Category: Experiment

Crime and punishment has always been a debated issue in our society. One of the issues is how should prisons treat people who had committed crime. Social standards concerning the nature of punishment and justice have been intensely discussed and studied as to which is more appropriate and which is more just. In 1968, Herbert Packer characterized correctional policy and legal sanctions in civilized societies as a continuous compromise between societys need for social order and the value of social justice.

Packer called these two competing philosophies crime control and due process. Haney (1997) maintained that the get-tough movement and our evolving standards of punishment over the years has virtually suspended the debate on alternatives to incarceration. The public not only has been kept ignorant of the harm that prisons can do, but they have been convinced that cruel treatment is a carefully considered, effective, and perhaps even the only viable strategy to be followed in achieving meaningful crime control (Haney, 1997, p. 505).

However, in 1971, Philip Zimbardo, a professor at Stanford University, conducted a prison experiment controversially represented prison life to the extreme. Zimbardo (1972) solicited and paid student volunteers to act as either prison guards or prisoners. A prison was constructed in several rooms in the basement of a building on the Stanford University campus. Some students were designated as guards, while others were designated as prisoners. The experiment was designed to last 2 weeks. Prisoners were issued inmate jump suits, while guards were issued guard uniforms, nightsticks, and other guard-related equipment. Prisoners were fed regularly, and they had bathroom facilities and cots. Zimbardo wanted to study the interaction patterns of prison guards and inmates through this simulation.

After the student volunteers were chosen, either as prisoners or guards, they began to play out their roles. Guards became increasingly abusive, both physically and verbally. Prisoners were dehumanized and began to act both passive and hostile toward their keepers. Peace-loving young men were behaving sadistically in their role as guards, inflicting humiliation and pain and suffering on other young men who had the inferior status of prisoner. Some guards even reported enjoying doing so.

Many of the intelligent, healthy college students who were occupying the role of prisoner showed signs of emotional breakdown (i. e., stress disorders) so extreme that five of them had to be removed from the experiment within that first week. The prisoners who adapted better to the situation were those who mindlessly followed orders and who allowed the guards to dehumanize and degrade them ever more with each passing day and night (Miller 2004, p. 40).

Because of the unexpected outcome, the experiment was short-lived when the emotional strain became too much for some of the prisoners. After only 6 days, Zimbardo terminated the experiment because of certain adverse effects observed among the various student participants.

Zimbardo was also criticized for this research, since the emotional states of experimental subjects were altered in different ways. Zimbardo defended his research, observing that the students had knowingly volunteered for the experiment and were, in fact, being paid well for their participation. He contended that it was never his intention that anyone would be physically injured or psychologically abused as the result of the experiment. However, evidence to the contrary suggested that several students emerged from the experiment with serious emotional scars.

For me, Zimbardos experiment was not realistic right from the very start. It did not represent the real score of how prison officers treat inmates in real-life. Abuse and maltreatment were tolerated in the experiment. In my job as a jail worker, real-life prison officers could not take abusive on inmates because they follow a code of ethics. Barrier, et al. (1999) described the elements important in the code of ethics of prison officers:

• Acting professionally.
• Showing respect for inmates and workers.
• Maintaining honesty and integrity.
• Being consistent.
• Acting impartially.
• Being assertive but not aggressive.
• Confronting bad behavior but reinforcing good behavior.
• Standardizing rule enforcement.
• Respecting others.
• Practicing the golden rule.
• Encouraging teamwork.
• Using professional language.
• Telling inmates the truth.
• Admitting mistakes.

It is said that a good correctional officer is described as one who treats all inmates fairly with no favoritism, but who does not always follow rules to the letter. Discretion is used judicially; when a good officer makes a decision to bypass rules, all involved tend to agree that it is the right decision. A good officer is not quick to use force, nor afraid of force if it becomes necessary. A good officer treats inmates in a professional manner and gives them the respect they deserve as human beings.

A good officer will treat the inmate in the way anyone would like to be treated; if the inmate abuses the officer, then that inmate earns different treatment, but it is through formal channels, not informal. In some cases such an officer will go far outside regular duties to aid an inmate who is sincerely in need; however, he or she can detect game playing and cannot be manipulated. These traitsconsistency, fairness, and flexibilityare confirmed as valuable by research (Johnson 1996, p. 139).Although many officers in prisons reach this ideal, the trend today seems to be a less honorable approach to the position because of the pressures of the job (Conover, 2000).

So in real-life prison, correctional officers have strived to become role models for inmates. Officers, of course, are only humans and they can respond differently to the demands and job pressures of corrections. Officers fall into various adaptational types: some are violence-prone, using the role of correctional officer to act out an authoritarian role; another type serves time in prison much the same way as the inmates do, avoiding trouble and hoping that nothing goes wrong on their shift; and other officers seek to enlarge their job description and perceive their role as including counseling and helping the inmate rather than merely locking doors and signing passes.

This type of officer has been called the human service officer and incorporates the tasks of providing goods and services, acting as a referral agent or advocate, and helping with institutional adjustment problems (Johnson, 1996).

Also, in real life jail where I work, inmates have been accosted their rights which are protected by Constitution. They have privileges like being able to watch TV, video games and reading material. Inmate population is the only population in USA to receive guaranteed healthcare, free of cost. This is contrary to what Zimbardo represented in his experiment because the prisoners were tortured. It is clear that Zimbardos experiment did not only misrepresented prisons in real-life, but his research certainly generated harmful effects upon human subjects who had undergone it. We cannot possibly know all of the potential adverse consequences of conducting experiments involving human subjects, regardless of how innocent our research objectives and procedures may appear.

Prison officers can take abuse of their power but not to the extent of what Zimbardo achieved in his experiment. Correctional officers follow a code of ethics that they needed to follow, unless they wanted to be kicked out of their jobs. Prisoners have human rights and they needed to be treated with respect like regular human beings. In real life, the criminal justice system will never tolerate abuse and maltreatment of inmates.

Works Cited

Barrier, G., Stohr, M., Hemmons, C. and Marsh, R. A Practical Users Guide: Idahos Method for Implementing Ethical Behavior in a Correctional Setting. Corrections Compendium 24.4 (April 1999):1-3.

Conover, Ted. New Jack: Guarding Sing Sing, NYC: Random House, 2000.

