According to Sartre, existential ethics provides humans with a newfound sense of optimism and joy. He connects joy and freedom with being free and thus having to choose a purpose in life. I agree with his existentialism and freedom of man philosophy since I know that as human beings, we have free will, and thus, we can make our choices, and when we realize this, we are more optimistic and happier in life.
Theory of Existentialism
The main thesis of the theory of existentialism is that existence precedes essence and that one has to start from subjectivity. For Sartre, men exist before his essence is known, which means that the human being is determined, constructed, and invented while acting in the world. Sartre’s existentialism differs from Christian existentialism, which has to carry de as its main exponent. Sartre argues that our choices build innocence, there are no predetermined values, and there is no idea of human nature; in this, he does not differ so much from Christian existentialism (Kruks 72). However, the big difference is that, for Sartre, there is nothing that conditions or justifies the necessity of our existence, just as our existence does not serve a single purpose.
Man is a project in eternal construction, says Sartre; thus, man is nothing more than what he makes of himself; this is the first principle of existentialism. This is a concept that I agree with because I think that every time we choose to act in a certain way, our own identity is built, determining the very notion of humanity. In this sense, no one is doomed to be bad or good, unsuccessful or successful, just as we have no one to blame for the consequences of our actions and the direction our lives take. Furthermore, each of our actions becomes possible action for all other human beings and contributes to forming the general idea of what humanity is.
Sartre motivation for his Philosophical Apparatuses
Jean-Paul Sartre created, from all these philosophical apparatuses and the influences of the German Martin Heidegger. This profoundly existentialist philosophy prioritized material and concrete existence over any possible essence. This means that the human being does not have an essence that defines him immediately, but he is defined according to how he lives. The human being is built individually daily and will never be ready and defined because that construction process only ceases with death (Kruks 68). Therefore, everyone is responsible for their lives, and they choose how to live, thus making them paradoxically condemned to freedom.
To explain the existentialist theory, Sartre resorted to psychophysical dualism as the composition of the human being. He argues that we are composed of a body (matter) and an immaterial consciousness. It is not possible to have a conscience without a body, Sartre is a materialist philosopher, just as a body without a conscience is not a human being. The philosopher then makes use of two central concepts. The first concept is ‘being-in-itself,’ which is the one that has a defined identity; that is, they are objects and things. It is also part of the human being because it is his body. The second concept is ‘being for itself,’ which means it is aware of itself and lives for itself but does not have a defined identity. It is the consciousness that composes us as human beings.
These two concepts lead the human being to a situation of anguish because, while “being-in-itself,” he wants to be identical to himself. However, he cannot because consciousness does not have a ready and defined identity. There is also no way to be just consciousness, pure consciousness, because all consciousness, in order to exist, needs a body. As a result, there is no human nature, and since there is no nature, there is also no human essence. There is only the state of humanity. The presence of humans will always require construction. He will always be in the situation of something; he is not something. He will, therefore, always be conditioned to anything that temporarily qualifies him as a being that exists for that.
Existence Precedes Essence
The main question we must understand in relation to Sartre’s philosophy is what it means that existence precedes essence or essence. Sartre himself uses an example to illustrate his point. Imagine a craftsman making a letter opener. He has a clear picture of what this letter opener should look like and its use. With that in mind, he goes to work, using existing processes of manufacture to ensure that the letter opener will serve his preordained purpose (Elbe and Blumenfeld 52). It is clear from this example that in objects of this kind, essence precedes existence. First is the idea, the totality of all properties and manufacturing processes that define the term letter opener and stands as a pure idea in space. The craftsman only reaches for his tools and brings the object into existence. The essence of the letter opener now receives its material body, its object-ness.
I agree with Sartre’s philosophy of existentialism which argues that existential ethics plays a crucial role in giving human beings a sense of joy and optimism. I believe that if we do not know why we exist or if we do not have a purpose as human beings, then life will be boring, and we will be unhappy. For example, since I was a kid, I have wanted to be successful, and thus in my life, I have been trying to attain these goals through my career and education. This is what I call my purpose or essence; through this essence, I get the willpower to live and continue working towards realizing my goals. Therefore, Sartre’s argument about existential ethics makes sense because I would be unhappy, and life would be tasteless if I were just in an absurd existence without a purpose.
Freedom and Consciousness
The subjective level we have entered is particularly evident in Sartre’s comparison between freedom and consciousness. Freedom is a personal experience, not an event that happens to us from the outside, but a daily, inner experience. In my consciousness, I experience only myself. I cannot connect anyone to it and can never intrude into someone else’s. I recognize myself in the other person and conclude that he is also conscious; however, when given the task of describing consciousness, I can only fall back on my own. The same applies to the freedom that underlies my consciousness.
Conclusion
People often believe that humanity is lost, and for Sartre, the fault lies entirely with society. Therefore, the responsibility of the people is much greater than one can suppose, as it engages the whole of humanity. It is noticeable that the notion of freedom is the central element of Sartre’s thought, but freedom does not mean being free to commit any action. On the contrary, this freedom is practically a burden from which man does not. All actions are fruits of choice and everything that happens results from a set of choices. Freedom is total, but it generates consequences that will have to be dealt with, that is, it imposes total responsibility. Therefore, he does not need previously determined universal values to act ethically. Our choices invent all criteria; some become universal because several individuals choose them.
Works Cited
Elbe, Ingo, and Jacob Blumenfeld. “The Anguish of Freedom: Is Sartre’s Existentialism an Appropriate Foundation for a Theory of Antisemitism?” Antisemitism Studies, vol. 4, no. 1, 2020, p. 48. Web.
Kruks, Sonia. “Existentialism and Phenomenology.” A Companion to Feminist Philosophy, 2017, pp. 66–74. Web.
Jean-Paul Sartre established the idea of existentialism in the nineteenth century, and it focused on the duties of the people’s choices in the ecosphere that fell short of ethics. Existentialism is an intellectual that stresses on the existence of the exceptional individual as a sovereign and answerable agent who guides their progress via actions of volition. Sartre, among other thinkers, prioritized the people’s moral development, and they contended that there was a need to amend moral behavior and justice enhancement in society.
Effects of Existentialism on Americans and Russians
United States administrations have tried for approximately thirty years to develop a long-term strategy for the Soviet Union. After the Great War, ties between the United States and Russia remained the same (Philosophy-Sartre). However, the two nations have a great deal of mutual mistrust and are embroiled in a geopolitical conflict that is getting worse in Europe and outside. Therefore, if America and Russia can adopt existentialism philosophical theory, people can stop doing more damage to each other and have an everlasting relationship. Furthermore, they can keep the door open for collaboration on common interests, and stop the bad habit of making promises they cannot keep.
Implications of the Commonalities and Differences among Culturally Diverse Individuals
Cultural diversity assists in eliminating unfavorable misconceptions and individual biases. Furthermore, ethnic differences help people to acknowledge and appreciate behaviors that are not similar to theirs. When people connect, they can create networks for trust, regard, and cooperation across cultural boundaries (Philosophy-Sartre). Language, attire, and customs are the cultural variations that are apparent among individuals. Major differences exist in how civilizations are structured, including how they engage with their surroundings and view morality and religion.
Application of Existentialism and Literary Works among Different People
Existentialism offers the advantage of helping people from various diversities to discover determination in their existence. People might minimize the fear of the unknown by realizing they have the liberty and the capability to select whatever they want. Leading a better life can assist ethnic groups in dealing with overpowering feelings such as terror and lessen the uncertainty of unforeseen situations (Philosophy-Sartre). People from diverse groups can learn history through manuscripts and speeches. For instance, Fight Club’s novel exposes people to the mentally disturbed, fast-talking character that frequently recycles existentialist beliefs.
Existentialism is visible in the work of Ursula K. Le Guin, “The ones who walk away from Omelas.” In this short story, the main characters refuse to follow the immoral attitudes of society and make their own choices which is the direct representation of existentialism which is beneficial for society.
First of all, it is necessary to gain a clear understanding of what existentialism is. It is a philosophical theory that people may not follow the requirements of the society around them. This is especially true when they consider what is happening to be immoral and contrary to their beliefs. In other words, individuals independently make any decisions and make choices based on their opinion. Existentialism can be helpful for society as it proclaims people’s freedom from restrictions that can inhibit free will and the development of a person’s potential.
Further, the theoretical approach of existentialism can be traced in the author’s work, and some patterns can be deduced. Furthermore, she emphasizes that people “know that they, like the child, are not free…” since they blindly follow the established rule in society that there will be no happiness without suffering (Le Guin, 2017, p. 4). Existentialism, in turn, emphasizes that action, freedom, and decision as fundamental to human existence. The literary work shows how characters refuse to blindly follow the unjust practices of the community in which they exist and agree to be “struck as goody-goody” (Le Guin, 2017, p. 3). They are unwilling to comply with norms because they consider them immoral, clearly understanding what is right and what is wrong and the guilt present in all people.
