Category: Evolution

Child welfare system in Canada has undergone tangible shifts due to the intervention of child welfare programs. Despite the detrimental influence of colonization that had last for a century, the contemporary child welfare system has experienced a significant proliferation of funded and government-regulated social services.

Introducing action plans in urban areas have also been extended to rural districts, including Aboriginal population. Significant improvements have been presented to the professional field of social work.

The new professional realm has provided a strong underpinning for shaping the standards that can be used to analyze traditional childcare practices in an Aboriginal family. Despite the recent improvements, child protection policies were not consistent to meet the demand of the Aboriginal communities.

Significant changes started with the introduction of the Indian Act, the Act for the Prevention of Cruelty to and Better Protection of Children of 1981, and the Child Welfare Act of 1922. All these documents have contributed significantly to the child welfare in Canada.

The history of child welfare in Canada dates back to the nineteenth century. During this period, children workforce was exploited and some of children were even owned by their parents. At the end of nineteenth century, first attempts were introduced to face children abuse and avert the child enslaving practices.

At the threshold of the twentieth centuries, first organizations established orphanages and specialized schools for neglected and abandoned children. In 1981, Childrens Aid Society was established that issued the first Child Protection Act two years later in Ontario (Turner, 2005). The Act addressed the Prevention of Cruelty to and Better Protection of Children; it also promoted protection and assistance to abused children (Turner, 2005).

The legal statute at issue was premised on the Childrens Protection Act of 1988 according to which the courts were allowed to place abused and abandoned children in specialized homes.

The courts were also entitled to take responsibility for the neglected children and required the municipal governments to cover costs for childrens housing facilities (Turner, 2005, p. 13). In addition, it also introduced regulations ensuring proper training and education.

The expansion of childcare services in Canadian provinces has a potent impact on further development of child protection laws. Shifts in child welfare were largely influenced by the changing perception toward childrens engagement in labor market. In particular, the existing regulations encouraged formal education and enhanced the importance of receiving degree in various subjects.

More importantly, child care professionals were extremely concerned with family environment in which a child was placed to highlight possible psychological and social problems influencing childrens normal development.

In 1960s, the Canada Assistance Plan was implemented to protect low-income families and neglected children (Cleveland & Krashinsky, 2001). Such a policy was handed over to the current federal government, but no essential reforms were introduced due the significant expenditure they required.

As a result, there is a growing concern with the negative consequence of the governments passive participation for child development (Cleveland & Krashinsky, 2001). In 1990s, Canadian child welfare protection was poorly recognized due to fragmentation, inconsistence, and inadequacy of the introduced regulations (Cleveland & Krashinsky, 2001).

Such a situation took place despite the introduction of Child and Family Services Act in 1990 that undermined the existing inequalities in treating children.

The main purpose of this act was to promote the best interest, protection and well being of children (Child and Family Services Act, 1990). Introduction of the legal statute have provided slight improvements in the sphere of child protection. Nevertheless, there existed tangible gaps in governmental policies.

The welfare of children in Canada is strongly associated with problems in the Aboriginal community. Under these circumstances, particular attention deserves the changes made to the Indian Act, as well as how these amendments have improved the welfare of Indian children. So far, the experiences of Indian children were predominantly negative, which creates a controversial case.

On the one hand, the white population faced sufficient professional support on the part of childcare agencies. On the other hand, child welfare centers in provinces failed to deliver adequate and coherent services for off-reserve Aboriginal children.

The first attempt to protect the representatives of the First Nation had been made with the introduction of the British North American Act of 1867 according to which the provincial child welfare authorities took the view that they had not jurisdiction over on-reserve First Nations children, the delivery of child welfare services being a matter within the jurisdiction of the federal government (Harris-Short, 2012).

The emergence inconsistencies were alleviated as soon as the Indian Act was corrected in 1951. This is of particular concern to the Section 88 that ran, &all laws of general application from time to time in force in any province are applicable to and in respect of Indians in the province, except to the extent that such laws are inconsistent with this Act (Indian Act, 1951, as cited in Harris-Short, 2012, p. 44).

The amendment has created the legislative foundation for extending provincial child welfare in the Aboriginal communities. Despite the changes, the provincial government is still reluctant to take responsibility unless sufficient funding is provided.

The initiatives, statutes, and policies introduced in the twentieth century have had an enormous impact on the current state of child welfare in Canada. Increased awareness of the dynamics of emotional, sexual, and physical child neglect and abuse has triggered changes to the legal system (Harris-Short, 2012).

This is of particular concern to the development of an extensive network of social agencies, which is an obligatory requirement for professionals working in most child protection jurisdictions. The global recognition of child welfare issues has also led to the improvements that have made societies develop programs and services for children (Harris-Short, 2012).

Despite the fact that the need for child protection agencies exists, general understanding of the problem in child welfare field has greatly increased. As a result, the Canadian community creates opportunity for developing meaningful employment, adequate education, and good child assistance for working parents.

In conclusion, child welfare in Canada involves a rich history of policy development. In the late nineteenth century, the problem came to the forth as soon as the child negligence and abuse was recognized. Numerous acts and statutes were introduced to treat the problem properly.

Further amendments touched on both the Aboriginal community and white population of Canada to define what the federal government should do to improve the situation. In this respect, such acts the Indian Act, the British North America Act, Child Protection Act, and the Child and Family Services Act have led to significant proliferation of the rights of children in the Canadian community.

References

Child and Family Services Act (1990). Established on the Office of the Legislative Counsel. Web.

Cleveland, G., & Krashinsky, M. (2001). Our Childrens Future: Child Care Policy in Canada. Canada: University of Toronto Press.

Harris-Short, S. (2012). Aboriginal Child Welfare, Self-Government and the Rights of Indigenous Children: Protecting the Vulnerable Under the International Law. US: Ashgate Publishing.

Turner, F. J. (2005). Encyclopedia of Canadian Social Work. Canada: Wilfrid Laurier University Press.

