Category: Expedition

Introduction

Mount Everest is the highest mountain peak in the world. It has been into existence for more than 60mn years. It stands 29035 feet above sea level. Mount Everest is known by different names such as: Sagarmatha in Nepal and Chomolungma in Tibet. The first people to climb Mount Everest were Sir Edmund Hillary (of New Zealand) and Sherpa Tensing Norgay (of Nepal). These two people reached Mount Everest’s peak on May 29, 1953 (Greenspan, 2013).

Cost of expedition

• Airfare to Kathmandu: $1500 to $5000, depending on the route taken and the class travelled.
• Stay in Kathmandu: $400 to $800, depending on the number of days; there can be delays due to various reasons.
• Road transportation from Kathmandu to Lukla airport: $325 each person (to and fro).
• Visa for Nepal: $100.
• Expenses to reach Everest base camp: $4000 to $4600.
• Climbing fee: $16500 to $21500.
• Expenses at Everest base camp and higher camps: $3500 to $8800.
• Climbing gear: $3440 to $11880.
• Miscellaneous expenses: $9650 to $14400 (Arnette, 2014).

Tensing Norgay

Tensing Norgay was born in a poor and humble family that resided amidst the mountains (in a village named Thame, Nepal). Tensing’s initial name was Namgyal Wangdi that was later changed to his famous name. It is interesting to know that the name Norgay relates to being fortunate. He made his first attempt to climb Mount Everest at the age of 19. After this, for the next twenty years, he was a part of most of the expeditions to Mount Everest. He died at the age of 72 in the year 1986 (Authint Mail, 2014).

4 camps on the way to Mount Everest

• Valley of Silence: This camp is situated at 20,000 feet.
• Camp 2: This cam is situated at 21,000 feet.
• Lhotse Wall: This camp is situated at 22,300 feet.
• The Deathzone: This camp is situated at 26,000 feet.

Risk management

All the requisite precautions are taken by the trekkers while climbing the world’s highest peak. It is understood that as we go to higher heights, the amount of oxygen decreases. As such, oxygen bottles and the associated gear is a must. Tents with all basic amenities are also available with the trekkers. Warm clothes, eye protection, snow boots, etc. are a prerequisite. There are several companies engaged in the expedition business and it is always advisable to hire them for a safe expedition. During times of emergency, evacuation helicopters are available. Each trekker has a satellite phone for use in urgencies.

Lukla airport

Nepal’s Lukla airport, also called the Tensing-Hillary airport, is one of the most dangerous airports of the world. As can be seen from the picture, the airport is narrow with houses on both the sides. The length is only half kilometre and pilots need to be well experienced to land an aircraft here.

Role of Sherpa

The world knows that Mount Everest cannot be climbed without the help of Sherpas. Tensing, among the first two to climb Mount Everest was also a Sherpa. During the years, Sherpas have made Mount Everest expeditions as their livelihood. The job involves serious threats (natural) but Sherpas are committed to the safety of the trekkers. Recently, 16 Sherpas died due to an avalanche during one of the expeditions. Sherpas feel that the Nepalese government is not providing adequate facilities for the expeditions. In protest, the Sherpas united and decided not to go on any expeditions this year (TOI, 2014a). Intermediation by the Nepalese tourism minister paved the way to resolution of the crisis and Sherpas agreed to commence expeditions (TOI, 2014b).

Overview of expedition

There are certain things to be kept in mind while embarking on the expedition. First of all, it is advisable to go with a team (no solos). Secondly, team members should follow all the instructions provided by the guides. Trekkers should consider the ethical aspects and avoid throwing waste on the mountains.

References

Arnette, A. (2014). Everest 2014: the cost to climb Everest. Web.

Authint Mail. (2014). Tensing’s life in pictures on 100^th birth anniversary. Web.

Greenspan, J. (2013). 7 things you should know about Mount Everest. Web.

TOI. (2014a). Sherpas say no to Everest expeditions this year. Web.

TOI. (2014b). Mount Everest disaster: Nepal’s Sherpas agree to resume work. Web.

Trip Overview and Description

This risk management plan will cover four day trip to Mount Whitney which is the highest summit in the US with an elevation of 14497 feet above sea level. Whitney Summit is Among the Sierra Nevada’s highest peaks. The trail will follow the normal Mount Whitney route which is considered to be less strenuous to the summit.

The beginning of the trail will at Whitney Portal situated 8360 feet. The increase in altitude is about 6,100 feet. Trail distance is 11 miles from Whitney Portal to the summit.

At most, the trip will take 4 days to complete. All the members of the group will take train, bus, or flight to Lone Pine and then driven to Whitney Portal where the trail will begin. The rest of the trail will be on foot covering at least six miles per day.

However, this will depend on the distance between the camping sites as well as the day’s weather and other factors put into consideration. The main aim of the trail is to achieve the major objectives of the trail that includes health enhancement, recreation and improve quality of life.

The other objectives are for the preservion of cultural heritage and natural resources, provide educational opportunities as well as boost the economic development of the region.

Most of the team members are between the ages of 25 and 45 with the team leader being the oldest at the age of 45. The team of eight consist four pair of couples. Each of the team members has experience in the mountain trails with majority of the team having mountain hike skills.

The team leader is the most experienced having guided most of the mountain trails in various parts of the world such as Alps in Europe. However, most of the group members are not new in the mountain trail.

Leadership

The group Leaders will have essential responsibilities, especially in the management of the team. The leader will have to ensure that the team is safe, have enjoyment, are fully engaged and most importantly, educationally gain from the trips.

Besides the group management skills, the team leader will be required to have possession of navigational and trailside maintenance skills (Martin, 2006). In addition, the trail leaders must have the capabilities of assessing risks and ways through which they can deal with emergencies.

The leader will also be required to provide an alternative in case of any eventuality. The leader should be highly experienced and is expected to provide technical advice on weather changes, acclimatization levels, GPS directions and health conditions and hazards as well as other technical issues that may be encountered while on the field (Cook, 2007).