The concept of a person’s dependence on society is also manifested in the fact that people’s happiness directly depends on the suffering of other people. Consequently, residents realize that a child is sitting somewhere and experiencing a whole set of negative emotions, but they just try to ignore his pain and reassure themselves that he suffers for the joy of others. Moreover, “Happiness is based on a just discrimination of what is necessary” (Le Guin, 2017, p. 3). In this case, existentialism can also provide insight into this problem. Therefore, many people in a short story are not exercising their ability to think morally about all the bad things that are happening in society. Thus, even though they seem happy, this happiness is imaginary and false, and they have absolutely no moral convictions.
It is worth highlighting an exciting fact about the society represented by the author. Hence, those who still decide to stumble from social norms and orders never return to the city. At the same time, this is far from a negative fact, but only a positive one, since people have the opportunity to act freely and make decisions. However, at the same time, still, not one person who left did not dare to return to save the little boy. Henceforth, it can be concluded that these people escaped and Omelas was not wholly freed from social oppression.
Reference
Le Guin, U. K. (2017). The ones who walk away from Omelas. HarperCollins.
Existentialism, unlike cubism, surrealism, or impressionism, was not a French creation. The pioneers of existentialism were mostly Germans, Danes, and Spaniards. However, the credit of the present popularity of the philosophy rests mostly to the French writers. Mostly existential literature has been scarred with the brand of being pessimistic and abstract. Existentialist literature is often characterized by the absurdity of the existence of man, and how a man often dwells on the ugly and dark sides of things.
Further, existentialist literature contends that life is more often than not is marked by pain and misery. These literature are often found to demonstrate scathing anger vented against God or Fate, and constantly denouncing the existence of either. This essay argues that existentialist literature, usually adorned with fear and pessimism, is a place where one demonstrates indifferent or escapist protagonists. The paper will first discuss various existentialist literature and then analyze Albert Camus’s The Stranger as an existentialist novel.
Before we start an inquiry into existentialist literature, it is essential to understand what is existentialism as a philosophy. Existentialism as philosophy begins from the point of individual existence. Everything in and around man stems from this single, beginning idea.
Hence, the potent of the idea is that the philosophy is based on the individual and not the universe. Existentialist thought and philosophy are based in the literary vein as those by Nietzsche Kierkegaard. The fundamental questions that an existentialist asks are – who and what I am and how I shall live my life. These basic questions reverberate in the novels and literary creations of the existentialist genre.
The existentialist novel does not paint a rubicund picture of life. The protagonists of the novel are often indifferent and accept the sordidness of life with an unusual complacency. Nothing is depicted with intensified or glorified energy like evil in the works of Proust or love in novels of Lawrence. Instead, existentialist literature aims at describing the man at his basest instincts. The beginners of the existentialist school of thought were Balzac and Baudelaire (Peyre 21).
The ideals of existentialism could have been observed in writings of Sophocles and Seneca who have often described the “nothingness” of man after their “brief existence” (Peyre 21). From these writers, we may pass on to more modern writers like Fredrick Nietzsche, Franz Kafka, and William Faulkner, who were the pioneers of the tradition of existentialists as we know today. Existentialist literati like Sartre, Borges, Kundera, Pamuk, and others have followed similar depiction of the life that is pessimistic and desolate, and the protagonists are escapist cynics.
The novel The Stranger written by Albert Camus is an example of existential novel. The characters of existential novel that are explicitly found in the novel are discussed in the following paragraphs. First, the essay looks into the character of the protagonist, Meursault. Conventionally, the protagonist of an existential novel, is depicted as an indifferent, jaded, complacent, person who is cynical and shows abject dejection of any kind of institution.
Protagonists in existential novels play a crucial role in exhibiting the main theme of the novels. Similar has been the case of Meursault in Camus’s The Stranger. Meursault’s status as a stranger arises from his being detached, not only from his own emotions but also from that of others. This state of dispassion makes Meursault unable to feel any humane connections. His detachment from anything social is apparent in his inability to engage in conversation with others or in his inability to adjust to social situations.
The reader is acutely aware of Meursault’s inability to forge bonds with others; however, in the initial part of the novel, the other characters show no sign of astonishment at his behavior, which they perceive to be normal. Both Raymond Sintès and Marie Cardona consider Meursault as a desirable friend and fiancé correspondingly.
Hence, Camus deliberately creates a divergence in the understanding of Meursault’s character between the reader and the characters. This becomes apparent with the absence of verbal communication of Meursault with other characters.
For instance, Meursault’s relation with Marie is marked with non-conversation. Marie asks Meursault if he loves her: “I told her that it didn’t mean anything but that I didn’t think so” (Camus 35). However, Marie somehow brushes off this negativity in Meursault’s character and engages in her cheerfulness. The reader is surprised to find Marie seeking a proposal of marriage from Meursault in their next encounter.
The scene described by Camus is a remarkable example of existentialism – the marked disinterest so characteristic of existential protagonists – Meursault not attempting to please Marie and her on the hand, trying to induce expression of love and commitment in him. The lack of rhetoric or flattery in his conversation demonstrates the typical sense of detachment:
I said it didn’t make any difference to me and that we could if she wanted to. Then she wanted to know if I loved her. I answered the same way I had the last time, that it didn’t mean anything but that I probably didn’t love her. … Then she pointed out that marriage was a serious thing, I said, “No.” she stopped talking for a minute and looked at me without saying anything. She spoke. She just wanted to know if I would have accepted the same proposal from another woman, with whom I was involved in the same way. I said, “Sure.” (Camus 41-42)
Meursault agreed to marry but was reluctant to feign enthusiasm even to impress Marie. The conversation described by Marie shows her continuous failure to evoke a minimal expression of interest or passion from Meursault in favor of marriage, as he remained emotionally reticent. Meursault’s answers are always in single words or silence.
To Marie’s repeated expression of her love and passion for him, Meursault says that this attraction as just momentary and would fade with time and adds, “I didn’t say anything, because I didn’t have anything to add” (42).
The pattern of communication with Raymond was marked with Meursault’s disinterest silence. Meursault writes a letter to the latter’s former mistress. The whole point of the scene was to demonstrate Raymond’s intention to strike up a conversation with Meursault. Raymond’s real intention was to induce Meursault to support him in his plan:
Then he told me that he wanted to ask my advice about the whole business because I was a man, I knew about things, I could help him out, and then we’d be pals. I did not say anything, and he asked me again if I wanted to be pals. (Camus 29)
Even to this note of friendship, Meursault’s reply was neutral: “I don’t make any difference to me” (Camus 29). Raymond interprets this to be his consent and “seemed pleased” (29). Then, after Meursault had written the letter, Raymond repeats his question, if they were friends, and this time Meursault speaks his assent and simply says, “yes.” It is hard not to notice that even in this relation, Meursault simply remains neutral, and it is Raymond, like Marie, who takes the initiative to forward the relation.
Meursault is the best possible example of an existentialist protagonist. He does not lie or feign but simply does not feel. That is why, when he is arrested for murder, his unfeelingness infuriates others and makes them question his humanity. The lawyer assigned to defend Meursault interrogates him and is infuriated due to his indifference to everything, including God. He shouts at Meursault, “Do you want my life to be meaningless?” (Camus 69)
The only reply he could garner from Meursault as a reply to his enraged outburst was, “As far I could see, it didn’t have anything to do with me, and I told him so” (Camus 69). The jury and the judges condemned him to death only due to his indifference to everything, and not because he had committed a murder.
Overall, Meursault is an existential character, has no interest in worldly life, and does not adhere to conventional social customs. The very first line of the book demonstrates the extent of his disassociation with customary life: “today mother died. Or perhaps yesterday, I don’t know, I have received a telegram from the nursing home.” (Camus 1) The whole novel moves with the same lifeless monotone of Meursault creating an existential novel. Meursault epitomizes.
Grendel is the 1971 novel by John Gardner. It is a unique novel that retells the epic poem, Beowulf, from the perspective of the villain, Grendel. It is about the large and frightening monster named Grendel who lives in a cave near King Hrothgar’s castle. Contrary to his beastly appearance he has considerable intelligence. He can speak, tell sophisticated jokes and even philosophize about the meaning of life. He tells this story as a series of flashbacks, mixed with “present-day” scenes. He lives with his mother who suffocates him with her love cannot yet speak or reason. Despite his inherent rationality, Grendel has no qualms about eating Hrothgar’s subjects and even relishes their screams. He was first discovered by the outside world after a chance encounter with Hrothgar’s men who immediately attacked him but were fought off by his mother. Grendal bore witness to Hrothgar’s rise to power from a minor chieftain to a mighty king. One of the people he interacts with is Shaper the singer who sings beautiful songs about battles to which Grendel disagrees because he believes that battles were just brutal and petty.