People were always interested in the aspects which could influence their consciousness and behavior. In his book Cosmos, Carl Sagan discusses a lot of problematic questions associated with the spheres of evolution, science, philosophy, and sociology, providing the large context for the peoples actions because of their considerable evolutionary heritage expressed in the global knowledge collected during thousands of years.

According to Sagan, people have the significant, but dangerous evolutionary baggage which influences their actions and considerations, and this baggage can be discussed as the definite knowledge collected by the generations and as certain collected human features and qualities on which peoples reactions and activities depend.

If the notion of evolutionary baggage can be explained with references to the concepts of the development of the world and progress of a man in it, in order to understand its dangerous character, it is important to pay more attention to the details of the historical development of the society and evolution of the man as a human being.

Sagan states that all the answers to the problematic questions can be found with the help of exploring the Cosmos because this exploration can be discussed as a voyage of self-discovery (Sagan 318). Moreover, Sagan stresses that people are the children both of the sky and the Earth. Thus, during the humans term on this planet, we have accumulated dangerous evolutionary baggage, hereditary propensities for aggression and ritual, submission to leaders and hostility to outsiders, which place our survival in some question (Sagan 318).

In spite of the fact the author also refers to the positive heritage which is the developed compassion for others as the characteristic human feature, the dangerous effect of the baggage requires its detailed discussion because the consequences of peoples using this baggage can be irreversible.

Sagan pays attention to the example of the possible nuclear war as a result of the humans evolution and progress in technologies. The author states that as the technology improved, the means of war also improved (Sagan 326). Although people are inclined to develop the strategies and approaches to coping with the problems of slavery and racism, they are also ready to destroy the world with the help of the most powerful weapons.

The history provides the examples of dangerous nuclear attacks, but there are also examples of the higher levels of altruism (Sagan 330). According to Sagan, this controversy is in the human nature and the processes of evolution contribute to complicating the situation.

The author focuses on exploring the conflict of the peoples passions and their better natures in detail and states the physiological causes for the conflict which is between the deep ancient reptilian part of the brain, the R-complex, in charge of murderous rages, and the more recently evolved mammalian and human parts of the brain, the limbic system and the cerebral cortex (Sagan 326). That is why, people are able to resist their instincts which can be discussed as dangerous with the help of their inner balance.

Peoples dangerous evolutionary baggage is the challenge for them to state their humanity and save the world from destructing by their own means. In spite of the fact all the peoples actions have definite consequences and they are not always positive with references to the dangerous baggage, it is impossible to reject the fact that the persons achievements today are the results of the other peoples activities many years and generations ago.

Works Cited

Sagan, Carl. Cosmos. USA: Random House, 1980. Print.

Literature, cinematography, creativity, philosophy, and, in general, the culture of postmodernism have had a tremendous impact on modern society and the perception of some familiar things, such as time, parent-child relationships, and space. The postmodern literature authors abandon the classical understanding of linear narrative and prefer a cyclical or rhizomatic version (the term belongs to Felix Guattari and Gilles Deleuze). In a new way in postmodern literature, the authors boldly describe their own intimate experiences concerning previously taboo topics.

Their works are full of reflections of human experience and deeply personal experiences. These experiences are applied to universal human knowledge or each persons experience individually. For the first time, the authors started talking about the horrors of war and the animal fear that a person experiences. Authors no longer romanticized the war; its participants were not described as heroes. An ordinary person, yesterdays student or worker, turned out to be in the war.

Sylvia Plath and Anne Sexton paid considerable attention to mental problems in their prose and poetry. In addition, their diaries, especially the diaries of Sylvia Plath, in which she vividly describes her relationship with her father, became creative property. Sylvia Plath calls her father God or an opportunity to speak with God. It refers the reader to another author, the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan, a severe postmodern figure. For Lacan and later developing his ideas and supporting him Slavoj Zi~ek (in particular in the work of Hegel in a connected brain), the Christian God is the figure of the Father. With the figure, the child has innate contradictions, which he tries to solve during his (or her) life; these sayings are related to Sigmund Freud.

Ann Sexton and Sylvia Plath turned their personal experiences of spiritual excitement, sex life, love failures, and perception of themselves and their bodies into creativity. For them, creativity was therapy and a fight against their fears and mental disorders. For the publishers of the 70s, their works were too personal because they described too detailed and precise relationships with loved ones, including the experience of violence and cruelty.

Another example of postmodernism in literature is Amy Tan and The Joy Luck Club. It is not only the emotional experiences and the hard life of people who have gone through the revolution and the civil war that deserves attention here. Tang boldly talks about the hard-hitting details of the past of the main characters, who made many mistakes, disdained their principles, acted meanly, but at the same time tried to save themselves at all costs. Tangs work is composed in a bizarre form that is characteristic of this genre. The Tang novella resembles fragments folded logically, stories that are almost not intertwined but proceed from similar circumstances or meet in the same result. It is the rhizome, the root from which the plots and lives of different people, subsequently brought together by fate, come. The Tang characters are randomly brought together in the United States and create a hobby club to play mahjong. The symmetry of the form in which Tang writes the piece is similar to the mahjong.

Emotionality and courage in expressing feelings are some of the techniques of postmodern literature, which strives to be close to any reader. It is easier to become a creator within this work and become the author of a unique performance. Sylvia Plath, through her works, demonstrated committed mistakes, suffering from depression and mental disorders. Ann Sexton battled depression and bipolar disorder by creating interesting results in which she did not try to idealize herself and others. Amy Tan, in her work The Joy Luck Club, not only works with a bizarre and complex form of writing but also tells a large-scale story of an entire nation (in the faces of several main characters), faced with destruction and war and ended up in one place by accident.

Abstract

Language is one of the defining factors that differentiate human beings from animals. The ability of human being to use clear structured words instead of random sound used by animals makes human being unique. However, it is interesting to know how the language came into existence. It is interesting to know how the language evolved.