The camp instructors are supposed to provide any assistance as well as providing directions. Moreover, the instructors have the responsibility of ensuring that the teams are safe and secure.

Trip Itineraries

Equipment

The following are the basic equipments or gear that will be required on the trail. These types of equipment are needed especially during the average summer conditions. However, during winter special gear may be required such as the ice axe, snow helmet, crampons and snow shoes (Connally, 2004).

But since this trail is planned during average summer conditions, these winter equipments will not be necessary. What is important to remember is that all the equipments will be carried for the entire 22 miles round trip journey. Therefore, they should be kept as light as possible (Goldenberg & Martin, 2007).

The equipment that will needed includes:

• Backpacks at least with a capacity of about 30lt and can comfortably carry all the travelling gear, food, water and extra clothing
• Hydration system with at least 2lt of water
• Headlamp mostly the basic LED lamp with high quality lithium batteries. Starting the hike with a new pair is better and it is a good idea to have an extra set.
• The map – the best map is Tom Harrison Mt. Whitney Zone. Each team member should have its personal map print outs and extra care should be taken to prevent any contamination with moisture. It is also important that the team members familiarize themselves with the map taking cognizant of important pints or stopping areas along the trail before setting out for the trail. The maps are very essential especially when the visibility is reduced to a few meters when the clouds roll in.
• The GPS navigation or compass. These are very essential when the weather turns to be very bad. It is also important to have lithium batteries for the GPS. The use of these equipments are essential for all the team members and should be learned during the prior trail trainings
• The First Aid Kit carrying band aids, tape, aspirin, mole skin, ibuprofen, antihistamine, blister ointment, portable aqua iodine tablets
• Reflective blanket which can be used as an emergency shelter. The blanket should be very light
• Fire starter or water proof matches. Though they are rarely required they can still be useful during emergencies.
• Small knife which should be simple and smaller. Probably it should be 51 piece multi-tool.
• Trekking poles that will be vital in saving the knees and in extra balancing on tricky terrain as well as stream crossing
• Clothing gear that includes under amour boxer brief and bra for women, Patagonia Capilene Crew Top, North Face Paramount Convertible Pants, Smart wool hiking socks, water proof hiking boots particularly the Merrell Outland Mid boots and the Outdoor Research Sun Runner Cap.
• Extra clothing that includes light weight power dry long sleeve t-shirt, full zip fleece jacket, rain jacket, full zip rain pants, black diamond wind weight liner gloves, wind break beanie extra pair smart wool hiking socks and sunglasses
• Other extras may include sunscreen, lip balm, toilet paper, wag bag, and wrist watches.

Water sources

Water is very essential during the hike particularly to stay hydrated while acclimating. Various factors that range from environmental to physical body needs determine the quantity of water one should have at a particular time.

In average, about 3 to 6 liters of water is required per person to stay hydrated during acclimation. Additives such as electrolyte drink mix and Gatorade can also be added to water or used along the trail to keep hydrated.

Luckily, pure water will be found in many places along the trail and it is essential to refill or top up the water before moving on. The ponds along the trail are filled with streams that have clean water that can be used without further purification.

There will be no need to carry more than two liters at any time. It is advisable to carry just the right amount of water otherwise it will be an extra load in the backpack. Much thought will only be on how to carry water. Water bottles are the best water container to use in this trail.

Though most of the water points are fresh and considered pure, those who can’t take untreated water can use iodine tablets to treat their drinking water.

Weather Related Information

Mountain weather changes almost every time making it very unpredictable. Dangers arising from unpredictable weather are higher compared with other forms of danger.

All characteristics of weather, sunshine, hail, snow, wind, rain and lightning will be possible at any time during the mountain trail. The team members will be required to pay extra attention to any development in the sky. However, the team must take precaution on sunshine, lightning, snow ice and hail.

Sunshine at higher elevations makes people become susceptible to dangerous rays that may pose great danger to the hikers. The effect of the rays may also be intensified by the reflections from the snow therefore the team is advised to put on the sunshine protection gear most of the time during the day. Exposed parts of the body are very vulnerable to dangerous rays hence should be protected using sunscreen.

The challenging parts are snow covered ground hence high precaution is needed. Mountaineering gear may be required at these points (Connally, 2004). It is advisable to end trails before noon since most of the thunderstorms develops from noon onwards.

However the trail can continue when the weather is clear. Generally, mountain Thunderstorms develop very fast and are normally accompanied with lightning. Clouds that form thunderstorms can easily be observed. Once cloud forming thunderstorms are sported it is advisable for the team to immediately seek shelter in the nearby trail camps.

Storm forming clouds are characterized by their Flat bases, White and gray color and their long vertical length. When these types of clouds appear early in the day, it is very likely that the storm will develop during the day. These clouds grow faster making the situation worse.

Lightning create an electric radiations that has the capability of covering large area. The deaths that result from storms are caused by ground current. The teams are always advised to be in contact with the weather center at the starting point base after every half an hour to keep a breath of any weather changes.

Transportation

Transport to Lone Pine is very limited especially air travels since there is no large commercial airport. However, any air travel will require that one uses the nearest cities. Though air travel is limited, other means are available especially the bus. The Eastern Sierra interregional public transport is provided by the transit authorities. The buses operate several routs within the Eastern Sierra region.

Other companies also offer bus services in most of the Eastern Sierra routs. However, private services are being made available by Mount Whitney shuttle. It is therefore advisable for the team members to organize with the Mount Whitney Shuttle Services for their transport prior to the trail.

Rules and Regulations

The trail team will have to adhere to the Mount Whitney zone rules and regulations that determine the conduct of the hikers. The rules and regulations concerns the permits, health of team members, environmental conservations, conduct of the team members, time regulations, safety measures, security, trail directions and camping regulations.

Even though most of the rules that govern the trail are encompassed within the Mount Whitney zone rules, the team will also be required to have their own rules and regulations that will be used to regulate their conduct.

The team will be required to stick together at all times, be at the camping sites before sunset, wake up by five in the morning, stick to the advice of the team leader and follow the required routs while on the trail. These rules are very essential especially during emergencies as well as enhancing the safety and security of the team members (MacInnes, 2005).