Haney, Craig. Psychology and the Limits to Prison Pain: Confronting the Coming Crisis in Eighth Amendment Law. Psychology, Public Policy and Law 3.4(1997): 499588.

Johnson, Robert. Hard Time: Understanding and Reforming the Prison. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co, 1996.

Miller, Arthur G. (Ed). Social Psychology of Good and Evil. NYC: Guilford Publications, Incorporated, 2004.

The Tuskegee experiment on syphilis became one of the most controversial examples of a crime against humanity in the field of health and care which was supported and sponsored by the United States Public Health Service. The issues of protection of human beings in research and violation of the peoples right for treatment and care are explored in Miss Evers Boys (1997) with references to the development and results of the Tuskegee experiment.

The Bioethics Principles which were determined and defined in the 1970s can be discussed as the basis for analyzing the problem of violating the peoples rights and supporting actions developed against the ethical norms presented in Miss Evers Boys. The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male was worked out in relation to following inhuman intentions to prevent African-Americans afflicted with syphilis from the available treatment in order to support the hypothesis about the racial differences in the diseases progress.

Thus, the problem of violating the ethical standards in providing the medical research in Miss Evers Boys is closely connected with the issue of racial tensions and the aspect of segregation in the American society.

The Tuskegee experiment was started in the 1930s, and it was halted only in 1972, in spite of the fact the experiment was based on studying the diseases development in the black men of Macon County, Alabama, without providing the necessary treatment (Miss Evers Boys, 1997). From this point, the question of protection of human beings in research was defied from the experiments beginning.

The characteristic features of presenting the facts of the experiment in the movie allow discussing the controversial issue of protection of human beings from different perspectives and with references to several ethical issues. The real purpose of the experiment is hidden from the participants of the study. That is why, all the people who are involved in providing the experiment can be accused of violating the ethical principle of protection of human beings in research which was not stated legally during the period of conducting the study.

The fact of the need of the provided research cannot be discussed as the justification for preventing black males who suffer from syphilis from the necessary treatment, especially during the period when penicillin was available as the major medicine for treating the disease. Physicians and researchers were inclined to follow the idea of the experiment rather than focusing on the ethical principles. From this point, the position of the movie character Miss Evers cannot be analyzed only from one perspective.

Realizing the real aspects of the experiment, the woman does not provide the necessary treatment, following the conditions of the study, but breaking the ethical norms. The nurses actions can be explained by her understanding the impossibility of changing the situation when several decades passed in hopes for starting the treatment (Miss Evers Boys, 1997). Nevertheless, her silence and support of the inhuman actions as well as the physicians activities have no reasons to be justified.

The ideas of protecting human subjects in medical research were significantly violated in the Tuskegee experiment, but the studys results accentuated the necessity of developing the legal constraints on medical research according to the problem of human subjects protection. The problem is in the fact that such ethical norms as the protection of patients life and health were not addressed in the Tuskegee experiment because of the researchers intended actions. To avoid the development of the same situations in the future, the Bioethics Principles and necessary legal constraints were worked out.

Reference

Miss Evers Boys [Video file] (1997). Web.

Abstract

Experiments in research are important to test a particular assumption. Apart from clinical trials and laboratory experiments, Surveys, observational research, literature review, or case studies are recognized methods for experimentation in research. The aim of this work is to, briefly, show how four research papers followed four different experiments to prove or deny a particular hypothesis.

Introduction

Methods of research in management are variable. Survey research needs the preparation of questions, proper choice of representative samples, collection of data, and statistical analysis. Other methods include observational, literature analysis (archive research), case study, and combined research.

Methods of experimentation

Observational research is experimental research designed to systematically follow an event or events during the occurrence and coming up with results that support or deny a certain theory. Reiley, 1999 discussed the four auction methods proposed by Vickrey in 1961. The results of Vickrey suggested that all four methods result in the same expected revenue for the auctioneer (revenue equivalence theory).

To test this theory, Reiley, 1999 designed an experiment of buying Magic cards of 2000 $ value. He sold those cards through auctions in the internet marketplace. He auctioned two copies of each card using two different auction methods to test how valid the revenue equivalence theory of Vickrey is. His experimental design was different from previous auction experiments. Later; he took part in running his personal auctions. This gave him the chance to test the revenue equivalence theory personally and deeply. So, Reiley, 1999, conducted an unconditional and real-world experiment to rank the different auction methods. This work is an example of an observational category of experimental research.

Another method is to review available data and analyze these data to be a baseline or for comparison. Pinsonneault and others, 1999, tested the theory of Dennis and Valacich (1999) about how group size affects electronic brainstorming (EBS) as an idea-creating tool. Dennis and Valacich (1999), assumed that; for small groups (less than nine), EBS is not likely to show a significant difference from nominal brainstorming.

For large groups (more than nine), Dennis and Valacich suggested that a significant difference exists. Pinsonneault and others, 1999, reviewed the literature about theoretical and empirical EBS for the five years before and assumed there is no enough evidence to suggest that EBS surpasses nominal brainstorming for large groups. Thus through literature (archive) review, Pinsonneault and others were able to criticize a previous theory depending on the analysis of others results.

Studying a certain case (individual, small or large company, or a procedure) aims at settling the reasons or mechanisms of success or failure and whether it can be applied to other cases. Lynch and Ariely, 2000 designed a case study experiment to answer questions facing retailers with standalone websites and those trying to build virtual mall internet delivery. With the help of 250 students and staff, they conducted an internet-based search costs experiment for price information, quality information within a given store and to compare between two electronic wine stores. They also studied how lowered search costs should increase or decrease price sensitivity.

Stewart, 2003, tested the influence of hypertext links from trusted websites on the consumers early trust judgment about organizations met on the internet and associations with the more trust-inducing traditional retail channel. Stewart, 2003, surveyed two hundred twenty-one persons chosen randomly and analyzed the results of 187 who completed the survey in proper time. She concluded that a hypertext link from one website to another has a positive effect on the early trust judgment of a consumer.

Moreover; the study suggested that trust judgment about organizations positively influences the willingness to buy from them. Survey studies are designed to test attitudes, beliefs, and behavior of individuals in a community to a certain issue. Questionnaires may be answered by a variety of means (e-mail, mail, handouts&). Surveys are usually used to learn about variables or to increase understanding or impose a change in policy.