Grendel’s actions soon change the songs of Shaper and this stimulates confusion in him. The confusion ultimately leads to his encounter with the Dragon who is an important foil in the story. Like Grendel, the Dragon is also capable of philosophy he believed that cruelty was good and life was pointless. The dragon is a nihilist as will be discussed later it was his influence that led to Grendel’s nihilist stage later in life. The dragon enchants Grendel and makes him invulnerable. This sets the stage for Grendel’s boredom over life because he does not even have to fight to kill things. Unferth the unfortunate tries to kill Grendel but fails and in an ironic twist, Grendel protects Unferth from death despite his wish to die. As was foretold in Beowulf, Grendel will be slain by Beowulf. This paper will discuss Grendel as an existentialist and as a nihilist (Gardner J.)
For Grendel to be seen as an existentialist it is important to find a definition for this term. Existentialism is that explicit conceptual manifestation of an existential attitude (Solomon 1987) that begins with a sense of disorientation and confusion in the face of a meaningless or absurd world (Solomon 1974 and Cooper 1999). In layman’s terms, an existentialist is someone who lumbers on in a daily existence confused and witless, finding little meaning in the world. An example of this would be a blue-collar worker stuck in the droll of the rat race.
Applying this to the context of Grendel it is easy to see that his early existence become existentialist. From the very beginning Grendel sees the world as meaningless, his yearning for meaning aside, he does not consider himself important and he sees little meaning in the world. His existentialism is so heavy upon his heart that he considered men rebuilding their castle as engaged in a meaningless exercise in futility. He tries to impose existentialism on them by killing them trying to break their spirit and their belief that they are engaged in some sort of great work.
Another example of his existentialism is his confused and immature dealing with arts and culture. These things bring meaning to the hum drum lives of the Danes. Yet he shows contempt for them because he wants the people to believe that life is meaningless. For example, in his dealing with Shaper he can not accept Shaper for what he is and accept that Shaper is trying to shape the songs to make it sound like life and battle are noble and glorious. Instead Grendel goes on an unholy rampage to kill as many Danes as he can the better to torture the Shaper and make him feel miserable. The abuse works as Shaper’s songs become dowdy and depressed reflecting the crushing effect Grendel’s evils have rent upon the Danes.
The heights of Grendel’s existentialism are revealed when he encounters the hero Unferth. Unferth is a mighty hero with many celebrated deeds, his current heart desires to slay Grendel and end his rampages. Contrary to the meaninglessness that Grendel ascribes to life, Unferth believes that life’s deeds are worth something regardless of whether people know about it or not. He thinks that Heroic deeds are intrinsically valuable in themselves. However, Unferth is a human and like most humans, in this story, he is unable to express himself with the mental agility that Grendel can muster at whim. As a result, Grendel makes him look dull and ignorant despite the nobility of his words.
Unferth’s dogma is so noble and just that it pulls at Grendel’s heartstrings. Grendel is almost swayed to his dogma that life does indeed have some meaning. Unfortunately, Unferth is a warrior and not a philosopher so he is not well-spoken or sophisticated so Grendel quickly dismisses his words almost as soon as he considers them as valid. He thinks Unferth’s words are crass and unlike the sophisticated speech of the Dragon altogether unconvincing.
Grendel’s response to Unferth nobility is to dismiss it as a sham and knocks him to the ground. But Unferth is a man who believes in his convictions and despite his severe injuries he is able to crawl to Grendel’s cave and again attempts to convince Grendel of the nobility of his quest to kill Grendel. Grendel’s response is to show the hero his contempt for nobility and meaning in life. Not only does he refuse to kill Unferth but he also exerts great effort in order to prevent anyone else from killing Unferth denying him his desire to die a hero’s death.
Finally, Grendel’s life is so devoid of meaning that he decides to try and kill the queen. However, his existential existence is mired by confusion. Invulnerable thanks to the dragon his goal would have easily been within his grasp. Instead, he chooses not to kill the beautiful and kind queen because he thinks doing so would just be as meaningless as killing her, to begin with.
Aside from being an existentialist, Grendel also becomes a Nihilist after his encounters with the Dragon. Again it is important to have a working definition of Nihilism before it is applied to the story of Grendel. Nihilism comes from the Latin word nihil or nothing. It is the philosophical belief that values do not exist but rather is falsely invented (Pratt 2009). Nihilism is often represented as a form of existential nihilism which argues that life is meaningless, purposeless, and lacks intrinsic value. It is an assertion that morality does not exist and there are no moral values with which to uphold a rule or to practically prefer one action over another (Nietzsche). Nietzsche is one of the most famous proponents of this type of belief.
Grendel took for his example in Nihilism the Dragon. The sophisticated and terrible-looking wyrm was his model to upgrade his existentialism to one of existential nihilism. The Dragon also believes that life is pointless. He enjoys cruelty and believes that the Shaper’s beautiful songs are just a vain attempt to create meaning and community where there was none. His teaching is for Grendel to do whatever it wanted because there was no moral or ethical reason not to do precisely what he wanted.
As a result of this experience Grendel is emboldened. His desire to live a solitary life hunting people and animals at whim is supported by the Dragon’s words. This new found support coupled with the Dragon’s enchantment that makes him invincible drives him into further isolation and existentialism. He no longer sees any point in attacking villagers or warriors because he knows that he will easily master them anyway. This newfound hubris reaches its height when he encounters Unferth, a hero who tries to slay him, Grendel’s cynicism is such that he completely dismisses Unferth’s noble sentiments and even shows his contempt for it by ‘punishing’ Unferth by preventing him from dying a hero’s death.
Another example of his nihilism is his anti-religious behavior when he decides to toy with a priest. He pretends to be God and asks the priest to describe him. Instead of hearing fear or some other emotion that one would expect from one who meets an overwhelming monster like Grendel, the priest gives a surprising analysis of religion that shocks Grendel and moves him to tears. This experience makes him very angry and makes him realize that perhaps he has achieved his life’s goal. A later encounter shocks his nihilism further when a mountain goat ignores his threats and continues to climb. Contrary to his beliefs the dumb animal has a purpose and is just performing his function in the world.
During his mad haunts, he also shows his nihilism because he is unwilling to imagine that the people’s beliefs and right to life are any more valid than his own desire to kill them. At the same time, his purposeless ramblings around the kingdom are ultimately just his effort to impose his cynical desire for meaninglessness on the normal people who want to believe that their lives stand for something.
In summary, Grendel is an ironically intelligent monster. Instead of using his intelligence for something useful he is altogether a dark and cynical creature. He is an existential nihilist. He denies the worth of other people, their values and belief are nothing to him. He thinks that the pursuit of his desires is just as worthwhile as upholding the right of the people to exist. Ultimately he dies a bitter creature who believes that he has achieved nothing other than become prey to Beowulf. This cruel fate is just as well considering that he never believed that his life had any purpose or value anyway.
Works Cited
Gardner, John. Grendel. (New York: Vintage Books, 1971).
Solomon, Robert C. (1987). From Hegel to Existentialism. Oxford University Press.
Solomon, Robert C. (1974) Existentialism McGraw-Hill, Pratt Alan. “Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy”. Web.
Cooper D.E. (1999) Existentialism: A Reconstruction Basil Blackwell, “BookRags Book Notes on.” Web.
The 20th-century existentialist philosophy considers man a free agent who strives throughout his lifespan to find the self or one’s essence (Solomon 14). In Nausea, the main character is a well-traveled 30-year-old man afflicted with intense feelings of the meaninglessness of his own being, an experience he dubs ‘nausea.’ The main character and narrator, Roquentin, is portrayed as a person without any enthusiasm for his daily living or interest in his work.
His frequent ‘nausea’ attacks, at one time in a street and in a café, depict him as a person filled with “hatred and disgust for existence” (Sartre 81). He feels that the observable attributes of objects are a veil masking the purposelessness of existence.
Roquentin also comes across as a person trying to justify his own existence. He is a man who has come into a realization that existence has no purpose. His decision to compile a story about a mysterious 18th-century French spy called Marquis de Rollebon could be interpreted as an attempt to rationalize his existence (Sartre 78). Roquentin is nauseated to learn that his intense dislike of existence is the driving force of his own being. Towards the end of the story, the narrator appears to get over his antipathy and embraces his own being on realizing that existence has no purpose. Instead of giving up all hope, he relocates to Paris to complete his book.
In The Stranger, the main character is a completely amoral man called Meursault. He comes across as an emotionally detached figure with a view that morality has no rational basis. Meursault does not grieve the death of his mother. His indifferent attitude towards morality does not augur well with the conventional society’s moral foundations and values. For Meursault, life and death mean the same thing. He anticipates his imminent death, which he considers a gratifying option to an unhappy life. His indifference to Marie’s marriage proposal portrays him as a person who does not care about relationships.