While others believed that language is something that comes naturally with the words encoded in ones genes, others have believed that language is an evolutionary process that has been in constant change over the years as new objects and new actions are being invented.

Professor Simon Kirby is one of the scientists who have had great interest in knowing the evolution of the language and understanding how it is influenced by people over the century. This professor used volunteers in a laboratory and created words for alien fruits. The first participant would be given the names of all the fruits, and after mastering the names, the participants would read out the name of the fruits once its picture is shown.

The next participant would be given the same fruits, but with the names given by the previous participant. This went one to the ninth person.

Professor Kirby notes that the language slowly changed from unstructured language that it was initially, to a clearly structured language with regularly parts to reflect the fruits colour and design. This demonstrated how this language evolved from a complex unstructured language, to a simple structured and easy to remember words.

Introduction

Human being is considered superior amongst all other creatures on earth. This may be because of the mystery that man has created with the help of technology, or other achievements that man has made over animals.

However, Kirby (1999, p. 19) says that one of the leading factors that makes human beings unique is his ability to communicate using a clearly structured language. This scholar says that although animals have the capacity to make sounds, they lack the capacity to use language as human being does. Theirs is limited to sounds unique to the information they want to pass across.

It is interesting to know how the language came into existence, and how it has evolved over the years. According to Huff (2009, p. 117), it is fascinating trying to understand how the language came into existence.

Some questions such as who were first people to use the language, what were the very first words, how did they come up with the words, how has this language evolved over generations, and much more are some of the questions that researchers have been trying to answer. Another fascinating fact about the language is the existence of numerous languages within a very small locality (Kirby & Christiansen 2003, p. 78).

In a country like the United Kingdom, it is common to find a person knowing only one language which is English. However, this is not the case in other countries, especially the third world countries in Africa and Asia.

For instance, Kenya- a small country in East Africa whose total land area is less than that of Mississippi State- has over 45 languages spoken by different groups of people. How could such a small geographical location be so diverse in language? These are some of the questions that scientists have been trying to follow-up.

Professor Simon Kirby is one such scientist who has dedicated their time to finding the origin of the language, and how it has evolved over the years. The professor has made effort to come up with various facts about the development of the language. This research is based on one of his experiments done to help demonstrates how the language has evolved over the years to be what it is today.

Methods

Professor Simon Kirby was specifically interested in finding how the language has developed over the years. To help in this research, the professor had to create a laboratory set-up where the experiment could be done in a near empirical form.

According to Stromberg (2008, p. 48), social scientists have had serious challenge when conducting research on human being, especially due to humans ability to change character completely when he or she knows that a research is being done on him or her.

In such cases, the person would not act normally, but would try to be the ideal person. As such, the facts that would be gathered would not be a true reflection of the person. Knowing this challenge, Professor Kirby decide to make the experiment to be in a pure science approach where it was fully based on the memory of the mind and the ability to reproduce what is taught.

With the volunteer participants, professor Kirby created a simple laboratory to conduct the research. The nine participants would not interact in any way during the experiment. To help with the experiment, the professor had clear pictures of alien the fruits would be used in the research.

The set up for the experiment was very simple. Professor Kirby had a table where the pictures of the pictures fruits were placed, the pictures of the fruits, a chair, and a tape recorder. In the laboratory would be two people at a time, the participants, and the professor himself.

With the first participant, professor Kirby made up names for the fruits in a random manner. Each fruit in the picture had a name given by the professor. The professor would then pronounce the names of each fruit to the participant severally.

The participants were only expected to memorize the names, but not to record them. After a while, the participant would be presented with the fruit and expected to pronounce the name that was given for all the fruits. This participant would leave the laboratory without meeting with other participants who have not taken part in this experiment.

The next participant would follow, but this time, the professor will give the fruits the name given by the previous participant. The participant would be expected to memorize these names and repeat them to the professor. The names given by this second participant would be given to the third participant, and the sequence would continue up to the ninth participant. All their statements would be recorded for further analysis.

Results

This research was a clear demonstration of how the language has developed over the years. When setting up this experiment, it was clear in the mind of professor Kirby that language has evolved.

It was clear to him, through his research works that are widely published, that English language has experienced massive transformation over the years and through generations. However, this experiment offered him opportunity to demonstrate how this change has taken place in a laboratory set-up. Kirby analyzed the responses that were given by each participant on each fruit.

The following table shows the transitions of the words from what professor Kirby gave to the participant, to what it finally came to be.

According to professor Kirby, the experiment developed a language that was to be used in this research. He says that these words were just made up, and did not deserve to be regarded as a language as the words were randomly picked without any clear structure. The words were picked as names of various fruits that were to be used in the experiment.

Professor Kirby says that when selecting the names, he did not give any special attention to the names of the fruits, and neither did he consider their shape or the design. The names were just assigned randomly. However, the color was chosen differently just to ensure that the participants would not confuse the fruits in the process of the experiment.

As was evidenced later, he did not know that the chosen colors would define the names that would finally be assigned to these fruits. As shown in the table above, the names slowly transformed from what they were initially as given by the professor, to what the final participant stated.

Some of the names transformed to be completely different from what the original name was. For instance, the first fruit for the experiment was assigned the name lenana. This was a name that was alien to the participants just as the fruit itself was. However, the professor watched as the name was changed to renana, renemula, pinamula, panamula, lanumula, lanupula, lapula, lanepu and finally lanepi.

According to the professor, the initial participants did very poorly. This was because they were presented with words, or a language that was very strange and unstructured. They could not relate the words and the objects because the name never reflected the either the shape or the color of the fruits.

They were just given in a haphazard manner. Each of the participants struggled to name the fruits based on three main factors, but in an unconscious manner. In their minds, they knew that they were giving names that were given to them by the professor.

This was however, a little far from the truth. The first factor that the participants based their words on was the sound of the word that was given to them. The initial participants were able to remember vaguely the sound of the words given to them. They would use this sound and then focus on the color and shape of the fruit.