References

Reiley, D.L. (1999). Using field experiments to test equivalence between auction formats: Magic on the internet. American Economic Review. Department of Economics, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN.

Pinsonneault, A, Barki, H, Gallupe, R.B and Hoppen, N. (1999). Research Note: The illusion of electronic brainstorming productivity: Theoretical and empirical issues. Information Systems Research, vol. 10 (4), 378-380.

Lynch, J.G and Ariely, D (2000). Wine online: Search costs affect competition on price, quality and distribution. Marketing Science, 19 (1), 83-103.

Stewart, K.J (2003). Trust transfer on the World Wide Web. Organization Science, 14 (1), 5-17.

Abstract

The aim of this study was to examine the first impression formed by a group of subjects based on the information given to them about a fictitious man on the one hand and a fictitious woman on the other and to investigate further whether the subjects are likely to stereotype the target persons based on their sex. In this study, the subjects are given identical information pertaining to the two fictitious people who are both described as attractive, successful in their workplaces, and also gravely depressed. After the rating, it was established that there were discrepancies in the way the subjects viewed the target persons in relation to their involvement in the workplaces, social attitude, and marriage. Secondly, the results further demonstrated a heavy reliance on traditional gender treatment in both contexts, with men being regarded more highly than women. In addition, it was notable that there were only a few instances where women were viewed in a positive manner.

Introduction

The concept of gender stereotype has elicited a mixed reaction in the field of psychology. Most people tend to generalize the impression based on both men and women in regard to their attributes, behaviors, and their societal roles. It is worth noting that the prescriptions of gender stereotypes have been linked to the societal roles between the two sexes that were traditionally predominant (Baron, Branscombe, and Byrne, 2009). Most studies that have been conducted to establish the origin of gender stereotypes indicate that the traditional perceptions that dictated the societal roles and power inequalities have played a significant role in maintaining the current status quo. Further, it has also been argued that stereotypes do not always give negative information. They can also be positive. However, most of the information communicated by the stereotypes are, in most cases, inaccurate. The females, in particular, have faced lots of stigmatization in our culture.

In their well-articulated article, Phillip, Marc, and Paul (1975) conducted research to establish how women were stereotyped on the basis of sex. In their study, they used images of 30 young women, both attractive and unattractive. One group of women was depicted as to be members of the feminist movement, while others were deemed to be non-supporters. The subjects were then asked to pick out the photos of the women whom they thought supported the feminist movement. The results indicated that the subjects importantly picked out the pictures of the less attractive women as those who supported the movement.

Subsequent researches further support the findings of Phillip, Marc, and Paul by arguing that most stereotypes view women feminists as not only unattractive but also as weak. The present study is, therefore, aimed at measuring the effects of stereotyping women on the basis of their assertiveness and autonomy.

Method

Six subjects were required to complete a questionnaire about two hypothetical persons selected for the study after reading their personal reports. One report gave the information about a man, Steven, while the other one gave a report on Sharon. Both reports had similar details regarding the target persons, and only the gender of the target persons differentiated the contents in the reports. Both individuals were regarded as physically attractive, successful in their careers, and also seriously depressed.

Subjects

Six subjects were used to conduct this study. The subjects were equally divided into two groups of three members each. Group 1 was given a personal report about Steven and asked to complete the questionnaire based on the information of the report. Group 2, on the other hand, was given a similar personal report about Sharon and was asked to fill a questionnaire based on the report given. The subjects used for the study were all the same age, sex, and from a similar social class.

Materials

The study relied on the use of a questionnaire. The questionnaire was made up of a set of words that were used to rate the subjects opinion on the hypothetical persons. The ratings were a result of the personal report of the hypothetical persons that were given to the subjects for assessment. The study further relied on factorial design in which a set of personal reports was used to describe the hypothetical persons, which was only differentiated by the names Steven and Sharon. The adjectives used in the questionnaire were designed in a bid to create a favorable or less favorable impression of the hypothetical persons based on their gender.

Procedure

The subjects In Group 1 were given a personal report on Steven while those in Group 2 were given a personal report on Sharon. The subjects were then asked to read the personal reports of the target person and to form an impression of how they deemed them to be. The subjects were tested separately. The subjects were further asked to complete a questionnaire to rate their impression of the target persons used in the study. The rating scale used in the questionnaire was on a rating of 1 to 5, with rating 1 having the most favored aspect of the target person and five ratings the least aspect of the target person.

Results

It was inferred from the ratings that the women were judged more harshly in respect to their feminism and assertiveness. This means that Group 1 rated Steven as more sexy, strong, more competent, and even ethical as compared to Group 2 that viewed Sharon as less sexy, cold, and even more emotional. It is important to note from the results that Steven was viewed as less faithful in his relationship as compared to Sharon hence indicating the perception of the subjects on the matter of infidelity. Despite the report giving an indication that both target persons have successfully climbed the corporate social ladder, it was noted that Sharon was viewed as less competitive than Steven, as shown in Table 1. By comparing the ratings by the subjects, it was possible to determine the degree to which both males and females differ in their attitudes towards work, relationship, and normal behavior. Though both persons have similar character traits in regards to their work and marriage, the male is viewed as more dominant than the female.

Table 1: Mean Rating Given To Steven and Sharon

Discussion

Consistent with the study conducted by Phillip, Marc, and Paul, the subjects seemed to view the female in stereotyped ways. Specifically, the subjects viewed the female as being incapable of being competent despite being promoted in the workplace, colder in her relationship due to the report that she is keen on leaving the marriage and giving up the custody of the child and even more emotional due to her moody nature. The female also created an impression of being less attractive to the subjects as compared to the male character. It should, however, be noted that the male was stereotyped as being less faithful in the marriage as compared to the female. The discrepancies in the findings can be attributed to several factors.

First, it is arguable that the subjects are relying on the stereotypes of women portrayed by society. Women are viewed as being less aggressive as compared to men. In general, aggression and attractiveness in women seem to correlate in an intricate manner hence influencing the general public view of attractive women being incapable of being aggressive in their workplaces. Most stereotypes actually argue that the women who have climbed the corporate social ladder might have succeeded due to the fact that the company is not functional. This means that any company headed by a female is bound to fail sometime in the near future. This has been evidenced in other studies that indicate that women are likely to be turned down for senior positions in technical areas. On the other hand, the public does not view such women as sexy.