On a sentimental level, Meursault is depicted as an unremorseful and unrepentant character. He does not feel any emotional pain or distress after losing his mother. He subscribes to atheistic beliefs and quite unremorsefully murders an innocent Arab man, an action for which he is condemned to death (Camus 21). Meursault could also be seen as an honest and forthright person. He does not pretend to mourn his mother’s death to conceal his lack of remorse.
Psychologically speaking, Nausea’s main character, Roquentin, could be perceived as a person afflicted with a major depressive disorder or mental illness. The ‘nausea’ attacks he claims to experience could be interpreted as a symptom of clinical depression. As a jobless socially isolated man living in degrading conditions, Roquentin was vulnerable to episodes of major depression, i.e., nausea. Furthermore, the narrator is obsessed with a mysterious 18th-century operative and wants to document his activities in a book.
Therefore, Roquentin’s fantasies push him to search for a precise meaning of existence and elicit feelings of being estranged from the world. He does not seem to find meaning in his life or nature, which could explain his distaste for man’s existential condition. According to Cox, Sartre’s mission in the book is to highlight existential forces that manifest as a common mental problem (49). Therefore, his depressive episodes could account for his feelings of fantasy.
On the other hand, Meursault, in The Stranger, lacks a sense of morality. He cannot distinguish between right or wrong. His strong emotional detachment could be interpreted psychologically as subjective distress or psychoneurotic disorder. He feels no emotions, a condition that drives him to kill a person, not because he threatened him, but due to his lack of emotion. Furthermore, he is indifferent to natural human emotions, as he does not care about Marie’s marriage proposal.
In addition, he rejects his “essence as a loving son” to mourn the death of his mother, instead, he remains unmoved and emotionless (Camus 72). He is labeled a criminal after killing a man, but considers his actions to be ineffectual or without any grand meaning to the world. Therefore, Meursault could be considered as a man suffering from a psychoneurotic disorder characterized by a lack of emotions.
Although Meursault and Roquentin converge on their view that life is meaningless, there are certain significant differences that set the two characters apart. First, while Roquentin’s existential condition could be attributed to depression, Meusault’s indifferent attitude towards life could be the outcome of his psychoneurotic problem. In my view, Roquentin has emotional attachments to the mysterious Marquis de Rollebon, which explains his resolve to write a book about him. In addition, his recurring ‘nausea’ attacks could be construed to be bouts of negative emotions towards existence. On the other hand, Meursault displays neither positive nor negative emotions towards Marie’s proposal, the death of his mother, or his ‘criminal’ tag.
The two characters also diverge on the issue of compliance. Roquentin eventually realizes that he does not know much about Rollebon and rejects his existence as a way of getting over his past (Solomon 23). He subsequently moves to Paris to complete his book. In contrast, Meursault conforms to reality due to social pressure. As Solomon writes, social pressure that includes an element of reward or punishment can force a person to comply (31). Meursault complies due to the magistrate’s pressure. He says, “I noticed that his manner seemed genuinely solicitous”, an observation that forced him to agree with the magistrate, albeit pretentiously (Camus 89).
The central idea of Sartre’s existentialist view is individual freedom. Roquentin considers himself a free being without “the slightest reason for living” (Sartre 75). His lack of enthusiasm stems from his view that the world is random, superfluous, and redundant, attributes that he strongly detests. His worldview is shaped by the belief in complete freedom. The existentialist philosophy centers on man’s inherent free will guiding his choices without outside influence (Solomon 24). However, in actuality, Roquentin is not free because the responsibility occasioned by the freedom becomes a burden to him as manifested in his ‘nausea’.
According to Aronson, Sartre uses Roquentin to unmask the erroneous interpretation of free will (61). Roquentin’s freedom serves him no use because he did not give meaning to his own being. In this view, enjoying total freedom means giving meaning to one’s existence and having the drive to assume the accompanying responsibilities. Complete freedom comes with many opportunities, but one must accept the resultant responsibility. In my view, Satre’s representation of existentialism is not clear or straightforward.
In contrast, existentialism in The Stranger is straightforward as exhibited through Meursault’s murder charges, his decision not to hire a defense attorney, and the way he faced his death. His reason for killing the Arab was not to defend himself from the assailant’s knife, but to free himself from the bothersome sun’s rays reflected by the Arab’s sword (Camus 44). This explanation resonates with the existentialist view of free will. Moreover, he refuses the services of a lawyer because he is ready to repay for his actions. He makes an unconventional choice to go through the trial without any defense.
The way Meursault handles his imminent death clearly depicts him as an existentialist. He says, “I felt that I had been happy and that I was happy again,” for he believed that life and death are indistinguishable (Camus 91). In addition, he sees no essence or value in marriage and looks forward to dying.
Roquentin is inauthentic because his recognition of his limitless freedom sets him on a nihilist path. Authenticity can be described as living in conformity with the “existential truths of the human condition”, which includes a belief in oneself (Solomon 39). Roquentin appears to have lost faith in his own existence, which makes him inauthentic. In contrast, Meursault embodies the existential truths in his choices to kill a stranger and refusal of legal representation.
On the other hand, bad faith, in a philosophical sense, is the habit of self-deception that one has no free will (Burton par. 5). Satre equates bad faith to existence, which is ‘nothingness’ in itself. Roquentin dislikes his own existence, which could be interpreted as the bad faith. In contrast, though Meursault does not believe in being-for-others and is emotionally detached and amoral, he is honest in his actions. Therefore, Camus presents a picture of good faith in existentialism.
Works Cited
Aronson, Ronald. Camus & Sartre. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006. Print.
The poems of Wystan Hugh Auden in the 1940s covered religious and ethical subjects in a less impressive way than his previous poems. However, the poems merged traditional types and styles with fresh types that were influenced by the existentialism movement as well as Søren Aabye Kierkegaard and his existentialistic ideas.
Many of Auden’s poems in the 1950s as well as in the 1960s concentrated on the manners in which words disclosed and masked sentiments, and he acquired a fastidious attention in opera librettos, a type perfectly associated with direct articulation of strong sentiments. Auden was as well a fruitful author of prose essays in addition to assessments on legendary, political, emotional, and religious topics (Callan 211-213).
At different times, Auden worked on poetic plays, documentary movies, and other types of performance. All through his career, Auden was both controversial and dominant. Influenced by existentialism, the 1947 poem called Wrote Monroe K. Spears was a compassionate satire on the efforts of human beings to flee, via their own endeavours, the nervousness of time.
Auden hit a chord in the attention of his readers with his opportune handling of the ethical and political matters that directly influenced them. Auden became recognised not merely as a great poet, but as well a Christian humanist (Callan 214-215).
This was not due to any scheme amid moralizing modern Christian academicians, but because the era necessitated such a figure. This research paper discusses how existentialism movement and ideas of Kierkegaard influenced the poetry of Auden.
Understanding Existentialism
Existentialism is the idealistic and edifying movement that admits that the starting position of idealistic thinking should be the practices of a person. Ethical and technical judgments together do not serve to comprehend human existence; therefore, an additional set of groups administered by a standard of authenticity is essential to comprehend human existence.
In the perspective of existentialism, authenticity is being accurate to one’s personal individuality, spirit, or nature (Jacobs 26-28).
Existentialism started in the 19th century as a response to opposition of the then-prevailing methodical philosophies like the ones built up by Kant and Hegel. Kierkegaard, usually believed to be the foremost existentialist philosopher, held that a person is exclusively accountable for giving sense to existence and for existing zealously and earnestly (authentically).
Existentialism gained popularity in the years subsequent to the Second World War and controlled a variety of fields in addition to the fields of philosophy. Some of these fields included literature, drama, religious studies, psychology, and art. Existentialists normally regard traditional logical or scholarly philosophies, in both approach and substance, as excessively abstract and distant from tangible human experience.
Conventionally, experts in a given field of study do not differ greatly in ideologies and the differences are in most cases justifiable; however, philosophers differ sharply in their opinions even when addressing the same issue. Disapprovals of existentialism comprise the claims that existentialists confuse the application of their expressions and consequently dispute their arguments and creeds.
Influence of Existentialism on the poetry of Auden
It did not take long after Auden started writing poems at formative years before he came to comprehend that the means of his career was anchored in words. Afterwards, Auden started as a poet in a fresh territory, a place renowned for heartening new initial stages.
When Auden and his close acquaintance, Christopher Isherwood, took a voyage for the US, he was the most reputed youthful poet in Britain, but according to him this vocation was at a deadlock. Every one of the forms for the poetry life that he had examined in the earlier decade had amounted to emptiness, barrenness, and in a number of instances repulsiveness (Jacobs 28-29).
Nevertheless, Auden had no idea of what could restore these forms of poetry. Before leaving Britain, Auden alleged that a writer has a gift. The existence of a gift denotes the action of a provider and thus the question that remains is about the giver of the gift of writing poems. The conversion of Auden into a Christian later on signified that he had obtained the response to that question.