This explains the wide variation between what the professor gave the first participant, and what this participant gave to be used by the second participant. The professor gave the word lapalu but this participant gave out the name pilu. As can be seen, the participant could clearly remember the sounds p and lu.

However, given the fact that the name did not make any sense to the participant, she used these two sounds to give this fruit a new name, pilu. As can be seen, the name became shorter than the original name which was given (Aitchison 2013, p. 78).

Because of the two sound p and lu, the participant did not add anything. This is because the letter p has a sound pi. This is why Professor Kirby said that the first participants performed very badly. This participant did not make an effort to come up with a creative name. However, she did the best she could in giving back the exact name that was given by the professor.

As the experiment progressed, a new form of word was forming, a language that was very different from that which the professor gave. For instance, the second fruit was given the name neki by the professor. However this changed consistently as the experiment went on. The first participant gave the name neluka. The name then transformed to nehuka, nehuma, nehula, pehula, pinahuma, pinamula, mula and finally mula.

Analyzing the first and the last word for the same fruit shows a clear difference and a complete transformation. The word neki is not in any way related to the word mula. Although both are four-latter words, which are a coincidence anyway, all the four letters are not related in any way. From the sound that comes out, to the letters themselves, it leaves no doubt that this is a new language, very different from the original language.

As Pesante (1995, p. 83) says, language is always in transition. In English language, there were words that were popular among professionals or the public, but are not considered archaic. At that time when their current replacements were introduced, these replacements were considered as slung, and were highly discouraged in official writings and speech.

As generations came and went, the slung became accepted in the society as a standard language, as the mainstream words were considered archaic. This has defined the transformation of English language, and many other languages, to what they are today (Oates 1979, p. 117). This is what the professor was trying to confirm from the laboratory test.

For professor Kirby, the nine participants were a representation of nine generations. Each generation would have its own name for the given fruit. It is important to note that in this experiment, the participants were unconsciously trying to base their names on color and shape of the fruit, while thinking that they were giving the exact names that were given to them.

It was, therefore, intriguing how each generation would change the name of the fruit to appear so different from the previous generation (McMahon, 1996). However, the professor observed that as the experiment went on, the names became more structured, meaningful and easy to memorize as compared to those given by the professor initially or those that were given by the initial participants.

The professor said that these generations cleaned the language from all the dirt of ambiguities it previously had, to a pure language that had meaning based on the color and shape of the object. This, according to the professor, is how the language has developed. Smith (2010, p. 56) says that language continues to develop. In this development, this scholar says that the language takes two approaches.

The first approach that the language takes is that of direct borrowing. The word safari has become an accepted English word that is widely used, especially by tourists (Hoff 2009, p. 83).

However, this is a wholly borrowed word from the Swahili language of Africa. Similarly, admiral is considered an English word, but was directly borrowed from Arabic language. The second approach is the evolution as witnessed in this experiment. It is this approach that professor Kirby based his research.

Professor Kirby says that the experiment faced one challenge. The challenge was due to the fact that some of the fruits were already known to the participants.

As such, when the professor gave a unique name, the participants started swaying towards the known name, and by the time the experiment was on the fourth participant, the name had quickly moved from the name given by the professor, to the actual name of the fruit.

This was a confirmation that the language transformation is not a sudden process that can take place within a generation. It is a gradual process that takes ages.

Conclusions

The ability of human being to use language as a means of communication makes him unique among the living things. Language is an important tool that enables people to communicate freely. The above discussion has clearly indicated that language has been gradually changing from what it was initially.

Professor Simon Kirby conducted an experiment using alien fruits to test how the participants would be able to recall the names of these alien fruits. To his surprise, the name for each fruit slowly transformed from one participant to the other. This demonstrates how the language has been changing from one generation to the other.

List of Reference

Aitchison, J 2013, Language change: Progress or decay, Cambridge University Press, Oxford.

Hoff, E 2009, Language development, Cengage Learning, Melbourne.

Huff, E 2009, Blackwell handbook of language development, Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester.

Kirby, S & Christiansen, M 2003, Language evolution, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Kirby, S 1999, Function, selection, and innateness: The emergence of language universals, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

McMahon, A 1996, Understanding language change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Oates, J 1979, Cognitive development. Open University Press, London.

Pesante, M 1995, Shifting the boundaries: Transformation of the languages of public and private in the eighteenth century, University of Exeter Press, Exeter.

Smith, G 2010, Transforming Conversion: Rethinking the Language and Contours of Christian Initiation, Baker Publishers Group, Grand Rapids.

Stromberg, P 2008, Language and self-transformation: A study of the Christian conversion narrative, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Language is a complicated biological adjustment that developed by means of natural selection with the aim of fostering communication in a knowledge-using, socially autonomous lifestyle (Pinker 16). The development of language in humans was stimulated by social needs. The most noteworthy feature of language is its expressive power: the ability to pass an unrestricted number of ideas from one human being to another through an arranged flow of sounds (Pinker 16).

Since language is capable of conveying any kind and amount of information, its most essential elements are those that enable such information exchange. Language is divided into two major principles: words and grammar (Pinker 17).

The first principle is concerned with the mental lexicon  words that a person understands and remembers. Words perform the function of arbitrary signs that create a link between a signal and a meaning perceived and shared by community members (Pinker 17). Thus, the idea can be conveyed by this connection. The symbols that govern words are bidirectional; if a person knows how to use a word, he or she will also understand the word when it is used by somebody else (Pinker 17). The second principle, grammar, presupposes the ability to integrate words into longer words, word combinations, and sentences (Pinker 17).

With the help of grammar, people can communicate a variety of thoughts. As the most important tool of grammar, syntax is responsible for the ability to merge words into word combinations and sentences (Pinker 18). The tools of syntax are linear order, constituency, predicate-argument structure, and transformations (Pinker 18-19). Transformations allow humans to discern between the doer of the action and the object of the doers activity (Pinker 19).

