, which reduced the pressure.

References

Gaskell D.R.; Laughlin, D.E. Introduction to the Thermodynamics of Materials; 6th Ed.; CRC Press: Milton, 2017.

Hein, M.; Arena, S. Foundations of College Chemistry; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, 2014.

Oonk, H.A.J.; Calvet, M.T. Equilibrium between Phases of Matter Phenomenology and Thermodynamics; Springer: Dordrecht, 2008.

Stoker, H.S. General, Organic and Biological Chemistry; 7th Ed.; Cengage Learning: Boston, MA, 2015.

Ebbing, D.; Gammon, S.D. General Chemistry, 11th Ed.; Cengage Learning: Boston, MA, 2016.

Introduction

The Stanford prison experiment is a classic example of a psychological study deifying the principles of ethics. The experiments should have been stopped when the participants started to be aggressive with each other under the impact of prison conditions. The violent behavior reported during that experiment is a direct contradiction to the very concept of ethics (Alexander, 2001). However, despite all the horrors that contradict ethics, Zimbardos research contributed to the formation of social psychology. Therefore, it was unethical to conduct this experiment.

Social Significance and Constructs

The author of the Stanford prison experiment noted the enormous influence of social roles on relations between groups and within them. Researchers have proven the relationship between the psychological reaction of a person and the imposed social and behavioral mode (Alexander, 2001). In other words, the experiment showed the construct of the socially-affected personality. Human behavior is conditioned by the dogmatic patterns established within society. In the course of history, scientists have often been forced to show violence to gain valuable results. The Stanford prison experiment was not an exception and required radical conditions to gain efficient results. Such outcomes could have been gained only by putting people in adverse conditions. Such a method is not time-consuming, allowing the achievement of bias-free results. Therefore, the only possible change which can be implemented is gaining the informed consent of the participants. However, more fundamental changes can contradict the initial idea of modifying social status in extreme cases.

Conclusion

Both mentioned concepts of conformity and social situation are directly connected with the Stanford prison experiment. For example, the social construction of aggression which is the moving force of power is seen in this experiment. The power made people feel superior, which caused prejudice formation. The experiment shows the direct influence of the concept of conformity and the social situation. The surrounding rules based on which the society within the investigation existed impacted the participant. As a result, during the brief period, participants reshaped their perception of reality and adjusted their behavior to the required social situation patterns. These concepts are especially proven within the moment when the guards started to treat their classmates as a prisoner trying to bully them. This is the direct impact of the social situation and conformity of the human psyche to the surrounding conditions.

Reference

Alexander, M. (2001). Thirty years later, Stanford prison experiment lives on. Stanford Report. Web.

Introduction

The Stanford Prison Experiment (SPE) was one of the most prominent studies ever undertaken in psychology. The researchers of this experiment were interested in examining how people would behave when placed in situations where they had no choice over their actions or where their behavior was strictly controlled by others (Haney et al., 1973). When compared to individuals who played the part of guards, those who played the role of prisoners were much more likely to exhibit depressive symptoms. The experiment has been widely criticized as inaccurate because it lacked ethical guidelines and was conducted without consent from participants actively involved in its design or execution. This lack of support led many participants to feel violated during their participation in the experiment. Haney et al. (1973) state that various issues prevent people from fully comprehending the social dynamics of a mock jail. In particular, many of the participants reported an expectation that they would be able to exhibit dominance over their opponents through the use of physical force.

This expectation was based on their experiences with prisons in which they claimed they were given much greater control over other inmates. However, when these same participants were placed in the simulated prison, they became far more concerned with using force in interactions with their peers than expected. Initially, many participants were physically violent towards others, yet they reported remorse if such behavior was discovered (Le Texier, 2019). Panic and fear became evident as some participants began to believe that their environment had changed. This situation led them to question whether or not they still had control over their domain and what role, if any, their behavior should play within it. Due to the studys controversial nature, the main focus of this research paper will be on a critical perspective toward the accuracy of the Stanford Prison Experiment and other similar studies conducted in the same way.