Risk Assessment and Management

There are several risks and dangers that will be inherently associated with this trail. Apart from dangers that are associated with injuries, there are those risks that are associated to weather conditions, healthy conditions and physical strains (Kosseff, 2010).

Some of these risks will include Injuries resulting from boulder falls, falls, slipperiness, knee knocks as well as any other causes of injuries. Injuries may be simple or acute depending on the impact made with the object. Simple injuries may include cuts and abrasions as a result of falling on the gravel. Acute injuries may include severe cuts as a result of being hit by a falling bolder (Kosseff, 2010).

Though the probability of their occurrence is small, the trail team will be required to wear the protective gear at all times as well as using the designated trail routs. It is also advisable that each team member take personal precautions in order to reduce the risks of having any injuries. Moreover, all the team members will be required to take physical training in order to be fit for this expedition.

Acute Mountain Sickness is also another health hazard that is very likely especially when the team is approaching higher altitudes. In fact altitude is the major cause of the sickness. However, it will be accelerated by the rate at which the team will be ascending.

The higher the rate of ascent, greater is the probabilities of developing the AMS. Higher ascending speeds destabilize the body functions before it adapts to higher altitudes. Other factors that may lead to higher chance of developing AMS are the degree of body exertion and dehydration.

Therefore, it is essential for the team to acclimatize at higher altitudes twenty four hours before the beginning of the trail (Connally, 2004). All the team members will be required to be at Whitney portal a day before the hike.

The team will be acclimatized at Meysan Lake, Horseshoe Meadows and Onion Valley which are 8360, 9200 and 10000 feet respectively a day before the trail. Moreover, during the ascent the team will keep a steady pace with short breaks to give the body a chance of acclimatizing. In addition, the team leaders will be required to constantly check the team members of any symptoms of AMS.

The diamox will be among the First Aid Kit contents and used during these situations. In acute situations, the team leaders are required to call for emergency airlift to the nearest hospitals at Lone Pine

The weather related risks are the most likely to occur during the trail (Connally, 2004). The ways to deal with weather related risks such as snowfall, hailstones, lightning will be extensively covered during the training process just before the trail.

Dealing with hash weather conditions is integral part of pre trail training since weather related risks are the most likely to occur. Furthermore, emergency measures are also related to these risks.

Emergency Action Plan

The team will use the emergency services provided by the Sequoia National Park where the summit lies. The institution will also provide communication systems as well as any other emergency equipment as required by the regulations.

Moreover, the trail team will be trained on possible emergencies and how to deal with such emergencies. In various points on the trail, the Sequoia National Park has put in place service centers to deal with minor emergencies.

Contingencies

Many things can go wrong in this trail, but probably, the risk hazards that have been mentioned such as altitude sickness, dehydration, environment related including darkness, hail, lightning, snow or ice, wind and sunshine. Others include injury, group separation, search and rescue operations. Ways to deal with these eventualities have already been mentioned in the previous discussions.

References

Connally, C. (2004). The Mountaineering handbook: Modern tools and techniques that will take you to the top. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Professional.

Cook, T. (2007). Outdoor leadership: The noble gift. London, UK: Deeper Vision Publishers.

Goldenberg, M., & Martin, B. (2007). Hiking and Backpacking. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics.

Kosseff, A. (2010). AMC guide to outdoor leadership: Trip planning, group dynamics, decision making, leading youth and risk management. Boston, MA: Appalachian Mountain Club Books.

MacInnes, H. (2005). International mountain rescue handbook. London, UK: Frances Lincoln ltd.

Martin, B. (2006). Outdoor leadership: Theory and practice. Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics.

Trip overview and description

This is a class educational outdoor expedition to the Arkansas River, organized for the members of the Outdoor Leadership Class. The group constitutes 6 members, aged between 18 and 23. One of the group members has adequate training on first aid and life saving skills, and doubles up as the team coach-cum-first aider.

Given that this is the first outdoor expedition along a major rive for most of the members, the skills level and experience within the group is limited. All the members are of sound physical state, which is subject to medical verification by the school’s chief medical officer, four days before the trip.

The goal of the trip is to enable members acquire real life outdoor leadership skills. There are two broad based objectives for the trip. Firstly the group aims at visiting at least two different sites along the Arkansas River. Secondly, each member will get a leadership role to play within the group for the entire period of the trip.

The Arkansas River is one of the most popular outdoor destinations in North America. It attracts both local and foreign tourists, and is known for its unforgettable water rafting experience. The Arkansas River, starts at Leadville in Colorado as a mild gentle flowing river.

As it meanders through the Royal Gorge, the Arkansas River picks up speed such that by the time it gets to Kansas, it is a rolling mass of water (Lepper and Colorado State University, 2008). Rafting on the entire Arkansas River is impossible due to resource, skill and time limit.

Thus the group plans to hike over The Barbara Whipple Trail whose entire elevation gain is about 600 feet. The group also plans to have boating experience along The Arkansas River Trail, which can be accessed through the Barbara Whipple Trail.

The trip takes four days including travelling. The first day will basically involves travelling from home to the tour destination, which covers a distance of about 1699 kilometers. Since it’s a small group, the group plans to hire a sports utility vehicle to enable us tackle the rough terrain especially when accessing the Barbara Whipple Trail. The Barbara Whipple Trail can be accessed through the Buena Vista River Park Bridge.

From there, the group will turn east via dirt road named The Main Street. The group plans to start hiking from the trailhead. The Barbara Whipple Trail is approximately 1.3 miles, and as such, the group plans to begin hiking early in the morning on foot. This is aimed at giving the group ample time for stops along the trail.

The second day will involve a boat trip to The Arkansas River Trail, a 24 mile stretch, accessible via a dirt road on our utility vehicle. The group plans to take a 2 mile trail on foot up to the From Park restroom. The group takes a 2mile boat trip, to and fro, implying that the entire boat trip covers approximately 4 miles. Doing this requires boat a non-motorized oar driven boat, to be hired on site.