However, the conversion never settled his bewilderment concerning his existence as a poet. He was left to ponder on the question of what he needed to carry out with the gift offered to him by God. During the Second World War, from his residence in New York, the search of a solution to that question made Auden undertake a noteworthy scholarly and sacred expedition (Jacobs 30-32).
In evaluations and writings ordered by chief American publications, Auden would discover intellectuals and thoughts that he expected could assist him discover what he was expected to accomplish as a poet, and at that point Auden considered the possibility of exploring existentialism, Kierkegaard, and other figures like the historians and philosophers.
Among the many poems by Auden there exist a number of his excellent accomplishments comprising the three lengthy poems he wrote in the years 1941 to 1947. Some of his poems include For the Time Being, The Sea and the Mirror, and The Age of Anxiety.
Some of the poems by Auden have dazzling passages, but are defected in either their perception or implementation and thus fail to present an apparent and convincing account of the setback they set out to tackle. His position is not that his poetry is not as many as they would have been, but that not any of them pleased its readers.
During his thirties, Auden had cultivated anticipations that a poet may be a seer or even a rescuer of an ill and messy community (Mendelson Prose, Volume II 478).
In the after effects of his conversion, the judgment of Auden was dictated by what he afterward termed as neo-Calvinist, overstatement of superiority of God. Auden found a poem helpful just when it admitted its desperate and ineffectual distance from everything right or excellent that it attempted to symbolise.
Influenced by existentialism, Auden clarifies what he believes to be the single type of condition in which poetry receives valid enlightenment (Mendelson Prose, Volume II 479-480). He requests readers to picture the best grandest genre provided by a very simple touring company in existence. Ironically, the real dearth and ineffectiveness of creation makes poetry precious to its performers.
In addition, for the very first instance in their existence, the readers hear of the true word that is their sole purpose.
When all deceptions to artistic accomplishment powerlessly fall off and the performers are faced with the real selves that they had applied their concerts to run away from, they regain consciousness of the superiority of God specifically in their detachment from Him. Only in God, amid the trashes and in bodies, can poets celebrate in the ideated effort that is not theirs.
In accordance with this sought spiritual equilibrium, readers excellently appreciate the series of poems by Auden as anchored in the sanctioned hours that preside over occasions in cloistral societies and numerous churches. The poems by Auden have seldom been accorded serious consideration. The poems occupied the attention of Auden greater than any other occupation in his career.
In these poems, several of which are deceivingly informal in nature, Auden tries to accomplish no less than taking in self-reproach and appreciation, requirement, and autonomy. The initial poem entitled Prime starts with an arousing (Mendelson Prose, Volume II 481-483). In this initial preconscious instant of having eyes open, Auden is like Adam before all happenings.
Nevertheless, he is as well fearful of his existing mission, the dying process. In another poem, Auden affirms of human’s fatality, the one to perform the becoming of extinct, the one who is aware that by dusk our Good Friday will be at hand. The day of the occurrence of these incidents is Good Friday, and the location where they take place is Jerusalem, or any other place.
This apposition of instances and circumstances is enabled by the comprehension of moment incarnated in the sanctioned hours. In this regard, similar to the calendar of a church year, once occurring incidents (the declaration of ruling, the Crucifixion, the resurrection) are commemorated and in a way enacted.
Nevertheless, this commemoration occurs every other day in every year subject to seasons and bodily requirements. Accordingly, the succession concludes, not with the twilight orison of Complin, but with praises, the song of a different daybreak (Mendelson Prose, Volume II 484-486).
This next morning song does not just highlight the recurring nature of physical activities encompassing reverence, but as well signifies the sanctified progress from deadly remembrance to unconditional optimism. This aspect is not inspirational free from the bodily world but a humiliating and saving rush back into it (Carpenter 23-25). With these thoughts, Auden got himself a place in the world of poetry.
He was not just in both his career and his body, their reunion is one of the confidential accomplishments of the poem, but as well in the dual world of life and record, not a fanciful past or an imaginative prospect but the position he existed in that moment. People can accomplish the works for which they are called if only they exist in the humanity where God has positioned them.
The reason behind Christians being so unresponsive to Auden is that Auden is nearly completely disregarded and this situation bears expression. The initial setback is an apparent one, viz. all through the life of Auden, he was engaging in homosexuality. Subsequent to his change to Christianity, sexual orientations like those became difficult for him to handle and justify.
His religious conviction doomed his sexual orientation and he consented that it was evil, though he completely determined to continue sinning. This argument is however partially true. In a correspondence to Isherwood, Auden affirmed that even though he believed that homosexuality was evil, surprisingly, it had in any case saved him from turning into a leader of the institution (Carpenter 26-28).
The remark is enlightening. Auden attempted to defy his sexual appeals, but they turned out to be tougher than he was. He regretfully repeated a well-known petition of Augustine in a poem by writing and repeating that he was sorry. In the poem, he continued to tell the Lord to make him pure, but not thus far.
Nevertheless, his willpower to consecrate what there is for existence led him to search for means to be thankful to the Lord even for his offenses and sufferings, through which he trusted God to act for His own reasons.
Auden as well considered that the people of his sexual orientation were less probable to participate in the idolatry of Eros, which is very widespread amid heterosexuals (Carpenter 30-35). Therefore, his view of homosexuality was a suffering that abode the source of likely blessings.
Concerning these issues, however intricate the position of Auden, the simple reality of his sexual orientation kept him off the publications of several Christians, even Christians that are fast to pardon a number of people for spanking or being spanked by youthful women. The world of Christianity has its pecking order of offenses and may be correct in its conclusions (Kirsch 32-34).
Nevertheless, it is exceptionally unlucky that although people had judged the evils of Auden in the correct way, people should permit that verdict to hinder learning from the knowledge enclosed in his poetry. Whatever the case may be, homosexuality alone is not sufficient to clarify the Christian disregard of Auden. Most significant, maybe, is his existentialism stress on indirect statements.
This stress originated from the determination of Auden to apologise of his flattering affirmations of his own significance and that of his colleagues (Kirsch 35-37).
Nevertheless, for the greater fraction, Christian readers do not desire their poets to be lowly; however, being rather romantic, they have a tendency of desiring poets that are forecasters, prophets, and unrecognised lawmakers of the world only so long as they are ‘truly’ Christians. As they frequently articulate, Christians are fond of poems that are based on salvation.
However, Auden comprehended that nobody and nothing is redemptive apart from Jesus Christ. Auden affirmed that if Mary, the mother of Jesus, is in charge of the instances of crucial importance in the world, there is nothing that poetry can include to the incarnation of Jesus.
Auden constantly rejected the perception that poetry has some perquisite access to reality, any particularly sanctified task to undertake. Poetry was undoubtedly his career, and he adored it. For Auden, poetry is the only guiltless form of affection, an intentional sacrifice of personality in a thing.
He recognised that he might be mistaken not to feel affection for his career coupled with not accomplishing what he termed as eye-on-the-thing gaze attribute of individuals who are disregarding themselves in a role (Kirsch 38-40). In addition, Auden would by no means assert that his calling was greater than any other person’s calling was.
Therefore, Auden was an ardent Lutheran in stressing the decorum of all calling as per God’s purposes. It does not meet anyone in surprise that Auden wrote a poem derived from the medieval fairy tale of the underprivileged that cannot present something to the Christ infant, but his beguiling. The offering of the underprivileged is taken not due to its exceptional value, but due to his presenting what he had to offer.
Due to this penitential meekness, Auden began claiming repeatedly that in poetry one cannot talk the reality directly and unambiguously. In a well-reputed poem entitled Friday’s Child, Auden recalls, in a typically indirect way, the bereavement of the martyr Dietrich (Kirsch 41-44).
The designation of this poem is characteristic of the advance of Auden; that is, he is confident that the reader will recall the child to Friday was affectionate and generous, and that the reader will appreciate that the elderly mother portrays the remembrance of Good Friday; that is, when the Lord loved and provided most entirely.
The poem ends with a prayer, and a suggestion, of stillness in the countenance of a vice that cannot be understood and a conviction that, as embraced in existentialism, can be neither clarified nor vindicated:
Now, did He really break the seal
and rise again? We dare not say;
but conscious unbelievers feel
Quite sure of Judgment Day.
Meanwhile, a silence on the cross
As dead as we shall ever be,
Speaks of some total gain or loss,
And you and I are free
To guess from the insulted face
Just what Appearances He saves
By suffering in a public place
A death reserved for slaves (Auden Friday’s Child Stanza10-12).
The main expression here could be “We dare not say” (Stanza 10). The aforementioned expression is not similar to “We dare not trust” even though Auden frequently admitted, in his afterward years, to sullen times of distrust, nor does it signify “We dare not declare”, because certainly Auden frequently did declare, in church in any case.