Two other components of language, apart from syntax, are morphology and phonology (Pinker 19-20). However, grammar is only one constituent of language. In order to achieve languages ultimate aim of meaningful communication, grammar has to work in combination with articulation, perception, social knowledge, and conceptual knowledge (Pinker 20). Social knowledge is responsible for the ways in which language is utilized and understood within a social context. Conceptual knowledge supplies words with meaning (Pinker 20). Therefore, language serves not only a linguistic function but also a social one. While some scholars consider language a way of social adaptation, others argue that it is an expression of more comprehensive cognitive abilitiesfor instance, general intelligence or symbolic capacity (Pinker 21). The ability to obtain and operate cultural symbols necessitates specific learning mechanisms adjusted to understanding both social and physical environments.

To say that some aspects of language are universal means that some language features are understood by all people, in spite of any differences in origin. The fact that language features are universal is crucial because it enables people to understand each other, even if they do not master many languages. Zeynalov remarks that studying language universals allows scholars to explore the nature of Universal Grammar, whose unique features define all human languages (187).

Language is isomorphic with the genetic code, crystals, and geological processes (Zeynalov 193). The linguistic code appeared naturally in the evolution process in agreement with the structural principles that appeared before it (Zeynalov 193). There are several major universal properties of language. The first one is concerned with the fact that language is common to all social formations and neurologically normal people within societies (Pinker 22). While there may exist technologically primitive peoples, there are no primitive languages (Pinker 22). Even the earliest documented languages were rather complex (Pinker, 22).

In spite of stereotypes about lower classes of society having a non-systematic language, these peoples language actually does conform to strict rules (Pinker 22). The next universal feature pertains to language design, which is similar to all languages (Pinker 22). Languages are not just codes that delineate meaning from sound. Language design peculiarities pertain to every human language (Pinker 22). The third language universal is revealed through ontogenetic advancement (Pinker 22). Regardless of the specific language that a child is learning to speak, he or she must pass through a regular set of phases in order to obtain the necessary knowledge of the language (Pinker 22).

Indeed, childrens speech arrangements, as well as the errors they make, are highly systematic (Pinker 22-23). The next language universal is also connected with the issue of language acquisition. Pinker describes this universal in the following way: if children were to be placed together in an environment without a pre-existing language, they would invent their own (23). Another example is the language of deaf people  they can develop intricate sign languages instinctively and rapidly (Pinker 23). The fifth language universal, as defined by Pinker, is that both general intelligence and language are doubly dissociable in genetic and neurological diseases (23). For instance, people with aphasia may have problems with understanding and speaking (Pinker 23).

Language evolution was a crucial step in human development. Due to the universality of language, people are able to communicate within and beyond particular social groups. Language acquisition gives people the opportunity to reach significant goals that would be unattainable without speech and communication.

Works Cited

Pinker, Steven. Language as an Adaptation to the Cognitive Niche. Language Evolution, edited by Morten H. Christiansen and Simon Kirby, Oxford University Press, 2004, pp. 16-37.

Zeynalov, Farman. Universal Properties of Human Language in the Light of Natural Phenomena. International Journal of English Linguistics, vol. 6, no. 1, 2016, pp. 187-194.

Language is phenomenal. People from all the walks of life communicate through the use of different languages or gestures. We can all say that language is the most efficient and enjoyable means of communication. We express our emotions by the use of language. The fascinating thing about language is based on how it evolves and the use of similar words having different meanings to different people. Besides, language is a social identity that defines us, our origin or even ones social status (Stout 46).

My visit to Africa in particular Kenya made me appreciate Language. Slum dwellers in the capital city of Kenya, use the word tenje to mean a radio. Similarly, the rural inhabitants living in the western part of the country, use the same word to mean the same thing. On a contrary, those living in the estate in the suburbs of the capital city use the word tenje to mean a mobile phone. Clearly, the word is a tool that can be used to differentiate the social status or identity of a person, more than the interaction of different people (Stout 56).

Another fascinating topic about language is how it has evolved and changed with time. Through the interaction of people of various origin, the result is always a usage of a common language (Claudine 48). The resulting language may be a composition of different languages or dominated by a few. Some languages even become extinct in the process. Take for instance the Blackfoot language of the native Americans, the language that created cohesion and understanding among its users and that has become nothing. The language has also changed significantly where the old and the new generations use the language differently (Stout 46).

Restriction of individual languages in certain institutions is of great interest to any linguistic student. It may create equality at the same time causing more significant damage to ones language. As said earlier, language establishes a sense of identity. Hampering one from using his or her native language robs a sense of belonging or identity (Claudine 78). A language may become defunct as a result of this. Back in the ancient time in America, schools and police force were restricted from using the Blackfoot language. Today, the repercussions are quite evident. Restoring the past state of the language will not only be difficult but costly to the government.

One thing that I dont comprehend about language is the reason why it changes and the period it takes to change. I keep contemplating the answers to these two questions. Personally, I have been using the same native language I used at a tender age. It may be impossible for me to realize the changes that have occurred probably due to my ignorance. Could there be any mystery behind the change or extinction of a certain language? (Stout 44) The questions could be answered through comprehensive research by the students in conjunction with linguistic professional. Further reading would supplement the research (Claudine 92).

In conclusion, the topics covered are nothing less than a lifetime knowledge. The topics have made me embrace and appreciate language mainly my mother tongue. Language gives a person a sense of identity. It shows who I am even in a foreign land. I have learnt to appreciate the native speakers rather than viewing them as old fashioned. I yearn to find out more in the future.

Works Cited

Stout, Mary. Blackfoot. Milwaukee, WI: Gareth Stevens Pub., 2005.

Chamoreau, Claudine. Dynamics of Contact-induced Language Change. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, 2012.