Leadership roles

The group hopes that the trip will generate a positive leadership experience to all members. As such, leadership roles have been designated to each group member as follows. Each team member has basic skills on the role allocated

• Overall team leader: coordinate, harmonize all trip activities, ensures that the group operates within the time schedule.
• Team coach: to prepare and train team members.
• Logistics officer: organize and execute the trip activities.
• A team motivator-cum-counselor: counseling, motivating and helping members overcome emotional strain
• Accountant: control the trip’s expenditure (Rilling, 1990).

Trip Itinerary

The following is the detailed itinerary for the trip.

Table 1: itinerary.

Most people going for outdoor expeditions always encounter trouble due to failure to carry specialized equipment. With regards to this, the team has identified the following equipments as essential for the success of its trip.

Table 2: personal equipment.

Table 3: group equipment.

Water sources and treatment

Campers need up to eight liters of water every day. In this case, the group requires adequate sources of water for drinking and other purposes such as bathing and minor washing. The Arkansas River, despite being a famous tourist destination, is a source of water for domestic, agricultural and industrial use in Colorado. As such, the group will use water from the Arkansas River.

The Arkansas River is a source of clean water (Sandoval, 2012). Recent research indicates that hikers can use water from this river without any major treatment. However, the same researchers have indicated that hiker and visitors to this famous region ought to be concerned about the level of silt found in the water of Arkansas River (Marsa, 2005).

As such, while Arkansas River is the main source of water during the trip, the group intends to avoid the health dangers, such as wilderness diarrhea, that are likely to arise from using over silted water. There are numerous water purification methods available, and which the group can utilize.

These include boiling, decantation, chemical treatment and the use of ceramic filters. Each of these methods has its own demerits, besides being time consuming. As such, the group leader requires each group member to acquire a portable water filter, preferably the Microlite Water filter, found in mot local stores.

The Microlite Water filter is light, easy to operate, quick and easy to store. It can also filter silt and waterborne disease causing microorganisms such as bacteria and protozoa. Since it is light and easy to store, the group can carry it during hiking and purify water on the go.

Weather related information

Officially, the larger Arkansas is classified as humid and sub-tropical climatic region. Humid sub-tropical climate is regarded as mild with no extreme weather conditions throughout the year. Additionally, a humid sub-tropical climate has hot summers but no known dry weather period.

Other than being hot and humid, the summer in Arkansas is also said to be slightly mild, implying that Arkansas is less hot as compared to other States. In additional, the winters, like the summers, are said to be less cold, but drier than the summers. Arkansas’ winters can vary in intensity, unlike the summers. For instance, very cold winter spells are likely to be experienced for short durations.

Ice storms can break during the middle of the winter period. Cold and light masses of air blow under warmer air masses. This results to ice rain, which occurs mostly at night, and is attributed to the fact that Arkansas is geographically located near the Gulf of Mexico.

However, this is a rare occurrence, but when it does occur, there are devastating effects. In Arkansas, spring arrives from the beginning of March, but is short lived. By early April, most of the land mass is covered in luxuriant vegetation (Redmond, Foran and Dwyer, 2009).

Arkansas is divided into five natural climatic zones, the Arkansas River Valley being one of them. The Arkansas River Valley experiences elevation in temperatures throughout the year. The lowest temperatures (39.5) are experienced in January, and the highest temperatures (81.5) are experienced in July.

As such, the average temperature in Arkansas River Valley is around 60 degrees. Arkansas River Valley receives an average rainfall of about 48.52 inches with about 5 inches of snowfall (Nuttall, 1999). As such, since the group is taking the trip during the summer, it is expected that the entire duration will be hot, sunny and humid.

Daily preparations require adequate time based planning, and as such understanding the daily sunrise and sunset times is crucial. Sunset and sunrise varies significantly especially across the seasons. Summers days in Arkansas are longer than nights. In some instances, the sun can rise as early as 6:05 am and set as late as 8:20 pm. This gives the group ample day time to conduct its trip activities.

Transportation and communication

The main means of transportation during the entire duration of the trip is road. The group, as explained earlier has acquired the services of a sports utility vehicles which will enable it access the regions without much difficulty.

Additionally, traveling from Nova Scotia in Canada via road is quite cumbersome. As such, the group is set to fly southwest directly to Kansas, from where the group will board the SUV and head east directly to the camp site.

To make communication within the group easier, every group member is required to have a cell phone and spare battery. Additionally, the team leader in collaboration with the team coach has trained the team on useful communication symbol, to be used within the group in case of emergency.

For communication with other important persons without the group, the team leader has acquired important contact details which are listed elsewhere in this essay.

Rules and Regulations

The Arkansas River Trail and The Barbara Whipple Trail are non motorized tracks, used by people, bikers and animals. The following rules and regulation are essential for visitors

• No use of motorized vehicles is acceptable.
• Visitors to follow road signs.
• Litter to be disposed only at designated places.
• Visitors to use appropriate outdoor equipment at all times.
• Visitors are to avoid activities or behavior that is likely to cause conflict with animals and other visitors.
• Dogs and other pets should be leashed at all times.

Risk Assessment and Management

Some of the mishaps that occur during outdoor activities are due to lack of preparation as well as ignorance to rules. In this case, the team leader in collaboration with the team coach has identified a number s risks and hazards that members are likely to encounter. These risks are described below.

Table 4: risks and hazards.

Table 5: Risks and hazards: severity of effects and risk management plan.

Other than the risks highlighted above, the team leader has prioritized a pre-trip training exercise involving all members.

• Outdoor etiquette: how to interact with other persons, wildlife and the natural world including proper waste disposal.
• Basic first aid skills and life saving skills.
• Basic outdoor communication symbols.
• Basic hiking skills such as how to navigate slopes.
• Watchfulness and vigilance.
• How to row a boat.
• How to avoid potential conflict with animals especially horses, dogs and snakes.