Consistent with scripture, Jesus resurrected on the third day and consistent with Auden, ‘we’ does not talk about Christians, but about poets, whose affinity to express some deep deception makes them unsuitable carriers of the gospel declaration. Similar to what Auden said repetitively, nearly fanatically, orthodoxy is silence for orthodoxy recognises when to be quiet (Mendelson Prose, Volume IV 57-59).
Unfortunately, many Christians would not love to read such precepts especially from their poets, who conventionally should be prophesying good things to the Christian family.
Nevertheless, Auden was aware of what poetry cannot carry out, and at all times felt the necessity to position himself as well as his colleagues (poets) in his correct position. Therefore, the amusingly self-shrinking inquiry in Complin could ask if poets can become saved.
In his late life, Auden said in a speech that he, together with his colleague citizens of the state of correspondences, had just a single political responsibility, which was to have affection for the word and guard it against its rivals and any evil. There are a couple of main rivals of the correct word, viz. the unused word as well as the Black Juggler.
Contrary, Auden ultimately perceived several of his early poem as unbearably lackadaisical not just in its practice but in its ignorance for whether it preordained what it alleged. It was packed with inactive words; however, the other rival was very hazardous (Mendelson Prose, Volume IV 62-64). The Black Juggler persuades poets to consider that they might be seers and saviours.
Alternatively, as affirmed by Auden, previously in an assessment, he attempts to make an individual try to work for himself or other people what can merely be made in a number of other ways, by deed, or reading, or petition through the writing of poems. Auden employs poems to remind readers of what poems can by no means provide.
Nevertheless, in the conclusion, this move dispenses poems as authentic and imperative tasks, as they position at all times past themselves in a speechless observer to which it is not capable of speaking definitively. Auden stated this aspect in a later poem by affirming that human beings can simply accomplish what it they perceive to have been created for (Jacobs 46-48).
He continues to state that people ought to observe this planet with a cheerful glance, but from a sedate point of view.
Influence of Kierkegaard on the poetry of Auden
Kierkegaard was a philosophical and prolific author in the Danish golden era of academic and artistic action. The work of Kierkegaard cuts across the fields of literary criticism, philosophy, religious studies, psychology, affection literature, and non-factual literature. Kierkegaard brought effective mixture of discussions to stand as social assessment and for the intention of refurbishing Christian faith in Christianity.
At the same time, Kierkegaard made numerous original theoretical involvements to each of the fields he applied. He is referred to as the father of existentialism (Smith 45-47). He concentrated on individual human experience instead of the objective facts of mathematics and other disciplines, which he considered excessively separated or observational to obtain at the human experience.
He was concerned with quiet effort of the people with the obvious vanity of life and the application of distraction to flee from boredom therein. Kierkegaard as well reflected on the task of making free preferences, mainly concerning basic principles and beliefs, the way preferences change the character and individuality of the chooser.
The Knight of Faith by Kierkegaard is a representative of individuals that show evidence of choice, in that they identify the manner of their own living. Kierkegaard considered that a person should exist in line with his or her judgment. This opinion is compelled upon spiritual persons much more frequently than upon psychologists, scientists, and philosophers (Jacobs 49-51).
Likewise, Auden after deliberating on the manner of existence he lived subsequent to giving up his mysterious powers and claimed that he had never dreamed in the line of reality/was a means of quietness (Smith 49-51). However, if Prospero is correct in this, what else can the poet carry out apart from end writing?
The reader expects that at this position in his poetry, Auden would consider exactly that; that is, crafting his version of The Tempest in a bid to exit from poetry, as The Tempest has at all times been understood as Shakespeare’s (not merely Prospero’s) exit from the spectacular arts.
Furthermore, Auden kept on considering that poetry was the career in which he was called, not merely by his spirit or abilities, but by God, who is the creator and provider of every good thing (as Auden wrote in a poem in the year 1940). Nevertheless, in which way, having the incapability of language to take hold of the most significant things in and past this human race, would he accomplish that calling?
With a thorough consideration of this difficulty, Auden achieved certain perceptions from Kierkegaard. For instance, Auden established that indirect communication employed by Kierkegaard was helpful. The works of Kierkegaard that have gained most reputation are not exclusively Christian.
Books like those are effortlessly distinctive (Smith 53-55). This argument holds because Kierkegaard did not mark his details to them, they emerged under different anonyms. The aforementioned works move toward the inquiries with which Christendom is most pertained; however, they do not give Christendom responses to those inquiries.
In fact, their lack of generating compelling answers takes the reader in the direction of the Christendom faith that can solely give what is required. Kierkegaard affirmed that a false impression can by no means be wiped out directly but rather through indirect ways. Auden took up this advance and acclimatised it to his poetic requirements (Smith 56-57).
In the excellent poems of his adulthood, Christendom emerges as the lacking section of the puzzle, the response to an inquiry no one considered asking. For example, in The Shield of Achilles, a great poem of the 20th century, Hephaestus (blacksmith god), followed by Thetis (mother to Achilles), reveal the world as it emerges to the sensual observation, the observation not clarified by Christian faith.
Auden writes of three light forms adhered to three poles; the poem specifies their state as follows:
The mass and majesty of this world, all
That carries weight and always weighs the same
Lay in the hands of others; they were small
And could not hope for help and no help came:
What their foes liked to do was done, their shame
Was all the worst could wish; they lost their pride
And died as men before their bodies died (Auden The Shield of Achilles Stanza 6)
In a short while, another form is revealed in stanza 8 as follows:
A ragged urchin, aimless and alone,
Loitered about that vacancy; a bird
Flew up to safety from his well-aimed stone:
That girls are raped, that two boys knife a third,
Were axioms to him, who’d never heard
Of any world where promises were kept,
Or one could weep because another wept (Auden stanza 8).
In the Christendom comprehension, people certainly exist in a world full of occurrence of incidents (Jacobs 52-54). Nevertheless, while the cold observation of Hephaestus observes with horrifying precision, it is sightless to a number of things. For instance, one of the adhered forms might be dissimilar from the others (Callan 216-217). At some place, there is adherence to promises and individuals sob with others that are sobbing.
In the aforementioned poem by Auden, the Christendom explanation of the past is stirred up more impressively by its nonexistence; in other words, the indirect contact of The Shield of Achilles has a strength that evident testimonials frequently do not have.
The faith in Christendom assisted Auden to continue writing in a different manner also by presenting him, even if not instantly and not lacking years of intense learning and likeness, in a manner of understanding a difficulty that had preoccupied him for numerous years including the association involving autonomy and obligation.
In approximately all great poems that Auden wrote following his coming to the US, he has integrated the noteworthy occurrences of his life in several manners (Callan 218). However, he tackled each time a fresh difference on his core argument regardless of those occurrences being well comprehended as the result of spontaneous requirement or of free selection.
Auden ended up making the difficulty in this manner; that is, unaccompanied amid the beings, human beings exist in records in addition to nature. Naturally, every one observes the regulations that oversee their being. People just make decisions and live out the outcomes thereof (Callan 219).
That is what the past denotes in a great poem by Auden referred to as Their Lonely Betters. Auden takes a seat in his yard, pays attention, and reflects on what he listens:
A robin with no Christian name ran through
The Robin-Anthem, which was all it knew,
And rustling flowers for some third party waited
To say which pairs, if any, should get mated.
Not one of them was capable of lying,
There was not one, which knew that it was dying
Or could have with a rhythm or a rhyme
Assumed responsibility for time.
Let them leave language to their lonely betters
Who count some days and long for certain letters;
We, too, make noises when we laugh or weep:
Words are for those with promises to keep (Auden Their Lonely Betters Stanza 2-3).
Neither a robin can choose what to sing nor can the flowers choose their partners. These beings, existing entirely in natural world, neither rejoice the understanding nor grieve over the stupidity of their preferences for they do not have selections to make (Callan 220-222). Human beings in contrast, should and do select, and thus penetrate into the chronological world of liability (liability for time)
. People clearly recognise what it signifies to have pledges to make- and what it signifies to fail to fulfil them. However, people are not merely chronological beings, but also partakers in the natural world, and in that intelligence. Moreover, people as well are a fraction of the Creation.
Moreover, Auden had to fight with, and eventually to admit, the appreciation of the borders and restrictions of people’s normal physical existences. Although Auden was profoundly influenced by Kierkegaard, he progressively comprehended that a number of precious and essential things not comprehended by Kierkegaard existed.
At the sunset of his existence, Auden would inscribe that like every heretic, alert or unresponsive; Kierkegaard is a monodist who can take note of the given limit (Callan 223). A topic in the New Testament in the bible, regarding Auden, is the topic of anguish and selflessness; however, it is deaf to its affluent polyphony. Kierkegaard valued the passion of Christ whereas the Epiphany and Nativity did not.