Sexy women have always been stereotyped as being married to a good-looking man and being less aggressive in their daily life. On the contrary, men are stereotyped as being less committed to their families as compared to women. It has been socially accepted that a mans role in the family is the breadwinner, hence his commitment to his work than the family. A woman, on the other hand, should be in the house taking care of the home rather than competing with the man in the career sector. This mentality, therefore, plays a big role in the impression formed by our subjects regarding the decision of Steven and Sharon both opting to walk out of a marriage and giving up custody of their children. It is for this reason that Steven is stereotyped as being less faithful in the marriage on the one hand, but committed on the other as compared to Sharon.

Secondly, the psychologist report that describes the characters as moody, tense, and depressed is also interpreted differently. Men have always been stereotyped as less emotional despite their low moments in their life (Chrisler and McCreary, 2010). The females, on the other hand, are known as being very emotional, a trait that is said to influence their decisions hence making the wrong move. Several studies indicate that both males and females have different emotional reactions.

Women have been stereotyped as to emotionally express fear, sympathy, and shame when in distress as compared to men who are believed to express anger and an inward sense of pride. It is further argued that women are deeply affected and are publicly allowed to express their emotions as compared to men. A good example is seen where culture has allowed a woman to cry in public, but a man is forbidden from expressing his distress through tears. The traditional culture expects a man to be strong, and it is this stereotyping culture that has become deeply entrenched in the society hence influencing them from forming the first impression of a person.

Conclusion

The present study, therefore, indicates the level of gender stereotyping in society. Social stereotypes that perceive women as incapable of performing equal tasks as their counterpart has become deeply rooted in our culture. A woman is expected to dedicate herself more to her family than competing in the corporate world. Each gender has been prescribed for their expected roles in order to meet the social expectation.

Reference List

Baron, R., Branscombe, N., and Byrne, D. (2009). Social Psychology. Boston: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.

Chrisler, J., and McCreary, D. (2010). Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology. New York: Springer Science and Business Media.

Phillip, G., Marc, G., and Paul, A. (1975). Another put-down of women? Perceived attractiveness as a function of support for the feminist movement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32 (1), 113-115.

Abstract

An experiment, Connection in Tension, was conducted in laboratory conditions, and its outcomes are the main topic of the report. Exploring and comparing the expected and actual failure modes of both bottled and welded connections in tension are the primary purposes of the paper. In the process of the experiment, it was revealed that almost all the predictions concerning connection and failure mode matched reality. However, there were some exceptions, for instance, in the contest of high strength Grade 8.8. bolt connection. It did not prove the calculations expecting the failure in a member capacity, and the problem was found in bolt shear. A failure was registered at the moment of the load, which was higher than calculated. The predictions on load ratios were 1.21, 1.4, 1.17, and 1.24 for Grade 4.6 bolts, Grade 8.8 Bolts regarding both single and double pal weld connections.

Discussion

For the experiment, the steel plate was applied, Grade 250 steel (to AS/NZS 3678) was used, and the yield stress was 300 MPa. It is also worthy to note that the weld material of W50X was leveraged (referenced from Table 9.7.3.10(1), AS4100). All the failure modes, which were likely to reveal during the experiment, were taken into consideration. In addition, nominal and design capacity was planned and evaluated too in accordance with AS4100 guidelines. Before the destruction, all examples were preferred, as well as actual and predicted results were monitored and compared. The failure modes, which were calculated, implied section tension yield, section tension fracture (considering all fracture patterns), bolt shear, bolt serviceability, ply in bearing, and weld shear.

Connections

Grade 4.6 and Grade 8.8 bolts are depicted in Figure 1, namely there is a nominal arrangement relating to details and dimensions of the bolted lap joint connection. As for the first one, its minimum tensile strength was 400 MPa, it is also was tensioned by hand. Table 9.3.1 AS4 demonstrates that the latter had a minimum tensile strength of 830 MPa, which was tensioned mechanically to 50kN. To induce this ratio onto the M12 bolt, the calibration should match a torque of 156.20 Nm. A double and single lap welded joint is presented in Figures 2 and 3. The nominal dimensions for the lap lengths and the fillet weld are also shown there. The two steel plates were connected via a W50X weld material.

Discussion of Results  Predicted and observed result differences

The expectations of the experiment in accordance with AS4100 and the actual results, namely the tensile loading of each connection to destruction, are depicted in Table 1. Grade 4.6 bolts were considered to encounter some problems at bolt shear, and Grade 8.8 bolts were planned to encounter an initial bolt slip, as well as a failure at member capacity. The first prediction matched the reality, while the initial bolt slip at 48 kN happened in the moment of failure by bolt shear at 224 kN. However, there was no failure in the connection for the reason of member capacity yielding. It was caused by a higher level of capacity of the Grade 250 steel plate as compared to the figures in Table 2.1 of AS4100. In fact, the yield stress was 300 MPa, and tensile strength was 410 MPa, as is demonstrated in 2.1 of AS4100. It can be explained by the fact that the yield stress and tensile strength values of the plate of steel must be different from the calculated ones.

In addition, there was a deformation between the bolt and the soft steel plate, which is characteristic of ply in bearing. Moreover, the expectations appeared to be correct in the context of failure through weld shear for both single and double lap welds. Apart from it, the calculations did not include the likelihood of eccentricity between the centroid of the section, as well as the load application point. This could lead to the single lap failing at a lower load, which centroid was off center to some extent, as compared to the double lap.

Tightening of bolts in friction grip joint

The necessity to tighten the 8.8 bolts to 50 kN can be explained by the failure load, which was caused by putting bolt shear at maximum. The importance of this action is attributable to placing the bolt into a preload tension. It contributes to creating a clamping force, which is helpful for ensuring whether all the forces act uniformly across. It also improves the friction and v for the bolt slip.

The difference in nominal properties, and AS4100 resistance factors

It should be mentioned that some dimensions differed by 1mm, which was included in calculations and did not influence the results. Furthermore, Figure 4 demonstrates differences in nominal and observed material properties. Therefore, the figures of yield stress and tensile strength can be up to 1.35 times in relation to nominal figures explained by the steel manufacturers specifications. All the connections, grades, dimensions, and types of steel, bolts and weld were not changed through the experiment. Although their differences in nominal and actual properties and the AS4100 correction factors were involved, an engineer is capable of producing designs for loads, which are close to the calculations. In summary, this design is the safest and most widespread option.