Description of the Original Study

The Stanford Prison Experiment is a seminal investigation into the dynamics of peer pressure in human psychology. In this experiment, researchers sought to understand how peoples behavior was influenced and shaped by a situation in which they felt powerless (McLeod, 2020). The authors used a simulation of a prison to carry out the study. They analyzed what happens when individuals are put into an environment where they feel they have no control over their lives and are not treated with respect by those around them. They found that participants behaved in ways that were consistent with their personalitiesthat is, some prisoners exhibited aggression while others became passive-aggressive or withdrawn (Haney et al., 1973). The participants were undergraduate students at Stanford University who volunteered for the study. They were randomly assigned roles in the simulated prison environment: guards or prisoners. Guards had the power to decide who was allowed to leave their cellblock (prisoners), and those who could not escape were considered incorrigible. (Zimbardo, 2007). The guards also had complete control over whether or not prisoners could use toilet facilities outside their cells.

In addition to these factors, other factors such as background characteristics like intelligence level and age also influenced behavior within this simulated environment (Haney et al., 1973). The experiment concluded with ratings of how much they wanted to remain in prison or be released after 24 hours. The results showed that the guards exhibited more aggression than the prisoners and were less likely to identify with their roles as prisoners. The authors of this study were concerned that some individuals may not have been able to adapt well enough within such an isolated environment because they may not have had previous experience with such situations.

The researchers perspective that the situational context had a more significant influence on participants behavior than their beliefs and values was supported by their findings in this study. The authors argued that several factors beyond their control affected the participants behavior. These factors included the specific context in which they found themselves and the beliefs and values of other people involved (Haney et al., 1973). They argued that environmental factors were more influential than individual experience and that it is impossible to predict how individuals will respond to certain situations based on their experience. In addition, participants exhibited more unusual violent behavior when they believed their status as either inmates or guards was being threatened. This finding is consistent with the idea that the context of the situation had a more significant influence on participants behavior than their own beliefs and values.

Criticisms of the Study

The Stanford Prison Experiment has been criticized for several reasons. The study participants were randomly assigned to two groupsone group was told they would be prisoners, and the other would be guards (Griggs, 2014). The guards were college students who had been paid to participate in the experiment. The study participants were unaware of their roles until after entering prison (Le Texier, 2019). The authors were justifiably praised for taking on a difficult task: how to test whether prison guards would abuse their power over prisoners. The study had two parts: first, they created a mock prison to observe how people behaved when they felt trapped or powerless (McLeod, 2020). Second, they gave each participant a fake identity to create the conditions for this experiment.

Some critics have claimed that this type of experiment is unethical because it creates an artificial situation that lacks real-world consequences for the participants. Others have argued that it is unethical because it exposes participants to potentially dangerous situations without their knowledge or consent (McLeod, 2020). The researchers were also criticized for failing to provide enough information about how long the study would last or what would happen if things went wrong during or after their experiment ended. Further, the critics who spoke up about the studys validity were correct because the guards did abuse their power over the prisoners (Griggs, 2014). They had been given authority over these peoplethey saw them as less than humanand thus felt justified in mistreating them (Le Texier, 2019). Further, omissions and distortions in this experiment made its results less meaningful than they seemed at first glance. For instance, when Zimbardo spoke about his findings in 1973, he did not include any women or minorities in his description of what happened within his prison simulation; instead, he focused on white males.

Personal Opinion on the Accuracy of the Field of Psychology in the Study

The field of psychology should have a much more accurate understanding of the Stanford Prison Experiment than it currently does. The experiment is widely considered unethical because it was designed to test the hypothesis that people deprived of their freedom can be psychologically affected by their treatment. Griggs study found that many introductory psychology textbooks do not accurately represent the Stanford Prison Experiment, confusing students about what the researchers did (Griggs, 2014). This study is encouraging because it suggests a need for more accurate information about the Stanford Prison Experiment and other psychology experiments to be included in introductory psychology textbooks.

The next step would be for researchers to conduct another study examining how much time is spent discussing ethical issues in introductory psychology textbooks. Further, determine how much time is spent discussing ethical matters such as the Stanford Prison Experiment. Suppose they find that little time is spent discussing ethical issues. In that case, it can be concluded that these issues are not important enough for students to learn about in an introductory psychology course (Griggs, 2014). If they find that these issues are discussed often, people can say they are important enough to be taught in an introductory psychology course. At least some of them should be addressed to raise students awareness about the importance of ethical research practices when studying human behavior.

Conclusion

In conclusion, while the Stanford Prison Experiment is not a perfect account of what occurred at the actual prison, it provides one of its most accurate psycho-analytical accounts. It is also a rare find in terms of historical accuracy and quality. This study deserves its place among other landmark psychology experiments and should continue inspiring those interested in Prison Psychology. Moreover, in a future where virtual reality is more perfected, there is no better time to evaluate the use and abuse of power in a setting. This study did precisely that; it allowed participants to act out roles they would not usually have the opportunity to choose freely. However, many critics have suggested that the study was unscientific and unethical due to the environment being too stressful for most people involved. It has been seen as one of the first experiments using perspective-taking and situational variables. Finally, while people are certainly not faced with the same confinements in their daily lives as the participants in this study, there is a lot they have learned through the work of this experiment.