The team leader has identified the following rules as binding during the entire period of the trip. To begin with, all group members ought to stay together, and watch out for each other. No member of the group is allowed to wander off alone. The maintenance of the equipment is the responsibility of every member.

As such, members have the obligation of ensuring that all equipments are in good working condition and alert the group leader in case faults are noted. In additional to this, each member has an obligation to be vigilant of any risks and obstacles and alert other immediately, in case any of these are noted.

Emergency Action Plan

The team coach has identified the following procedures as essential in case of an emergency.

Injury emergency:

• Alert the team coach at once
• The team coach will in turn inform other team members
• If possible move to a safer ground, out of the road or trail
• Lie low and stay calm

Emergency from natural disasters:

• Alert the team coach at once
• The team coach alerts other team members at once
• Move to a safer ground if possible

Emergency from conflict with animals:

• Alert the team coach at once.
• Move to a safer ground.
• Take any necessary action that is likely to minimize the conflict.
• Incase of snake bites move to a safer ground, alert the team coach, lie low and use a string to tie the body organ above the bite. Appropriate first aid follows.

The following hospitals are identified as essential for medical emergency:

• Little Rock Baptist Health Medical Center, located west of the camp site along Wilbur D free way. Telephone 501-202-2000.
• The University of Arkansas Medical Center, located west of the camp site along pine/Cedar Street. Telephone 501-686-8000.

Contingency plan

The table below highlights likely unexpected occurrences and contingency plan.

Table 6: contingency measures.

Misc

The following contacts are vital:

• San Isabel Range District office, telephone 719-539-3591.
• Buena Vista Trails Advisory Board, telephone 719-395-6119.
• Buena Vista Fire Department, telephone 719-395-8098.
• Buena Vista Police Department, telephone 719-395-8654.

Appendix: map

Reference List

Lepper, T. and Colorado State University. (2008). Reregulating the flows of the Arkansas River. Ann Abor, MI: ProQuest LLC.

Marsa, L. (2005). Going below the surface. Los Angeles Times. Web.

Meyer, E. (2009). Barbara Whipple trail track. Web.

Nuttall, T. (1999). A Journal of Travels into the Arkansas Territory during the Year 1819. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press.

Rilling, C. (1990). The most important co-leader skills and traits on extended outdoor expeditions as perceived by leaders. Web.

Redmond, K., Foran, A. and Dwyer, D. (2009). Quality lesson plans for outdoor education. New Jersey: Human Kinetics.

Sandoval, E. (2012). Guest commentary: balancing energy development with protecting public lands. Web.

British Strategy for the Campaign of 1755

The British military forces used Time-honored European methods, a strategy where soldiers stood shoulder to shoulder in an open ground and fired mass volleys against the enemy in unison (Lundquist 38). This strategy had been successful in the past, and General Braddock believed that it was the most appropriate strategy to defeat the enemy. To use this strategy effectively, the British army had to spend a lot of time preparing a road from their own camp towards their area of target. The road would help in the transportation of supplies and heavy artillery that would be used in war. The weapons used in this strategy could not be successful in the forest, and that is why Braddock’s forces were forced to prepare the road (Chartrand 92). Although some of the lieutenants of General Braddock saw a number of flaws in the strategy of their campaign and raised these issues with their commander, the general was convinced that the strategy would work.

How Braddock’s Defeat Affected the Strategy

According to Chartrand, the defeat of General Braddock was not expected because of a number of reasons (23). First, Braddock had almost thrice as many soldiers as the French and Canadian forces. The British soldiers were also well trained and they had superior weapons. The defeat, therefore, had serious consequences on the strategy employed by the British forces. The defeat inflicted panic and confusion in the British camp, especially following the death of General Braddock. The remaining forces were unable to employ this strategy effectively because they realized that their opponents were using guerrilla tactics which was a superior strategy to that used by the British forces (Gregory 74).

Given that the battleground had many forests, the guerilla strategy was more appropriate than the Time-honored European strategy that was employed by the British forces. Braddock’s death made the British forces to believe that they had lost even though they still had a chance of winning the war. It is recorded that by the time of retreat, the British forces still outnumbered the French, Canadian, and Indian opponents, and they also had supplies (Derby 44). However, their mentality was that they had failed, and therefore, could not continue with the war. They had to retreat.

Successful Aspects of This Campaign

Some of the aspects of this campaign were successful, especially at the initial stages. The decision to build a road, although it slowed the pace of their movement, was very successful because it allowed the British more time to survey the area and organize their attacks. It also made it easy to move the weapons and supplies (Preston 81). The road played a critical role in enabling the British forces to retreat when they noticed that they were overpowered. Another success in this campaign was the discipline of the forces. After the death of their commander, the other lieutenants such as George Washington were able to organize the entire force and make a timely retreat to reduce the casualties. Lack of such level of discipline would have resulted into more deaths and injuries of the British forces. The ability to convince a number of local Indians to join the forces as scouts was also beneficial (Kalayjian and Eugene 119). These locals knew how to monitor activities going on in Monongahela and this helped the British forces in planning their attacks.

Works Cited

Chartrand, Rene. Monongahela 1754-55. Oxford: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2013. Print.

Derby, Paul. Indian Trails, Military Roads, and Waterwheels: Cultural and Ecological Transformations at Glen Lake, New York: Cengage, 2008. Print.

Gregory, Sheila. Voices of Native American Educators: Integrating History, Culture, and Language to Improve Learning Outcomes for Native American Students. Hoboken: Wiley, 2013. Print.

Kalayjian, Ani, and Dominique Eugene. Mass Trauma and Emotional Healing Around the World: Rituals and Practices for Resilience and Meaning-Making. Santa Barbara: Praeger, 2010. Print.

Lundquist, Suzanne. Native American Literatures: An Introduction. New York: Continuum, 2005. Print.

Preston, David. Braddock’s Defeat: The Battle of the Monongahela and the Road to Revolution. Hoboken: Wiley, 2015. Print.