The abstract

With regard to the theories of Photovoltaics physics learned in the course, this report is an attempt to support and rationalize their implications in actuality. The experiment was done specifically to ascertain how various connected units could be coordinated to give a more reliable and controllable functioning. It is from this understanding that this report is based on an attempt of communicating these findings. The experiment involves investigations of several parameters that are important for any industrial processing unit. Therefore, a slight change in these parameters could bring an effect on the current. How these changes could be coordinated to give a more desired aftermath was integral in this investigation. Of these is the output originating from the controller, its ability to coordinate with the desired power supply was investigated, how the current could be made more effective from the controller point of view was important. It was therefore mandatory when investigating this to apply control measures, and such effects of introducing any step change on parameters like connection, the effects of integral actions on the systems response were key too. The final part of the experiment involved communicating these findings based on performance characterization where graphical representation was important to clearly illustrate these findings. From these series of experiments, it is clear that whenever there is an overlap in functional mechanism meant to regulate a functional parameter then the process would function at optimum if it is regulated within the recommended range. This would also ensure another dependable functional parameter is highly maximized. For each of these experiments, the literature review, the underlying theory, the adopted methodology, the outcomes and their discussions and finally the derived conclusions have been illustrated as per the scope of work.

The Introduction

Current is defined as the transfer of thermal energy between a body and its environment. Panel, irrespective of its state continues to experience curresnt transfer until equilibrium is attained- a state of zero gradient. This transfer of current is known to occur in three ways-conduction and radiation.

Conduction is flow of current between bodies in direct contact with each other. Although the most significant form of heat transfer in solids or between solids in contact are also known to exchange current through conduction. The third form of heat transfer is through radiation that involves transfer of heat through emission and absorption of electromagnetic waves called thermal radiation. Radiation does not require any medium to be communicated as compared to the other two forms of heat transfer; making it particularly important and interesting in the study of thermal physics. Thermal radiations are known to be emitted in the range of 0.1 to 100 microns-this includes the wavelength of visible light.

The Method

Keeping the radiation shield in place, the radiometer was positioned at the 1000 mm location and the Energy emitted per unit area (W/) digital display meter reading was monitored for several minutes until it reached a minimum value of 0 W/

 when the * button of the radiometer was pressed twice. The voltage controller was adjusted to supply maximum voltage and T10 values were monitored to record the temperature of the hot plate. The radiation shield was removed when T10 had reached a maximum value and the reading at thermocouple T9, the reading at thermocouple T10, the distance from the hot plate (1000 mm) and the radiometric reading were recorded. Care was taken not to touch the radiation shield while doing this. The radiometer carriage was repositioned at the 600 mm location and when the radiometer reading reached a maximum value, the readings were recorded as before. The entire procedure was repeated with a step-by-step lessening distance of 100 mm from the hot plate. When this distance was reduced to 200 mm, the hot plate was switched off from power, the carriage was replaced at the 600 mm location and the radiation shield was replaced.

For this lab you will be expected to measure the current-voltage characteristics of two identical photovoltaic panels for the following configurations:

• Series connected panels under full irradiation
• Parallel connected panels under full irradiation
• Single panel under full irradiation, 70% irradiation, 50% irradiation and 10 % irradiation.

In this experimental setup, the method that was utilized involved altering parameters under investigations and measuring their corresponding effects on the arranged changes, these were then compared with the set values so as to generate a flow that could enable regulation of the electrical power supply to heaters. The justifications for this industrial control process are based on the fact that most if not all industrial processes require energy utilization, but of late these have become so expensive that maximum utilization has become a key consideration. There is a need to therefore formulate ways and methods of ensuring such processes attain maximum utilization of the available resources at a controlled approach. Heating applications is the generation and transfer of heat as well as its regulation within set limits to avoid loss of this precious energy. Such settings would more often give a better combination of various parameters under investigations that could be unified to give the best result in any controlled industrial process (Shah and MacGregor, 2005).

For each measurement, you should adopt the following procedure. Move the rheostat to the short circuit position measure the current generated and check to ensure the voltage is zero. Record the results on the appropriate row on the datasheet. This will be the maximum current the panel can generate, therefore select a suitable setting for the ammeter to give a full-scale deflection slightly larger than this value(Mondie, 2005).

Open the open circuit switch and record the voltage and current in the appropriate row on the data sheet. This will be the maximum voltage that the panel will generate. Close the open circuit switch(Zhang, 2010). Increase the load applied to the panel by gradually twisting the knob on the rheostat. You should observe that the voltage starts to rise. Take readings of the current at the voltages indicated on your data sheet.

The Results

The resistance of the resistor and capacitive resistances determine the shape of this graph. At low voltage, the resistance of the resistor is much less. At extreme voltage, either high or low, the impedance is larger and the amplitude of the current is therefore small.

It can be seen that the ideal values and the experimentally determined values are similar. This authenticates the derived results. Graph depicts this variation between the sample and the experimentally determined values of (Sin² ˜ * Q_b). The obtained linearity again suggested the successful determination of the calculated values of plot. The plot is largely linear although at larger distances, assumes an exponential form.

The same apparatus and sample test results were used as in parallel Experiment. The graph is plotted that depicts the variation of voltage along the Y-axis. The patch followed by the plot shows a linear trace but with a negative slope. The equation of the trend line was derived to be y = -0.06x +1.335 with a gradient of -0.06 and a Y-intercept of 1.335 with the positive Y-axis. This magnitude of the Y-intercept suggests the possible values of voltage when current approaches very small values which means that as that the distance from the source of radiation decreases, the intensity of radiation increases; this is also what the inverse Square implicates.

The observations for single largely suggest closely similar values for the view factor although some deviations are encountered. The relationship between voltage and current is plotted in the Graph. The resulting plot assumes a linear approach as the magnitude of voltage begins to rise; this is an indication of the success of the experiment. The derived trend line follows the equation y = -0.013x + 0.637 with a negative gradient of 0.013 and a Y-intercept of 0.637 with the positive axis.