For the past century, Australopithecus was considered the starting point in the evolution of chimpanzees and Homo Sapiens. Although the difference between the first discovered specimen and species of modern chimpanzees were significant, due to a lack of evidence, evolutionary theory was led in a wrong direction, as many researchers and scientists tried to explain how did Australopithecus evolve into Homo Habilis in a relatively short amount of time. Both changes, from the evolutionary perspective, seemed sudden and abrupt, which suggested the presence of a so-called missing link, which would answer these questions and fill the space between Pan Troglodytes and Australopithecus (White et al. 2015). The discovery of Ardipithecus Ramidus in 1994 managed to fill out the void between these two species, as the newly-discovered species demonstrated some similarities with the Hominids, such as reduced sizes of canines and the anatomy of molars, while retaining several traits associated with chimpanzees, such as the elongated toes for tree-climbing and grabbing unto branches (White et al. 2015). Other differences included the appearance of the cranium, as well as the alleged capability of a wider range of sounds and volumes produced as a means of communication. The purpose of this paper is to analyze Ardipithecus Ramidus and its capacity for speech in comparison to communication methods in chimpanzees in order to perceive evolutionary changes that took place.

The Connection between Language and Anatomical Development

A species capability for communication largely revolves around two anatomical factors  the capability of the body to produce a large variety of distinct and recognizable sounds in order to provide information from a distance, as well as the mental capacity to imbue sounds with meaning and interpret the sounds produced by other members of their species. The former is largely influenced by the organs found within the vocal tract, the strength, and flexibility of larynx muscles and vocal chords, as well as the construction of the throat, tongue, and teeth. The latter is defined by the size of the brain as well as the capability for complex cortical actions and assessments in addition to the capacity for expressing emotion (White et al. 2015). The purpose of the following sections is to analyze Pan Troglodytes, Ardipithecus Ramidus, and Australopithecus in order to determine any similarities and differences in their capacity for language based on the criteria mentioned above.

Chimpanzee Capabilities at Communication

Out of all non-human species, the chimpanzee has the closest genetic makeup when compared to humans. Predispositions towards the development and use of speech in chimpanzees are dictated by the social nature of the species existence. They use a wide range of sounds and gestures in order to communicate information and warn each other of danger. Other species, such as the Great Ape and Orangutan, do not have the same capacity and range of speech due to their relatively slow-paced and solitary lifestyles. According to Taglialatela et al. (2015), chimpanzees are capable of multimodal communication, which involves sounds, gestures, and facial expressions. They are also capable of complex cortical activity, which is one of the prerequisites towards using language as means of communication.

Chimpanzees have demonstrated a limited capability to understanding human speech as well, as was proven in numerous experiments (Taglialatela et al. 2015). However, their reliance on multimodality in order to convey basic information is the result of limitations of their vocal apparatus. As stated by Taglialatela et al. (2015), chimpanzees are capable of repetitively replicating over a dozen of basic sounds, and are capable of enhancing their volume depending on the distance between them and other members of their tribes. However, their laryngeal muscles lack the strength, flexibility, and fine control of these muscles as well as local chords. Their lips and teeth are not optimized for talking or producing a more varied palette of sounds. The chimpanzees elongated craniofacial structure poses additional difficulties in extending their vocal range (Taglialatela et al. 2015). Although chimpanzees possess the mental capacity for understanding complex systems of communication, they are held back by their own physiology.

Vocal Capabilities of Ardipithecus Ramidus

The research performed by Clark and Henneberg (2017) provides evidence of impressive vocal capabilities of the Ardipithecus Ramidus species, which exceed those of any non-human primate. The provided analysis states that the physical and mental evolution of the species in comparison to its predecessors  the Pan Troglodytes, was motivated by the increased necessity for socialization in the context of the palaeoecological environment of swamps and forests of the late Miocene  Early Pliocene periods (Clark & Henneberg 2017).

One of the primary factors that affected the development of vocal capabilities in Ardipithecus Ramidus was the adoption of a more erect posture when compared to their nearest predecessors. The researchers argue that this factor, along with the increase of overall brain mass and reduction of facial and jaw length provided increased range of sounds. Because of these changes, the larynx, which is the main part of the body responsible for vocal abilities of a species, was located deeper inside the neck, which in turn reinforced control by providing extra muscles to affect it (Clark & Henneberg 2017). The more erect posture lead to the development of cervical lordosis previously unseen among the remains of Pan Troglodytes, which in turn allowed for greater larynx and neck mobility (Clark & Henneberg 2017). The increase of control over the larynx, thus, allowed Ardipithecus Ramid to express a larger variety of sounds, which in turn enhanced its ability to socialize with other group members (Clark & Henneberg 2017).

Craniofacial morphology changes that took place in the transition were also important. Evidence on language evolution indicates a distinct correlation between the appearance of a flex cranial base and shorter jaw in conjunction with the overall skeletal configuration and the increased importance in socializing and mating rituals and behavior, as the language allowed mediating issues vocally rather than physically (Clark & Henneberg 2017). While older sources associate the appearance of first vocal languages and communication methods with the Australopithecus, the physiology of Ardipithecus Ramid indicates that the transformation occurred much earlier.

Lastly, Ardipithecus Ramid shares a similarity to Australopithecus afarensis in the overall shape of the hypoglossal canal  a structure that has been recently used in modern anthropology as a means of determining the capability for speech. Its differentiation in Ardipithecus Ramid from Pan Troglodytes lies in shared traits of canals with the Australopithecus and Homo genomes, namely in the topography of prevertebral muscle as well as at the insertion sites (Kimbel et al. 2014). The similarities make it possible to conclude that Ardipithecus Ramid also possessed the capability of speech and that their language was more similar to those of Australopithecus rather than with to those of chimpanzees, whose hypoglossal canals are defined by deep concavities and anterolateral prominences (Kimbel et al. 2014).

To summarize, the increase in vocal capabilities of Ardipithecus Ramid, when compared to Pan Troglodytes, was largely motivated by a more erect posture in combination with a beneficial cranial morphology, both of which were likely motivated by the environment that the species resided in. The necessity for a more socialized and organized existence as a means of survival trigger a gradual development of the non-human primates into Ardipithecus Ramid.