When Commodore Matthew Perry’s squadron arrived in the ports of Japan in 1853, he was aware that his mission was not simple. However, he made sure that his request was presented in a manner that made it hard for the Japanese to say no. Interestingly, among all the American’s requests, only one was quite pressing. The American Navy wanted a coaling base for its steamships and Japan provided the perfect location. However, the success of Perry’s mission ended up changing the history of Japan and the world at large. For instance, the Tokugawa Shogunate’s reign over Japan was greatly undermined by the arrival of Perry’s squadron.

Before the Commodore’s expedition to Japan, the country had remained isolated since 1600. The Shogunate had ensured that it did not allow foreigners to Japan, fearing the influence that Western powers had shown over their neighbors in China and Korea. Before the American treaty, only the Dutch had access to Japan, and they ensured that they maintained this advantage over other Westerners. In the politics of 1853 Japan, the ruling elite had control over all aspects of life in the country and the emperor was mostly ceremonial. All the leaders of the day included individuals who were allied to the Tokugawa, and their power was directly connected to their proximity to the ruling elite.

The Kanagawa treaty tore down Japan’s defensive walls against outside influence. Soon after, the ruling regime realized that they were losing control over the local currency as a result of foreign monies that were entering the country. This inflation also meant that those opposed to the Tokugawa were able to consolidate power using other methods of influence. Other nations from the West also reignited their interest in Japan, and this led Japan to sign other treaties with countries such as Russia, France, Britain, and the Netherlands.

Initially, these treaties did nothing to improve Japan’s interests because they were often unequal. In the ensuing confusion that resulted from the Western influence, the Meiji Restoration was able to capture power from the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1867. The Meiji was an alliance of clans that saw the opportunity to challenge the weakened ruling regime and ascend to power thereby returning power to the emperor.

The social order of the Japanese was intact during the Tokugawa even though freedom was largely limited. A sizeable portion of the population believed that the ruling elite was tolerable. However, the influence of the West, and the subsequent fall of the Tokugawa became a golden opportunity for the population to be enlightened. Consequently, the fall of the Tokugawa was inevitable because “they alienated many Japanese from the politics of the state and many people were unrepresented, as a result, political murmurings of unhappiness and the need for change were ever-present on the local level” (Blumberg 72).

Works Cited

Blumberg, Rhoda. Commodore Perry in the Land of the Shogun. New York: Harper Collins, 1985. Print.

Introduction

Historians have argued over the short-term and long-term impacts of the famous Lewis and Clark Expedition of the early 19^th century, especially in economic, social, and political aspects. While it is clear that the political and economic achievements were made both on long-term and short-term basis, the social impact of the European American entry into the native west is largely arguable, especially due to the reduction of the native population after the introduction of new diseases and the disruption of their social and cultural systems. From a historical perspective, this analysis will show that the expedition did make positive political and economic impacts on the side of the US, but the social and cultural impacts on the natives were largely negative.

The Expedition started shortly after the United States purchased Louisiana from France in 1803 (Bassman 12). After the successful purchase, the huge country to the west of Louisiana was largely unknown to the Americans and Europeans as well. To consolidate the American presence in the new world, President Thomas Jefferson commissioned Mariwether Lewis, the presidential private secretary, on a fact-finding mission. In his own words, Jefferson told Lewis to map out the land “for commercial purposes”, indicating that the intention was to ensure that the US wanted to gain a trade route to the western coast and exploit the minerals that would be found on the vast land west of Louisiana (Bassman 17). For his part, Lewis, a career military man, invited William Clark, a former colleague and one of Lewis’ most trusted and dedicated individuals in the army.

Although the American interest in preparing for the expedition was to map out the land for commercial and scientific purposes, it is clear that international politics were the central focus of the US government. In particular, the United States wanted to claim the huge piece of the continent and its resources before any European power could do so.

Consequences of the expedition

It is true that Lewis and Clark established a trade route between the United States and the western coast through the newly purchased Louisiana. However, the commercial significance of this trade route was not achieved until several years later. Therefore, one cannot argue that the commercial purposes proposed by Jefferson were the only short-term results, although significant commercial achievements were made. However, other short-term consequences of the expedition emerged (Bassman 34). First, the United States government and several other interested American companies and individuals considered entering the new land for commercial and agricultural purposes. The number of Americans entering the western region increased significantly, with traders in wool and fur, a popular trade that was popular between 1805 and 1812 (Bassman 38). Manuel Lisa and John Colter established short-term trade routes between Montana and several regions of South Dakota (Bassman 56).

Although the commercial route was short-lived, it was renewed after the 1812 War, especially when the Mountain Man period was at its peak. To solidify the trade routes, the Americans established several posts in the region. Fort Union was the most important and largest post. It was owned and controlled by the American Fur Company, a private corporation from St. Louis (Bassman 36). These developments attracted other industries and individuals within a short time. For instance, American artists such as Paul Kane, Karl Bodmer, George Catlin, and Charles Memin followed the expeditions, took photographs and maps of the images of the land, especially the Northern Plains. This popularized the nature of the western side of the continent, which attracted huge immigration. Overall, these efforts increased the population of American companies and the population of European Americans.

In addition, the American, military made a number of successive expeditions after the Lewis-Clark route, establishing several posts and mapping out the land. Consequently, the American military had a relatively heavy presence in the area. With an increased American population, most European powers, especially Britain, Spain, the Dutch, and France, we’re unable to claim the area, which gave America the opportunity to claim it (Gilman 96).

On the other hand, the social and cultural impact on the new areas was largely negative, especially for the native people. When trying to establish links between the US and the west, the Americans increasingly interacted with the natives. They forced or coerced native chiefs and tribal leaders to agree to the American terms, especially to ensure that the natives rejected proposals to sign agreements with other European powers. They were forced or coerced to enter into agreements with American companies and governments.

Secondly, the population of European-Americans increased rapidly between 1805 and 1820. The natives increasingly lost their lands and natural resources to the invading white Americans (Burns 158). Moreover, the invading Americans came with a substantial number of black slaves, which increased the population of foreigners at the expense of the natives.