At lower values of voltage though, deviations are observed where the graph follows a steep form, which could be due to very high values of current flow at smaller amounts to the ambient temperature i.e at the very close separation between the source of radiation and the radiator. The magnitude of the Y-Intercept is similar to the highest of Rc values in the table. This indicates the maximum heat flux at very small differences between the temperatures of the heat source and the radiator. Also, the influence of external factors that could potentially bring about alterations to the desired results in a laboratory cannot be ignored (Dale and Fardo, 2009).

Discussion of results

These experiments were subdivided into six areas of investigations these were; flow rates, power, bandwidth change, stepwise control, and temperature changes. From the first setup involving the flow rate, results show a significant variation in the functional graphical deduction. In the first part, where the flow rate is compared with power and temperature, the flow rate increased when a certain minimum temperature was kept constant, while the maximum temperature declined linearly at constant power. When the flow rate was maintained at a constant value, the minimum temperature rose steadily before it started declining while the maximum temperature declined steadily until it leveled with the minimum temperature. Inflow rate 4 the maximum attained rate for both the channels was at around figure, the channels gave reverse figures, because at no one point did they give a uniform result. These representations however gave a bigger margin in between the settings that were being investigated. The series flow rate of the variables gave a better result only inferior to the first example above. The maximum figure was recorded at figure 0.58, they recorded a lower value of 0, as one increased the first variable the second one declined and thats why the graph has taken the figure represented by these findings. The third set up herein is referred to as the flow rate 2, whose variations were almost constant; the preceding representations did not have such kind of representation (Lewin, Seider and Seade, 2002). The most notable and observable difference is that the figures gave a less difference in these variations, smaller than the previous two. This showed an improved efficiency in not only timing but also giving the output of the required variable. Similar results to this setting were obtained in the sixth experiment within the flow rate, although the highest variable was achieved at positive nine, another difference is the presence of a wider gap between the functions that represent the utility of the applied variables under control and comparison.

In the fifth setup, (flow rate 8), the functional variables that were examined were also more dependent on each other than in the previous experiments, the gap between the functional variations does indicate more dependent and significant adaptations upon alteration to affect the changing parameters. The last setting stands out because the variables that were investigated did not predict steadiness as expected. These wide differences in the aftermath produced a more unpredictable representation.

From the power experiment, several experimental designs were carried out. In the first setup (power 0.2), a constant variation was seen on channel A, while B gave a slightly noticeable drift; these kept varying by going down until a maximum value was recorded. In Power 0.4, a steady and more variable characteristic was witnessed; this stood out from the first case because there were no variations from the set targets upon which the values had to range. However, more variation was seen in the power 0.6 experiment, where two maximum ranges were gotten at two different value ranges. For the power 0.8 setting, what we see is a different kind of result in that the variations got were not only steady but also uniform throughout.

In the setup named power 1 which assumed a more or less steady distribution and showed a steady variation between the experimental variables, the maximum value ranged within the graphical value. From this, the least recorded variation between the two was noted at around -9.5. This alludes that these variables can be combined and monitored at a certain interval and controlled to ensure the correct values are fully utilized.

From the experiment on temperatures and the bandwidth, an increase in temperatures lead to a decline in the proportional bandwidth, at proportional bandwidth 40, we see a drift in both A and B, they took a uniform drifting. The maximum value for B was much more than that for A, the opposite is true for the lowest value recorded where the minimum for A was lower than that for B. For the positive or negative variable, B was on the positive scale, therefore giving a positive value while A was below the X-axis, this gave a negative value in the entire experiment. In an experiment at proportional bandwidth 60, the maximum for B was 5.5, while for A was 1.8. The experiment gave a similar graphical representation as to the previous one because B variables gave positive values as opposed to A which gave negative values. However, these variations were on a linear scale. Perhaps, the value for A is the lowest for the entire experimental setup. For the experiment at proportional bandwidth 80, the maximum B value recorded was 4.3 against A which was 0. The minimum value for B was -1 while for A it was noted as -3. Equally, these variables were distinct because A gave a negative value as opposed to B, which is a positive variable. In at proportional bandwidth 100 experiment, the highest attainable variable for B was 40, while A is 0; the minimum variables recorded for B was-8 while -3 for A. In this case, B gave a lesser variable than A contrary to other settings. These variables varied uniformly along the scale and could be easily controlled to give the desired function in the processing industry. In an experiment at proportional bandwidth 120, the maximum recorded value for B was 3.8 while -2, was the minimum. A gave a maximum of -2 and a minimum of -6 (Richardson, 2004).

The other segment of experimental set up where the measured value was maintained constant together with the set value and this gave a linear increase in the integral value. In the set up integral 0.75, where B was represented with time to deduce its variation, the maximum variation was 2.5 while the minimum recorded was -1.3, the functional representation gave a more pronounced representation that was centered along the scale. When this representation is compared to the next setting integral 0.5, whose minimum value was -3.5 and its maximum as 2.5, we see a more pronounced functionality along the axis than the previous one. The last arrangement in this category integral 1, with the maximum of 2.4 and a minimum of negative three, was also pronounced along the axis as the previous ones.

From the last arrangement of the experiment, there are three main sections under investigation in the derivative band functional parameter these include; derivative band 0.1 upon which we observed a maximum at around 2.4 and was less pronounced along the axis, the minimum variable attained was -4. From the set up derivative band 0.2, the maximum figure was at 2.5 value, this occurred at center of the axis, with a minimum of -2. This representation was more pronounced along the axis. The last segment derivative band 0.3 presented a number of functional peak values with a maximum at 2.5 and a minimum at -2.5. The last segment where the measured value and the set values were kept constant gave a linear rising of derivative action(Dale, RP & Fardo SW 2009).

Conclusions

The experiment successfully determined the calculated values of current that were in close proximity with the values of Rc in the sample test records provided. The graph plotted to compare the experimentally determined and the sample values pursued a linear path which also confirmed the success of the experiment. The equation of the trend line was derived to be y = -0.13x  0.6 with a gradient of -0.13 and a Y-intercept of 0.6 with the negative Y-axis.

The Inverse Square Law was successfully established in the experiment as the linearity of the obtained curve in Graph G2 was as expected due to the inverse variation of the area of the transfer intensity with the square of the distance from the center of the source of power. As it can be seen from Graph G2, the plot between the distance from the source of power and the value of sample Rc provided resembles a y=1/x hyperbola. This is the reason why the shape of the log curve tends to follow an inverse straight line.