References

Griggs, R. A. (2014). Coverage of the Stanford Prison Experiment in introductory psychology textbooks. Teaching of Psychology, 41(3), 195-203.

Haney, C., Banks, C., & Zimbardo, P. (1973). Interpersonal dynamics in a simulated prison. The Sociology of Corrections (New York: Wiley, 1977), 65-92.

Le Texier, T. (2019). Debunking the Stanford Prison Experiment. American Psychologist, 74(7), 823. Web.

McLeod, S. (2020). Stanford prison experiment. Simply Psychology. Web.

Zimbardo, P. G. (2007). The Lucifer Effect: How good people turn evil (London: Rider).

Methods

The plastic mesh fabric was placed over the mouth of the Mason jar, and the metal screw band of the latter was fastened firmly over the plastic mesh sheet. Scissors were used to cut the edges of the plastic mesh to make it perfectly match the mouth of the Mason jar. The cut screen was placed over the mouth of the Mason jar and twisted. Using the glass pipette, the experimenter put a few drops of green food coloring into 16 oz of water. The food coloring was used to assist the observer in distinguishing the water in the Mason jar. After these preparations, water was simply poured into the Mason jar.

The index card was placed directly over the mouth of the Mason jar, then it was covered by one hand and held down securely. The water molecules began to adhere to the index card, thus causing it to stick to the surface of the plastic mesh. With one hand placed firmly over the index card on top of the mouth of the Mason jar, the experimenter used the free hand to hold and quickly invert the Mason jar by 180 degrees. A small pocket of air was now at the top (formerly, the bottom) of the Mason jar, which helped to prevent the weight of the water from pushing down the index card.

Keeping the Mason jar horizontal, the index card was steadily removed from the bottom of the jars mouth. Even though some water might leak out of the Mason jar, the majority of the water should stay inside. Subsequently, the Mason jar was tipped a few degrees carefully to allow air to enter it, allowing for the observation of water immediately spilling under the impact of surface tension discrepancy. As an optional procedure, a toothpick was inserted through the holes in the mesh sheet while the water remained undisturbed and still suspended in the Mason jar. Ultimately, the jar was turned over, and the water was poured out.

Results

When the Mason jar was turned over with the index card held at the bottom, one observed that it did not fall. Furthermore, when the index card was slightly removed with the Mason jar kept static, only a few drops of water fell, while the majority of the water remained in the jar. When the experimenter carefully inserted a toothpick into the jar, water also stayed in the Mason jar. Due to the fact that food coloring was used to make the water observable, the experiment was clear and accurate. As soon as the Mason jar was turned over, all the water poured out. The phenomena of atmospheric pressure and cohesion may explain these results.

Between the bottom of the jar (which became the top after the Mason jar with the index card was turned over) and the surface of the water, space formed that was filled with air and water vapor. Water tends to fall under the influence of gravity, thus increasing the volume of this space. At a constant temperature, the pressure in the Mason jar decreases in relation to atmospheric pressure. The lower this pressure, the larger the amount of fluid it can hold.

The sum of the pressure of air and water on the index card from the inside was a bit less than the atmospheric pressure from the outside. Water did not pour out of the Mason jar due to the force that arose from the difference in atmospheric pressure outside the vessel and the pressure that was formed in the bottom of the jar and the surface of the water. In other words, while the water tended to descend, a medium with reduced pressure occurred in the Mason jar, which held the liquid.

In regard to the details that require precise attention from the experimenter and viewers, it is essential to note that even a small turning of the Mason jar may lead to the water pouring completely out. If one lets any air inside the jar, then the pressure of the air inside and outside would be equalized. The air would press above and below in the same way, and the pressure difference would no longer hold the water, which would fall. This seems to be the reason for using the Mason jar and the plastic screen that tightly fits the mouth of the jar and does not allow air to get inside.

Cohesion is another physical phenomenon that is associated with this experiment with air pressure. It was observed that when the Mason jar was tilted, the water poured out due to the imbalance of air pressure. However, as soon as it was turned back to the vertical position, the liquid stopped running out. This phenomenon is based on surface tension when water molecules form hydrogen bonds and spherical droplets, which makes possible the holding of small objects such as the index card used in this experiment. Even though the attraction of water molecules could not be directly observed during this testing due to their size, it is still evident that cohesion forces affected the results.