Historians agree that the worst impact of the expedition was the introduction of foreign diseases and disease-causing microorganisms in the area after the expedition. For instance, the smallpox disaster of 1837 struck the Mandan natives, destroying thousands of lives (Gilman 77). In fact, the massive deaths weakened the once strong and united tribal group. However, the disaster made the natives realize the dangers caused by the American invasion, forcing some groups such as the Mandan, the Arikara, and the Hidatsa joined forces and involve in trading, hunting and farming (Burns 131).

Socially, the interaction between the natives and the European Americans caused the forced loss of culture among the natives. For instance, the reservation system was instituted, which resulted in the loss of massive tracts of land (Gilman 89). To avoid rebellion, the Americans forced the natives to change their way of life, convert to Christianity and denounce the traditional belief systems. Moreover, the native children were forcefully taken to American boarding schools thousands of miles away in the Eastern states, which disrupted the social and cultural systems among the natives (Bassman 69). The trans-Mississippi pass became a popular method of interfering with the social, economic and cultural systems of the native societies.

By mid-19^th century, the American military, companies and workers were involved in massive construction of infrastructure, especially railroads. The military and police were brought to protect the rail workers from the native attacks. Consequently, many forts and posts were established in various regions such as Yates, rice, Buford, Berthold, Totten, Abraham Lincoln, McKeen and Abercrombie (Burns 174). These forts attracted traders, companies and settlers, eventually becoming major cities across North Dakota, South Dakota and other new states.

Conclusion

The Lewis and Clark Expedition were initially meant to establish a trade link between the east and the west coast through Louisiana. However, the consequences were multiple. Politically and economically, the US was able to claim the entire region west of Louisiana, establishing various trade centers, railroads, military centers and settlements. On the other hand, the natives lost their culture, social system, traditions as well as lands and natural resources.

Works Cited

Bassman, John H. A Navigation Companion for the Lewis & Clark Trail: History, camp locations and daily summaries of expedition activities. New York: Springer, 2009. Print.

Burns, Ken. Lewis & Clark: The Journey of the Corps of Discovery. New York: Cengage Learning, 2010. Print.

Gilman, Carolyn. Lewis and Clark: Across the Divide. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books, 2003. Print.

During the period of 1405-1433, the Chinese government then referred to as the Ming government under emperor Ming Chengzu had an intention of establishing itself as a strong yet friendly government. It intended to strengthen its relationship with the neighboring countries especially those located along the Indian Ocean. In order to achieve these objectives, it had to resort to trade with different countries, establish a Chinese presence in these countries, and astound foreign people around the Indian Ocean. In fulfilling these objectives, Zheng He, born in 1371 was chosen to lead the expedition into various countries and kingdoms (Hadingham, www.pbs.org).

Zheng He, under the orders of the emperor, conducted seven expeditions to the West seas thereby visited countries such as India, Indonesia, East Africa, Arabia, and Thailand. Zheng He acted as an envoy of China and conducted his activities in a diplomatic manner and in situations where he was attacked especially by pirates; he dealt with them in a magnificent Chinese military-style thereby showcasing Chinese superiority both in diplomacy and battle. His first expedition was in the period 1405-1407; with him were more than 300 ships that carried soldiers to assist during an attack, medicine men, interpreters, and meteorologists. In addition, the ship carried precious commodities such as silk, gold, copper, utensils, and mercury to be given out as gifts to the kings and emperors of the various countries that he would have visited. In this expedition, he covered the following regions; Champa currently known as Vietnam; Java currently known as Indonesia; the city of Palembang in South Sumatra; Malacca in the State of Malaysia; Sumatra; Cochin of India; Kollam; Lambri, and Aru. The second expedition was during 1407-1409 that he made it to the same country as the first expedition. The third expedition was in 1409-1411 where he visited Kaya and Coimbatore in addition to his first and second expedition countries he had visited. The most expeditious and ambitious journey of Zheng was his fourth trip (1413-1415) where he traveled to the Persian Gulf. In this expedition, he met numerous merchants dealing with invaluable stones and metals where he was able to collect various precious commodities for the emperor. His trip went as far as Bangladesh, and Malindi, a town in East Africa where he together with his crew saw various wild animals and consequently came back home with a Giraffe from Malindi as a gift which acted as a symbol of lasting peace and prosperity according to the Court officials. His fifth expedition (1416-1419) covered Mogadishu, a city in East Africa, Pahang, Brawa, Aden, Maldives, Sharwayn, and Hormuz in addition to all other towns he had already covered before. The sixth expedition was around (1421-1422) and the seventh expedition occurred in 1430-1433.

In total, Zheng has covered approximately thirty countries during his expeditions. Through these expeditions, China established a good relationship with various countries especially countries located along the Indian Ocean. For example, a trade relationship was established between China and Malindi where wild animals from East Africa were traded with Commodities from China. In all the expeditions, Zheng acted as an envoy a job he performed extremely well, and to a small extent acted as a commercial representative of China thereby marketing China’s commodities abroad. In every country he visited, he made a lasting impression on the leaders of those countries by presenting them with gifts such as Gold and Silver from the emperor of China and subsequently inviting them to China. He did this by skillfully adopting the native’s cultural practices that made him welcomed frequently in those countries. Consequently, his expeditions were fruitful when various countries sent their diplomats and trade representatives to China; cases in point being the Philippines and Malaysia. As a result, the economic, political, and cultural exchanges grew between China and other countries where Zheng visited.

In conclusion, Zheng represented China as a diplomat and not as a merchant thereby building on the relationship between China and various countries. However, he did not establish a strong trade relationship between China and these countries. As a result of these expeditions, Zheng established himself as the greatest explorer of all time according to many scholars.

References

China Style. Zheng He’s Great Voyages. 2009. Web.

Hadingham, Evan. Ancient Chinese Explorers. 2009. Web.

Prof. Su. Story of Zheng H. National Taiwan Ocean University. 2009. Web.

The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Research topic: Zheng He. 2009. Web.