The experiment successfully validated the Stefan-Boltzman Law as the determined values of the view factor F were obtained to be majorly similar. The near-linear plot of the fourth power of the ratio of the emitter temperature to the ambient temperature and the corrected heat flux Rc also suggested the success of the performed experiment.

The experimental values of thermal conductivities of the specimen materials provided were successfully calculated and the graphs depicting the variation of temperature with change in distance from the thermocouple T1 were also successfully plotted.

Findings indicated that maximizing power usage will depend on overlap mechanisms that are laid in place to ensure the regulated temperature is kept within the required range. Such alterations have been found to be instrumental in making the plants effective, safe and environmentally friendly for the people carrying out the exercise in the processing plant.

• A steady deviation in the mains voltage was brought by a decrease in the bandwidth, equally. Changes in measurable temperature were observed once a stepwise change in the set variables was adjusted outside the target limits.
• A rise in the efficiency value of the controller was witnessed due to a decrease in energy produced; this was reflected in an increased flow rate.
• Comparison of these findings to the manufacturer directives as per the manual specifications was important to arrive at the conclusive parameter combinations that gave an ample specification for the various variables.

Reference List

Dale, RP & Fardo SW 2009. Industrial process control systems. Boca Raton: Fairmont Press, Inc.

Lewin, DR, Seider WD, Seade, JD 2002. Integrated process design instruction. Computers and Chemical Engineering, vol. 26, no.2, pp. 295-306.

Mondie, S (ed.) 2005. System, structure and control 2004. , Oxford: Elsevier-IFAC.

Richardson, P (ed.) 2004. Improving the thermal processing of foods. Cambridge: Woodhead publishing ltd.

Shah, LS & MacGregor, F. J. (ed.) 2005. Dynamics and control of process systems 2004. Oxford: Elsevier-IFAC.

Zhang, P 2010. Advanced Industrial Control Technology. Oxford: Elsevier.

Introduction

Surfactants refer to chemical substances that lessen the surface tension in water. Lowering the surface tension of water makes it possible for dirt to dissolve in it. Therefore, washing is made easier by the inclusion of surfactants in the washing water. Surfactants can be categorized into four main groups namely ionic, non-ionic, amphoteric, and cationic surfactants. Cationic surfactants possess a positive charge on their polar portions, whereas anionic surfactants have a negative charge on their polar sections. Amphoteric surfactants contain negative and positive charges on their polar regions. Nonionic surfactants, in contrast, possess no charge on their polar portions.

Soap is an example of an anionic surfactant obtained from the reaction between oils or fats and strong aqueous alkalis. Such reactions are usually referred to as saponification reactions. This experiment aimed at establishing the comparative effectiveness of various surfactants. It also aimed at preparing a shampoo. It was expected that hard water and seawater would not easily form lather with detergents.

Methods

1. Approximately 2 ml of distilled water, hard water, seawater, and acidic water were put in four different test tubes that were labeled A, B, C, and D.
2. An anionic surfactant (shampoo) was made by putting 2 ml of 5% triethanolamine in a test tube. The solution turned pink when one drop of phenolphthalein indicator was added. 5% oleic acid in ethanol was added dropwise to the test tube until the pink solution turned colorless.
3. A small quantity of each surfactant was added to each of the test tubes (in step 1) after which the test tubes were shaken.
4. The changes in the test tubes were observed and recorded.

Results

It was observed that the hot pink solution in step 2 above lightened in color when oleic acid was added. As more acid was added, the mixture became sudsy and shampoo-like.

Discussion

Saponification occurred when all the oil in oleic acid reacted with triethanolamine. Phenolphthalein indicator displayed a pink color in triethanolamine, which was a base. The color change from pink to colorless indicated that the saponification reaction was complete since all the alkali had reacted with the oil.

It was realized that bar soap was the only surfactant that did not form lather with all the water samples. Conversely, the commercial shampoo lathered with the different water types. However, little bubbles were seen when commercial shampoo was mixed with hard water and seawater. That was because seawater and hard water contained dissolved salts and minerals that made the formation of lather difficult. Dishwashing liquid and homemade shampoo displayed a moderate ability to form lather with all four types of water.

Conclusion

It was concluded that commercial shampoo was the strongest surfactant, whereas bar soap was the weakest surfactant. It was also concluded that seawater and hard water did not lather easily with detergents.

Introduction

The Triaclyglyceral compounds refer to the group of lipids found in plants and animals; that are easily metabolized to acetyl coenzyme as they are twisters of glycerol as the main constituent of compounds. In most cases, the basic structures of most prevalent triaclyglycerals are not complex; but are composed of long-chains saturated and non-saturated carboxylic acids which are easily metabolized into other forms of lipids (Dole, 1956).

Identification of Triaclyglycerals from the Appendices

As it has been observed in the experiment, various triaclyglycerals and other fragments were obtained in the process of extracting the compound from the linseeds. Perhaps, examples of f the triaclyglyceral compounds obtained in the appendix include the compounds with [M+H] ⁺ ions; whose ECN values were of a wide range like the OOO, OPO and OPL. More so, several fragments were also obtained like PO⁺, OL⁺ and PL⁺ fragment ions which were found together with the suspension of extracts. Generally, the particles named above were the main constituents of the extract of the linseeds; whereby the process of purification followed thereafter (Sukhija and Palmquist, 1988).

Tabulation of Data of Data in the Order of Elusion

The data obtained from the experiment of the extraction of linseed oil; which is a vegetable oil could be presented in various ways, where the enhancement of easy understanding of the data was facilitated. In this case therefore, the table below was used to tabulate the data obtained whereby various components linseed oil in various forms were presented (Mashek and Grummer, 2003).

From the above table it can be observed that; the mass of triacyglyceral compound obtained was relative to the number of fragment ions, where the relationship was a positive correlation. More specifically, the amount of triacyglyceral compounds obtained in the experiment and the level of the number of ions present as fragments in each compound was observed to be positively related (Carneheim, Olivecrona & Hultin, 1995).