In the first experiment, researchers tested the subjectivity of polygraph examiners assessments. The specialist was given a specific name before the test began to do it. A polygraph is an instrument of an inevitable withdrawal of responsibility  from ones subjectivity one goes to objectivity  to the machine that will check. At the same time, experts often do not double-check the devices readings with their own eyes; they do not criticize and question it. Thus, if the examiner is not a professional and has an initial opinion of the suspect and the situation, he initially determines the prediction of the test in favor of the person mentioned earlier. In such a case, his other behavior may be incorrect and illiterate towards the person being questioned.

The lie detector does not show whether a person is lying or not lying; it only shows the reaction to a specific stimulus. This reaction is involuntary and difficult to control and manifests itself in various physiological indicators. In addition, incorrect question wording can distort the results. This experiment confirms that when polygraph examiners are pointed to a false suspect before the investigation, their subjective assessment can influence question-wording, further evaluate the results, and their interpretation. This test is competently designed and shows that even an innocent suspect can imagine the consequences if he or she is found guilty of a crime, affecting emotions.

This experiment demonstrates that, despite the long history of lie detector use, there is not enough data to show that it is possible to know with a high degree of accuracy whether a person is lying or not. The specific nature of the polygraph is that a state of fear characterizes many candidates for the examination. The task of a qualified professional is to explain a polygraph examination to all candidates in a strictly individual, as honest, and lucid manner as possible and to treat the results of the test without prejudice.

The following case study examines a situation related to the property of memory to forget bad events and to be able to delegate them. In this case study, there is an explanation that people are quick to forget a situation that lasted longer but brought less danger than shorter but more violent. In the context of the virus, it is the mortality rate that matters to people. One of the largest epidemics in history occurred in 1918, the Spanish influenza pandemic. Although the pandemic was massive, people were reassured by the low mortality rate. Where there is a chance of cure, there is always hope. This method of explanation is based on comparisons and peoples attitudes both in the past and in the present.

Outside the body, the virus can survive for a short time, so people need to live close to each other to spread; it was the case with the Ebola virus epidemic. The COVID-19 epidemic is massive, but Ebola was scarier for humans. The current pandemic cannot even be closely compared to it because the mortality from Ebola was very high. After that, it was slightly reduced, but in any case, it is incomparable and not comparable with the COVID-19 epidemic in terms of mortality  the number of deaths of the number of issues.

At the same time, it is rather challenging to determine peoples different perceptions of the COVID-19 situation. The pandemic has received and continues to receive a fair amount of publicity in the modern world. For more than a year now, the topic has been front-page news, although vaccines are being developed, and the death rate is far from being a record. The phenomenon can be explained by the fact that, in recent years, the influence of social media has grown considerably. People have access to all kinds of information and can search and analyze it on their own. Thus, this pandemic can be permanently imprinted on peoples memories and the vast expanses of the Internet.

The last case study deals with a situation where the explanation is misleading and close to pseudoscience. Pseudoscience can be described as activities or teachings that are presented by proponents as scientific but are not. That is, they are claims that have no rational evidence or validity. In this example, this fallacy is that the penny that ended up at the bottom of the box is a sign of destiny, and its appearance cannot be logically explained.

The heroine of the story connects this situation with the otherworld, with symbolism (the year the coin was minted coincides with the year her brother died) and has no desire to look for a rational reason for it. According to Gardner, in pseudoscience, a theory is created by someone who is not a specialist in the field concerned; he considers other research to be nonsense and uses his terminology. Thus, the pennys statement symbolizes some connection, and it is a matter of faith that is irrational. The death of a loved one sometimes has an unpredictable effect on a sober view of a given situation. According to the heroine, her brothers death was devastating; it had a profound impact on the psyche of his family. It can be concluded that there is a reluctance to consider other logical reasons here.

As a competing explanation, one could consider the situation where her sister purposely put the coin in question to relieve her sisters suffering. In addition, it should not be forgotten that astrology, numerology, and homeopathy are not only in the past but even today represent a notable business, while they are not a science. It is inherent in man to look for the signs himself in various manifestations, when he is vulnerable, to lighten the burden.

Works Cited

Gardner, Martin. Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science. Vol. 394. Courier Corporation, 1957.