Introduction

History is a controversial phenomenon because it cannot always give a consistent appraisal of an event. For example, almost every agreement can be either positive or negative, depending on what side comments on it. The same refers to the Lewis and Clark Expedition of the early 19^th century. The given expedition resulted in economic, political, and environmental benefits for the United States, while Native Americans later considered it as an encroachment on their freedom and independence.

Intended Goals of the Expedition

Being one of the most significant expeditions in US history, the given mission had the following background. In 1803, Jefferson stated that the nation had bought approximately “825,000 square miles of land, mostly inhabited by Native Americans” (Meares par. 2). Since no American citizen has visited that territory, the president decided to send an expedition to explore the land. The journey was headed by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, who were representatives of the military. Also known as the Corps of Discovery, the men started the expedition in 1804.

Jefferson provided Lewis and Clark with precise tasks to be performed. In addition to creating a map of new territory, the mission needed to establish political and economic relationships with the indigenous population as well as study flora and fauna. Jefferson’s another requirement was to find an all-water route along the Missouri River to reach the Pacific (Meares par. 6). Considering such a wide range of goals, one should not be surprised that it took almost two years for the mission to travel there and back. In general, the Corps of Discovery managed to perform most of its tasks, but the following comments will present a detailed insight into the expedition’s impact.

Results

To begin with, one should mention that the expedition failed to find the direct water route to the Pacific because it does not exist. However, the journeymen reached the ocean by overcoming the Rocky Mountains. At the same time, the mission managed to end their journey with a few positive outcomes. It related to the fact that various relationships with the indigenous population were established. Firstly, Lewis and Clark laid the foundation for fur trade with Native Americans, which would be economically beneficial for the USA.

Secondly, social and political advantages were represented by close diplomatic contacts between the Indians and the United States. Finally, one cannot underestimate the cultural meaning of the expedition because its members encountered many local tribes, including the Nez Perce, Mandans, and Sioux, as well as discovered their customs and traditions (Meares par. 10).

In addition to that, it is necessary to comment on the environmental impact of the mission. Over their journey, Lewis and Clark identified and described “at least 178 plants and 122 animals” (Meares par. 17). Among these creatures, some species had not been known to American zoology before.

Consequently, the mission was a significant impulse that stimulated the development of US science. It was so because the findings made environmentalists organize new expeditions to explore flora and fauna of the new territory, which resulted in many essential discoveries. For example, the Lewis and Clark mission helped find bighorn sheep, mountain beaver, barking squirrel, and others (Meares par. 17). Thus, one can say that the given expedition managed to generate many positive results.

Native American Views

Irrespective of the advantages mentioned above, it is impossible to assess the expedition unequivocally because of its impact on the indigenous population. It relates to the fact that Lewis and Clark showed that non-native Americans could have control over more extensive territories, which was the first step toward invading the West. Thus, the US government started taking specific actions to settle the Western regions with white Americans. For this purpose, the Indian Removal Act of 1830 was created to make the Indians leave their land and move deep into the West (National Park Service par. 5).

Furthermore, 1851 witnessed as the Indian Appropriations Act obliged Native Americans to live within reservations, which allowed the government to redistribute the land among settlers and businesses (National Park Service par. 5). In addition to that, Indian children attended boarding schools where they were not allowed to “speak their native languages or practice cultural traditions” (National Park Service par. 6). Thus, the Lewis and Clark expedition resulted in many problems for Native Americans.

Conclusion

One cannot deny the significance of the given mission for US history. On the one hand, it is necessary to emphasize its positive outcomes. Lewis and Clark explored the new territory of their nation, which would result in more journeys sent to that land. They also analyzed local flora and fauna, which contributed to the development of environmental sciences in the United States. Furthermore, established contacts with the indigenous population were profitable for the USA because the country developed its trade and political relationships in this manner.

On the other hand, the expedition was harmful to Native Americans because the government started inhabiting these territories with US citizens by expelling the Indians. Thus, the Lewis and Clark expedition was beneficial for the United States but harmful to Native Americans.

Works Cited

Meares, Hadley. “Lewis and Clark: How the Explorer’s Corps of Discovery Transformed North America.” Biography, 2019. Web.

National Park Service. “The Expedition’s Impact on Indigenous Americans.” National Park Service, 2017. Web.

When researching the topic of US Westward Expansion in the 1800s, one might emphasize the contribution of several specific historical events that were decisive for the overall entrance into the West of the continent. The strategy toward Western Expansion was implemented in the mid-1800s. Two significant events that were particularly important in that context were the Lewis and Clark Expedition and the California Gold Rush.

The former was one of the first steps toward expansion to the West. It was held between 1803 and 1806; during this time, the expeditors learned about the land, nature, and geography of the area (Petrelli, 2018). The California Gold Rush was a gold mining movement in the middle of the 1800s when many people traveled to the West for gold, which intensified Western Expansion (Conrad et al., 2021). The Lewis and Clark Expedition might be considered a more impactful event in terms of its contribution to Westward Expansion. It formed a solid background for future interventions; without the expedition, people would not have had enough information to start gold mining and other efforts to invade the West.

The validation for both of the discussed events was the American ideology that motivated Westward Expansion. Indeed, the ideology of Manifest Destiny was a prevalent justification for all the efforts that were made to encourage the settlement of the areas in the West. In particular, Manifest Destiny was an ideology that had a sacred meaning implying that the United States had an obligation before God to expand its democracy across the continent (Petrelli, 2018). Its impact on the Lewis and Clark Expedition was profound since this event was initiated by President Jefferson with the validation of serving God through the exploration of the West (Petrelli, 2018). In a similar manner, Manifest Destiny was a determining and encouraging ideology for the California Gold Rush, which was another tool for exploiting and populating the West.

References

Conrad, C., DeSilva, U., Bingham, B., Kemp, B. M., Gobalet, K. W., Bruner, K., & Pastron, A. G. (2021). Finny merchandise: The Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua) trade in Gold Rush-Era San Francisco, California. Journal of Anthropological Research, 77(4), 520-549.

Petrelli, M. (2018). Manifest Destiny: The American West as a map of the unconscious. Between, 8(15), 1-22.