Further, from the results obtained it can be inferred that; the fragmentation of triacyglyceral compounds conform with the expected modes of fragmentation. As the results depicted, it was easier to lose a central ester group in which a secondary carbenium ion would be given out. On the other hand it would be a bit difficult to lose one of the two terminal ester groups as the molecular bond in it would be stronger for easy breaking than as it was in the one central ester group. Based on the experiment, triacyglyceral compound would require more energy to break the molecular bond in order to yield a primary carbenium ion and thus it was difficult for it lose one of the two terminal esters (Ferezou and Bach, 1999).

The Reverse-phase Chromatography Column

In the reverse-phase chromatography, the column is lipid-like which contains C₁₈ chains that are attached to Si-OH groups on the surface of silica gel. In this process, aqueous organic solvents are used to elute samples and retained solutes are eluted by increasing the organic component of the whole solvent system. Meanwhile, this process has been observed to work very well with triacyglycerals that contain saturated acyl groups because they elute longer retention than those with instauration in the side chains due to difference in the constitution of the carboxyl groups (Dole, 1956).

Conclusion

As it has been observed in the results obtained, the sequence of the triacyglycerals match the published data for linseed as a source to extract triacyglyceral compounds; through the use of reverse phase chromatography because many triacyglyceral compounds contain saturated acyl group.

Reference list

Dole, P, A Relationship between Non-Esterified Fatty Acids and Glucose in Linseeds, J Clin Invest Publishers, New York, 1956.

Ferezou, J, and Bach, C, Structure and Metabolic Fate of Triacylglycerol- And Phosphoplipid-Rich Particles of Commercial Parenteral Fat Emulsions,

Washington University Press, Washington, 1999.

Hultin, M, Carneheim, C and Olivecrona, T, Intravenous Lipid Emulsions: Removal Mechanisms As Compared To Chylomicrons, J Lipid Res Publishers, London, 1995.

Mashek, D and Grummer, R, Effects of Different Long Chain Fatty Acids on Lipid Metabolism and Gluconeogenesis in Monolayer Cultures of Bovine

Hepatocytes, J Dairy Sci. Press, New Jersey, 2003.

Sukhija, P and Palmquist, D, Rapid Method for Determination of Total Fatty Acid Content and Composition of Feedstuffs and Feces, American University Press, Cairo, 1988.

Since we live in a society, we need to adhere to the social norms, and they have long become part of our life. With many years of adhering to the social norms, we stop noticing that we unwillingly and unconsciously obey them. Deviation from the accepted norms and behavior concepts will result in social disapproval and criticism.

An array of social experiments has been carried out when people knowingly broke the socially-accepted norms, a great example may be seen at Andrew Hales YouTube channel, where he uploaded multiple videos of him breaking the socially-accepted norms (Wade, 2012). As it is seen from the clips, even such minor deviations such as holding the door for people when theyre far away, walking close to other people, or staring at them and never breaking eye-contact may result in a negative reaction.

For the experiment, I chose to break the informal norms of gender issues. It has always been considered that females are the weaker sex requiring protection and seeking to obtain it from men, the stronger sex. However, if one hints that a woman now is the actually weaker sex, this may result in a confrontation or a heated argument. Feminism has become a part of our life now, and actions by men labeling women as weaker sex are frowned upon. Since it is now socially accepted that men and women are actually equal, I decided to conduct a social experiment in which I asked random females to help me carry a box full of textbooks upstairs while Id be carrying a seemingly lighter plastic bag. The experiment appears worthwhile because, according to the norms, I am expected to ask men to help me. Similarly, women are expected to seek help from men when they want a hand with something heavy.

I expected that some of the participants would help me, although with signs of reluctance and disapproval. Since the norm I chose to break was not really a harsh one, I did not expect a strong negative reaction.

In a crowded university lobby, I stood near the stairway with a reasonably big box of books and a smaller plastic bag, which seemed lighter. I saw a young female student approaching the stairway, I blocked her way and asked her to help me carry the box upstairs, interestingly she agreed and asked me to lift the back off the floor and place it in her hands. No sooner did I do that than a guy appeared and grabbed the box from her hands, offering his help without being asked. I carried the bag downstairs and asked a couple of ladies for help when one of them tried to lift the box and feeling how heavy it was, she put it down, saying that I should get someone stronger, probably a friend or a male acquaintance. The experiment showed that every second lady refused to carry the box on the grounds that it was too heavy, recommending that I find someone else to do it. Those who did agree were rather reluctant and disapproving. Interestingly, if the same request was addressed to men, it may be assumed that nine out of ten would give a hand with no questions asked.

The social experiment presents a contradiction between the socially-accepted norms and the understanding of equality between men and women. Sadly, there are cases when females are offended if offered help with such trivial things as opening or holding the door, offering a hand with something. More worryingly, our society has become so politically correct that trivial comments, remarks, or jokes may be regarded as sexual assault (Sherlock, 2015). In the course of the experiment, I have learned that norms have become an integral part of society, and people are expected to follow them.

Reference List

Sherlock, R. (2015). How political correctness rules in Americas student safe spaces. Web.

Wade, L. (2012). Norm Breaching: Social Responses to Mild Deviance. Web.

There are so many hidden patterns in our world that may not be obvious at first glance but have the potential to have a noticeable impact on society. Among these, of great research interest is the idea of a link between an individuals smoking and his or her income level. The hypothesis is that people who smoke cigarettes daily tend to earn more than others: this is a personal observation that requires careful experimental testing. Thus, this project will be characterized by several research questions. First, is there a relationship between smoking and income among individuals? Second, if a relationship is found, is it accurate to say that wealthier people smoke more often than less wealthy people? Third, is high dependence on smoking a predictor of an individuals affluence?

For this project, the general population will be represented by many adults in my environment. I will ask each of the adults over the age of thirty if they smoke and their average annual salary range. Understandably, not everyone I know will agree to participate, but the people who send in answers will form the final sample. Since the number of adults I can contact is roughly over three hundred, it seems that at least thirty people will not be hard to recruit for the sample.

The sample will be generated by a convenient mechanism that saves time in a meaningful way. So, with calls, e-mails, and social media, I will contact the entire general population  it is not limited in number, but once thirty sample members are assembled, the enumeration stops  directly. Not every individual has the same chance of getting into the population, which means the sample is nonprobability. A convenience sample may not always be representative and does not minimize systematic error, which means that additional research into the reliability of the results will be necessary.