Auden argues that whilst Kierkegaard deliberately held conscientiously orthodox principles, in his emotional response, he was a Manichean who had strong sentiments for the malevolence and degradation of the substance of people’s bodies.
In fact, in a different poem, Auden wrote that with justifiable hyperbole, an earthly visitor could study through entire huge works devoid of realising that individuals are not phantoms, but have organic structures of blood and flesh. Moreover, to have organic structures of blood and flesh is to exist in the world of requirement of nature in addition to living in the world of record, the world of existential alternative (Jacobs 35-37).
From Kierkegaard, Auden thus progressively came to consider that human beings are definitely complex beings, forever under natural regulations and nonetheless required to assume accountability for moment in time by making judgments; judgments whose unavoidable outcomes are yet a different form of obligation. According to Auden, this strange position is in particular humorous (Jacobs 38-40).
There is something fundamentally humorous concerning mixed individuality of human beings, as people attempt to work out Divine powers of judgment they at all times get their bodies in the way. A feeling of comedy builds up in a community to the extent that its inhabitants are at the same time mindful of becoming each a distinctive individual and of common subjection to irreversible regulations.
In addition, this comic feeling regarding one’s situation is in accordance with Auden’s crucial view of religious health. He might have dreamt in his formative years of delivering the world via his poetic influence or being annihilated in the attempt, but in his adulthood, he saw himself as he frequently observed, only a martyr to callus what troubled his feet and left him at ease just in carpet slippers (Jacobs 41-43).
Around 1950s the majority of the individuals who had esteemed the youthful Auden had discarded his poetry at adulthood as inconsequential. By 1948, Auden had changed his topical writing contents to include the depravity of human body.
The human body never requests for its formation or glorification, it suffers no conceptual hatred or scholarly desire, it trusts no speculations, and it is roused by inclinations that luckily are not accurately equivalent.
He devoted to the body a number of his most reflective poems, works whose intensity and girth have been undervalued since their handling of their focus was new and unanticipated in a time whose writers were reluctant to observe the body to be merely visible in its existence (Mendelson Prose, Volume II 487-488).
Since he learnt to treasure the body as consecrated, Auden learnt to consider it as the way and promise of deliverance, a way that is possibly not right. Human beings are not saved via the body, but they are saved as creatures in the flesh and saved for an opportunity of incarnation.
In this regard, Auden finally considered the principle of the rebirth of the body as an essential one and an indispensable remedial to the implied heresy and Manichaeism of his persuasion in existentialism. The poems of Auden concerning the body are frequently poems of thanksgiving and appreciation. For instance, in a poem devoted to his common senses and entitled Precious Five, he finishes by an arousing.
In a sense, this recurring stress on blessing and gratitude is a rectification of the religion that dictated the early ages of Auden in Christianity. It can be noted how significant for Auden was the declaration made by Kierkegaard that before deity people are at all times responsible for mistakes. Auden dealt with his own endless aptitude for wickedness in addition to that of the Germans (Mendelson Prose, Volume II 489-490).
It is believed that Auden trained Sunday school children in the year1942, and one time raised a question to his class inquiring whether they knew the looks of the devil. He afterward responded his own inquiry stating that the devil looked like him.
Later, he wrote of his belief in the lordship of Jesus Christ and affirmed that he considered that, Jesus accomplished none of his dreams and that Jesus was in all respect the contrary of what He could be if He would have made Auden in His own image (Jacobs 44-45).
Nevertheless, in opposition to all other teachers like Muhammad, Auden stated terrifyingly that not any of these teachers stimulated every side of his being to call out “let Him be crucified”.
Auden did not disapprove this profound belief of his wickedness at any time, but he finally appreciated that if he attempted to make his whole divinity around it he ultimately would turn out to be like Kierkegaard; that is, a monodist as well as an accidental heretic. This move sought to justify the poems of thanksgiving and appreciation.
Conclusion
From this research paper, it is apparent that in his entire career, Auden was both contentious and prevailing. Influenced by existentialism, Auden gave a musical tone in the attention of his readers with his opportune handling of the ethical and political matters that directly influenced human beings.
Auden became recognised as not merely a great poet but as well a Christian humanist. Influenced by existentialism, Auden clarifies what he would love to be the single type of condition in which poetry gets valid enlightenment (Jacobs 54-56).
The reason behind Christians being insensitive to Auden is that all through the existence of Auden, he was engaging in homosexuality. Following his change to Christianity, his change of sexual orientation became difficult to handle or justify.
His religious conviction doomed his sexual orientation and he consented that it was wicked. Auden completely determined to keep on sinning, as his view of homosexuality was a suffering that abode the source of possible blessings. Auden achieved discernment from Kierkegaard. For instance, Auden ascertained that indirect expressions employed by Kierkegaard were helpful.
The works of Kierkegaard that have achieved most reputation are not wholly Christian. From Kierkegaard, Auden thus increasingly came to consider that people are definitely complex beings, forever under natural regulations and nonetheless obliged to assume liability for moment in time by making judgments; judgments whose inescapable outcomes are yet a different variety of compulsion.
Consumer trends are rapidly changing, and one marketing, consumer, and business trend that is gaining significant traction recently are ‘going’ or ‘buying’ local. Driven by concern and perhaps activism that the globalized economy is unsustainable, the trend is aimed to reduce these, primarily environmental, impacts while at the same time supporting local economies. This trend can potentially be related to the philosophy of existentialism which addresses problems facing humankind as an individual and a collective. Authentic existentialism through ‘going local’ consumer trends can have positive outcomes on sustainable consumption and encourage personal responsibility of consumer participation.
Philosophy
Existentialism can be described as a philosophical tradition aimed at discovering the meaning of being human, happiness, and searching for self-identity (Steiner & Reisinger, 2006). Common themes in existentialism include freedom of thought and personal responsibility for actions. The freedom of the individual stems from the ability to create their essence, since both the capacity of free will as humans is the sub of decisions made, including the roles and identities which constitute the essence.
Existentialism is a personal decision-making philosophy, based on individual choice, not the tendency to hide behind group thought when making a decision. The element of freedom also creates accountability for the choices made (Agarwal & Cruise Malloy, 2000). The existentialism philosophy consists of 3 notions: anxiety, avoidance, and authenticity.
Anxiety is expressed through existentialist thinking as the discomfort of the human consciousness in a chaotic and unpredictable world. Humans exist in a world of meaninglessness and having unconditional freedom while facing inevitable death and universal alienation which leads to existential anxiety. It is a state of dread, a natural response to the chaos of life and unpredictable but inevitable death that can make life unsettling (Yalom, 1980). Becker (1973) derived what is known as the Terror Management Theory, which is the existential motive to defend against death via a range of behaviors. These are typically anxiety-buffering processes that establish a sense of immortality.
The two categories of behavior known as anxiety buffering processes can be identified as cultural adherence and self-esteem which defend against death anxiety. Cultural adherence helps an individual to identify with a specific social group and act by their norms, as a transcendence of individual decay. Meanwhile, self-esteem emphasizes individual uniqueness and greatness, particularly being recognized among peers and in general (Canavan, 2018).
Meanwhile, existential avoidance is strategies that humans use to evade, postpone, and flee from that discomfort of life. Instead of confronting these realities, the existential school of thought believes that people choose to ignore them and distract themselves. People choose to become immersed within the routine, often via the anxiety buffering processes mentioned earlier. However, avoidance routines are coping mechanisms, which existentialism views as inauthentic, conformist, and stifling. The philosophy believes that humans cannot escape the sense of profound responsibility and those that do, are temporarily either disguising their anguish or fleeing from it. Practicing avoidance can lead to loss of self-identity and self-actualization (Canavan, 2018).
This leads to the third and final element of existentialism which is authenticity. Living authentically is the ultimate goal, an ideal state of fulfillment associated with confronting and overcoming the intrinsic existence of alienation. In this context, means opposing public roles and culturally accepted norms, but preserving intrinsically meaningful values which transcend daily behavior (Canavan, 2018). Authenticity is perpetuated by learning, collective bonding, community rootedness, reflection, and overcoming challenges among others. Taking ownership and responsibility in the attempts to become authentic is critical.
In conclusion, existentialism is both, three distinct factors but also a journey towards that final state of authenticity. In the modern consumer culture, there are often attempts to appeal to the state of existential avoidance (the majority of goods and services) or authenticity. According to Smith (2007), the marketing landscape presents, “a multi-faceted consumerism of unparalleled individual choice which features a ritualistic quasi-religiosity where the transaction has subsumed the transcendental” (p. 325). This creates an existential consumption paradox.
Consumer Trend
The consumer trend ‘buying local’ is a millennial trend that has expanded in recent years, particularly in urban areas, in the context of globalization and prevalent issues stemming from its secondary consequences such as overconsumption, outsourcing, and climate change. The official term for the phenomenon is known as local purchasing or local consumption which is defined simply as buying locally produced goods and services rather than those produced far away.