On Further Evolution of Australopithecus

Australopithecus is suspected to be capable of speech largely due to their cranial and skeletal morphology in combination with archeological findings of primitive tools used by the species to hunt and gather fruits. The evolution of these tools indicates the growth in skill, which could be achieved only through teaching and passing information from one individual to another, thus improving on previous practices, which would be impossible without a way of relaying information past the mimicry of gestures and expressions (Kimbel et al. 2014). In addition, Australopithecus possessed even more defined bipedalism than the Ardipithecus Ramid, as well as better-evolved tools for facilitating a more informative and complex language. Another difference between the two species lies in changes of the ear canal, which allowed Australopithecus to better perceive the sounds made by other members of their species (Kimbel et al. 2014).

Conclusions

This paper illustrates the gradual evolution of speech organs from Pan Troglodytes to Ardipithecus Ramid and Australopithecus, indicating that the evolution of the species was followed by increase in socialization skills and the capacity to emanate and understand a greater multitude of sounds, which were used not only to express basic emotions but also to warn others of danger, settle mating disputes, and transmit knowledge of skills. These findings further support the theory that Ardipithecus Ramid is indeed the missing link between Pan Troglodytes and Ardipithecus Ramid.

Reference List

Clark, Gary, and Maciej Henneberg. 2017 Ardipithecus Ramidus and the Evolution of Language and Singing: An Early Origin for Hominin Vocal Capability. HOMO  Journal of Comparative Human Biology 68(2):101-121.

Kimbel, William H., Gen Suwa, Berhane Asfaw, Yoel Rak, and Tim D. White. 2014 Ardipithecus Ramidus and the Evolution of the Human Cranial Base. PNAS 111(3):948-953.

Taglialatela, Jared P., Jamie L. Russel, Sarah M. Pope, Tamara Morton, Stephanie Bogart, Lisa A. Reamer, Steven J. Shapiro, et al. 2015 Multimodal Communication in Chimpanzees. American Journal of Primatology 77:1143-1148.

White, Tim D., C. Owen Lovejoy, Berhane Asfaw, Joshua P. Carlson, and Gen Suwa. 2015 Neither Chimpanzee nor Human, Ardipithecus Reveals the Surprising Ancestry of Both. PNAS 112(16):4877-4884.

Language is a complicated biological adjustment that developed by means of natural selection with the aim of fostering communication in a knowledge-using, socially autonomous lifestyle (Pinker 16). The development of language in humans was stimulated by social needs. The most noteworthy feature of language is its expressive power: the ability to pass an unrestricted number of ideas from one human being to another through an arranged flow of sounds (Pinker 16).

Since language is capable of conveying any kind and amount of information, its most essential elements are those that enable such information exchange. Language is divided into two major principles: words and grammar (Pinker 17).

The first principle is concerned with the mental lexicon  words that a person understands and remembers. Words perform the function of arbitrary signs that create a link between a signal and a meaning perceived and shared by community members (Pinker 17). Thus, the idea can be conveyed by this connection. The symbols that govern words are bidirectional; if a person knows how to use a word, he or she will also understand the word when it is used by somebody else (Pinker 17). The second principle, grammar, presupposes the ability to integrate words into longer words, word combinations, and sentences (Pinker 17).

With the help of grammar, people can communicate a variety of thoughts. As the most important tool of grammar, syntax is responsible for the ability to merge words into word combinations and sentences (Pinker 18). The tools of syntax are linear order, constituency, predicate-argument structure, and transformations (Pinker 18-19). Transformations allow humans to discern between the doer of the action and the object of the doers activity (Pinker 19).

Two other components of language, apart from syntax, are morphology and phonology (Pinker 19-20). However, grammar is only one constituent of language. In order to achieve languages ultimate aim of meaningful communication, grammar has to work in combination with articulation, perception, social knowledge, and conceptual knowledge (Pinker 20). Social knowledge is responsible for the ways in which language is utilized and understood within a social context. Conceptual knowledge supplies words with meaning (Pinker 20). Therefore, language serves not only a linguistic function but also a social one. While some scholars consider language a way of social adaptation, others argue that it is an expression of more comprehensive cognitive abilitiesfor instance, general intelligence or symbolic capacity (Pinker 21). The ability to obtain and operate cultural symbols necessitates specific learning mechanisms adjusted to understanding both social and physical environments.

To say that some aspects of language are universal means that some language features are understood by all people, in spite of any differences in origin. The fact that language features are universal is crucial because it enables people to understand each other, even if they do not master many languages. Zeynalov remarks that studying language universals allows scholars to explore the nature of Universal Grammar, whose unique features define all human languages (187).

Language is isomorphic with the genetic code, crystals, and geological processes (Zeynalov 193). The linguistic code appeared naturally in the evolution process in agreement with the structural principles that appeared before it (Zeynalov 193). There are several major universal properties of language. The first one is concerned with the fact that language is common to all social formations and neurologically normal people within societies (Pinker 22). While there may exist technologically primitive peoples, there are no primitive languages (Pinker 22). Even the earliest documented languages were rather complex (Pinker, 22).

In spite of stereotypes about lower classes of society having a non-systematic language, these peoples language actually does conform to strict rules (Pinker 22). The next universal feature pertains to language design, which is similar to all languages (Pinker 22). Languages are not just codes that delineate meaning from sound. Language design peculiarities pertain to every human language (Pinker 22). The third language universal is revealed through ontogenetic advancement (Pinker 22). Regardless of the specific language that a child is learning to speak, he or she must pass through a regular set of phases in order to obtain the necessary knowledge of the language (Pinker 22).