The Local Production Local Consumption Model which has been popularized in certain cultures or populations follows the pattern of products produced by local individuals are sold in local markets either directly from farms/production facilities or typically via local stores and street markets. The premise of buying local is consumer responsibility, for consumers to change daily habits and integrate ethical and environmentally practices into lifestyles while demanding the companies and producers do the same (Davies, 2008).
The trend has stemmed from an environmentally protectionist standpoint, suggesting that if consumer behaviors in large numbers switch to buying locally, the market will adapt. In a globalized economy, a major contribution to pollution comes from transportation, followed by mass production and agriculture. Through the focus on local businesses and agriculture, transportation of goods can be reduced by lowering pollution. In turn, local farmers, artisans, and businesses can be supported, which both enhances the regional economy, bringing jobs and income. At the same time, local production also commonly uses much more ethical (albeit more expensive and inefficient) practices, reducing pollution and waste from mass industrialization/agriculture. Finally, there is the social aspect, where through the support of local businesses, consumers can connect within the community and enhance social cohesiveness (Long, 2020).
Local is informally defined as the distance that a product has to travel before reaching the point of retail. Most usually, the emphasis and marketing around the “buying local” trend tend to focus on a nearby region, of 50-100 miles from point of origin and purchase. This is particularly applicable for fresh produce (grown foods and vegetables, eggs) and artisan goods or produce (anything ranging from bakery to meats to non-consumable items such as locally made soaps or crafts).
A recent study that 46% of consumers are aware of the term ‘buy local,’ ahead of other major causes, particularly in terms of grocery purchases. The nature of the trend and definition can vary, depending on both individual and collective perceptions. Depending on the category of product, the ‘local’ element can vary, ranging from local farming produce to purchasing “American-made” cars and equipment. Since the trend is meant to be in opposition to globalization, it can be argued that it has some nationalistic elements to it, so consumers adhere to its attempt to purchase goods produced within the country. Local purchasing is somewhat divided into two camps, which do not oppose each other but view the trend differently.
There is the nationalistic, “made in the USA” approach to local purchasing that attempts to buy products from nearby but generally approves of anything made nationally. The other camp is strongly focused on consumer purchases from the local region for as many products as possible, especially in terms of food. Most consumers agree on things such as non-consumable goods as well as shelf life-stable (canned) foods are appropriate for local purchasing as long as they are produced in the country (Straza, 2018).
Local purchasing is a complex trend. For many people, it is a passion and a small part of their activism for the environment or supporting local communities. Those in support of local purchasing encourage other consumers, local businesses, governments, and even major corporations to attempt to use as many local, regional, and national resources as possible. This includes modification of supply chains and sourcing towards national production, including working with small-scale producers and farmers. Meanwhile, for others, it is just a trend as part of their ethically responsible purchasing. These households would purchase a small amount of locally sourced products to satisfy their consciousness and to project the label of “buying local.” The trend has been adopted by individuals and major corporations alike as a method of creating a unique, specialized feel to the process of consumerism.
Bringing It Together
In a modern, globalist, and capitalist world, consumerism is prevalent, driving the idea that existence is basic and fleeting. People are inherently overtaken by fads, fashion, hype, and new technologies. In a manner, it steers people away from making deep connections with themselves, with others, and with the planet. Modernity suppresses individuality on multiple levels. Furthermore, both capitalism and society are consistently driving a rapacious growth-means-development mentality which is unsustainable long-term (Sanderson, 2004).
When considering elements of existentialism, it is evident that concepts of authenticity and personal responsibility are most fitting with the local purchasing consumer trend which emphasizes sustainability. Buying local is a subset of sustainable consumption, an approach that believes that materials and energy should be used such as the minimal impact on the environment is made to preserve it for human needs in future generations (UN, n.d.). The general existentialism tradition is valuable to environmentalism as it creates possibilities for human creativity. Furthermore, it emphasizes personal responsibility and freedom of the individual, which reflects on and allows to confront the demands of environmental degradation in the collective (Ogilvy, 2012).
Applying existentialism, it can be argued that the fashionable trend of buying local is also an aspect of avoidance. The concept of shopping locally, by all means, is a new trend, one aimed at creating a one-of-a-kind neighborhood and an innovative shopping experience. Ironically, much of the marketing targeted at the trend presents the experience as “authentic” and enjoyable since it is more personable than typical retail or online shopping. The produce and goods are locally sourced and crafted, thus having a unique background, and story – owning it may create value for the person among peers (Empire Creative, n.d.). At the same time, adhering to the trend is a manner of cultural social adherence to many consumers, as a strategy of avoidance. It is a method of participating in “saving the world” or “supporting local economies”.
While the movement has multiple authentic benefits and participants who perpetuate it, discussed later, it can be argued that the large majority simply participate for social approval. Even large corporations such as Pepsi and Starbucks have taken advantage of the power of local trends, creating a space for local businesses and exchange or advertisements in support of smaller networks, despite the majority of these companies’ supply chains being globalized for the most efficient and cheapest cost (Brandster App, 2016). It is once again a confirmation, that the trend is utilized by many as an avoidance, due to the specialized feel and appeal of buying local and the reaction it receives from society.
Nevertheless, the consumer trend of local purchasing does have some existentially authentic benefits driven by sustainability and principles of community-building as well as self-realization of consumers. Community-conscious consumers approach spending critically. In the modern world, where multinational retail chains are a new standard, it is necessary to make informed decisions and support local businesses. Even if the local business and big box stores offer the same products, including potentially those that have been produced non-locally (such as mechanical equipment or hardware for example), the spending locally has the largest impact on the community.
Local stores and restaurants typically attempt to use locally produced goods as part of supply chains. Furthermore, local businesses are likely to give back to the immediate community in a personalized manner, benefiting people, including marginalized groups and families in the immediate area (First Bank, n.d.). All of these aspects can be considered authentic consumption as they are based on collective bonding and community rootedness, it brings local economies together more cohesively and effectively.
The most relevant element of the trend related to existential authenticity is the concept of sustainability. The buying local movement is focused not just on the context of local purchasing, but also highly emphasizes sustainable and responsible consumption. The premise as noted by consumer affairs journalist and author, Brenda Chávez, is “Through our consumption, we can reward fair and responsible models of production” (Acciona, n.d.). In other words, it is voting with one’s wallet.
Through responsible, sustainable consumption, a part of which is focusing on local purchasing, consumers can create new norms under which companies and the general economy operate. Authenticity stems from being a responsible consumer which is based on various actions, including reducing consumption, being more active, consuming local products, investing in ethical banks and companies, and reusing/repairing/recycling.
It can be noted that one of the biggest factors influencing responsible consumption is locality and proximity. Through purchasing from local producers, sustainable development is supported since these businesses typically respect the environment and use ethical practices in labor and other elements. The environmental benefits from local consumption are based on reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and energy saving due to much shorter transportation distances as well as packaging necessary for long transportation – both being extremely detrimental to the environment.
Socioeconomic impacts through supporting local economies and more equitable wealth distribution regionally rather than increasing the wealth of monopolizing international corporations that rarely give back to communities are also critical. Although the responsibility does not fall solely on the consumer, the consumer choices made such as through local consumption are influential in creating fair and responsible production models and bringing sustainable development (Davies, 2008).
Buying local is a consumer trend that is a catalyst of existential authenticity and seeks to place responsibility upon the consumer regarding the choices made and how they impact the sustainability of the environment and socio-economic community growth. Consumers are encouraged to take ownership by considering how their purchasing either benefits or degrades the multiple factors along a product’s supply chain (either global or local).
Whether the purchase supports sustainable farming practices or mass production, destructive techniques, whether the producer utilizes fair wage labor, or exploitative practices. It is an ethical consideration as much as an existential one. Nevertheless, existential consumer pathways are intrinsically linked to certain sustainability outcomes, and local purchasing contributes strongly towards ensuring positive development for the environment, communities, and the consumers themselves as individuals.
Conclusion
Buying local or local consumption is a consumer trend focusing on making purchases locally as a manner of reducing the environmental impact of globalized supply chains as well as supporting regional communities and producers. Existentialism is a philosophy aimed at self-discovery and addressing the problems of mankind and the world around. Consumer marketing has targeted either the avoidance aspect, which seeks to distract from the problems at hand or authenticity which promotes responsibility, independence and living authentically. This paper argues that through local purchasing, consumers practice authentic existentialism as it places some element of consideration and responsibility upon the purchasing and consumption behaviors. The factors and benefits involved in the buying local trend are vital to ecological and community sustainability, thus participating in this authentically allows for the best outcomes in terms of achieving independence and authenticity.
Agarwal, J., & Cruise Malloy, D. (2000). The role of existentialism in ethical business decision‐making. Business Ethics: A European Review, 9(3), 143-154.
Brandster App. (2016). Why the buy local trend matters for your brand. Medium. Web.