Indeed, childrens speech arrangements, as well as the errors they make, are highly systematic (Pinker 22-23). The next language universal is also connected with the issue of language acquisition. Pinker describes this universal in the following way: if children were to be placed together in an environment without a pre-existing language, they would invent their own (23). Another example is the language of deaf people  they can develop intricate sign languages instinctively and rapidly (Pinker 23). The fifth language universal, as defined by Pinker, is that both general intelligence and language are doubly dissociable in genetic and neurological diseases (23). For instance, people with aphasia may have problems with understanding and speaking (Pinker 23).

Language evolution was a crucial step in human development. Due to the universality of language, people are able to communicate within and beyond particular social groups. Language acquisition gives people the opportunity to reach significant goals that would be unattainable without speech and communication.

Works Cited

Pinker, Steven. Language as an Adaptation to the Cognitive Niche. Language Evolution, edited by Morten H. Christiansen and Simon Kirby, Oxford University Press, 2004, pp. 16-37.

Zeynalov, Farman. Universal Properties of Human Language in the Light of Natural Phenomena. International Journal of English Linguistics, vol. 6, no. 1, 2016, pp. 187-194.

Language is phenomenal. People from all the walks of life communicate through the use of different languages or gestures. We can all say that language is the most efficient and enjoyable means of communication. We express our emotions by the use of language. The fascinating thing about language is based on how it evolves and the use of similar words having different meanings to different people. Besides, language is a social identity that defines us, our origin or even ones social status (Stout 46).

My visit to Africa in particular Kenya made me appreciate Language. Slum dwellers in the capital city of Kenya, use the word tenje to mean a radio. Similarly, the rural inhabitants living in the western part of the country, use the same word to mean the same thing. On a contrary, those living in the estate in the suburbs of the capital city use the word tenje to mean a mobile phone. Clearly, the word is a tool that can be used to differentiate the social status or identity of a person, more than the interaction of different people (Stout 56).

Another fascinating topic about language is how it has evolved and changed with time. Through the interaction of people of various origin, the result is always a usage of a common language (Claudine 48). The resulting language may be a composition of different languages or dominated by a few. Some languages even become extinct in the process. Take for instance the Blackfoot language of the native Americans, the language that created cohesion and understanding among its users and that has become nothing. The language has also changed significantly where the old and the new generations use the language differently (Stout 46).

Restriction of individual languages in certain institutions is of great interest to any linguistic student. It may create equality at the same time causing more significant damage to ones language. As said earlier, language establishes a sense of identity. Hampering one from using his or her native language robs a sense of belonging or identity (Claudine 78). A language may become defunct as a result of this. Back in the ancient time in America, schools and police force were restricted from using the Blackfoot language. Today, the repercussions are quite evident. Restoring the past state of the language will not only be difficult but costly to the government.

One thing that I dont comprehend about language is the reason why it changes and the period it takes to change. I keep contemplating the answers to these two questions. Personally, I have been using the same native language I used at a tender age. It may be impossible for me to realize the changes that have occurred probably due to my ignorance. Could there be any mystery behind the change or extinction of a certain language? (Stout 44) The questions could be answered through comprehensive research by the students in conjunction with linguistic professional. Further reading would supplement the research (Claudine 92).

In conclusion, the topics covered are nothing less than a lifetime knowledge. The topics have made me embrace and appreciate language mainly my mother tongue. Language gives a person a sense of identity. It shows who I am even in a foreign land. I have learnt to appreciate the native speakers rather than viewing them as old fashioned. I yearn to find out more in the future.

Works Cited

Stout, Mary. Blackfoot. Milwaukee, WI: Gareth Stevens Pub., 2005.

Chamoreau, Claudine. Dynamics of Contact-induced Language Change. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, 2012.

For the past century, Australopithecus was considered the starting point in the evolution of chimpanzees and Homo Sapiens. Although the difference between the first discovered specimen and species of modern chimpanzees were significant, due to a lack of evidence, evolutionary theory was led in a wrong direction, as many researchers and scientists tried to explain how did Australopithecus evolve into Homo Habilis in a relatively short amount of time. Both changes, from the evolutionary perspective, seemed sudden and abrupt, which suggested the presence of a so-called missing link, which would answer these questions and fill the space between Pan Troglodytes and Australopithecus (White et al. 2015). The discovery of Ardipithecus Ramidus in 1994 managed to fill out the void between these two species, as the newly-discovered species demonstrated some similarities with the Hominids, such as reduced sizes of canines and the anatomy of molars, while retaining several traits associated with chimpanzees, such as the elongated toes for tree-climbing and grabbing unto branches (White et al. 2015). Other differences included the appearance of the cranium, as well as the alleged capability of a wider range of sounds and volumes produced as a means of communication. The purpose of this paper is to analyze Ardipithecus Ramidus and its capacity for speech in comparison to communication methods in chimpanzees in order to perceive evolutionary changes that took place.

The Connection between Language and Anatomical Development

A species capability for communication largely revolves around two anatomical factors  the capability of the body to produce a large variety of distinct and recognizable sounds in order to provide information from a distance, as well as the mental capacity to imbue sounds with meaning and interpret the sounds produced by other members of their species. The former is largely influenced by the organs found within the vocal tract, the strength, and flexibility of larynx muscles and vocal chords, as well as the construction of the throat, tongue, and teeth. The latter is defined by the size of the brain as well as the capability for complex cortical actions and assessments in addition to the capacity for expressing emotion (White et al. 2015). The purpose of the following sections is to analyze Pan Troglodytes, Ardipithecus Ramidus, and Australopithecus in order to determine any similarities and differences in their capacity for language based on the criteria mentioned above.

Chimpanzee Capabilities at Communication

Out of all non-human species, the chimpanzee has the closest genetic makeup when compared to humans. Predispositions towards the development and use of speech in chimpanzees are dictated by the social nature of the species existence. They use a wide range of sounds and gestures in order to communicate information and warn each other of danger. Other species, such as the Great Ape and Orangutan, do not have the same capacity and range of speech due to their relatively slow-paced and solitary lifestyles. According to Taglialatela et al. (2015), chimpanzees are capable of multimodal communication, which involves sounds, gestures, and facial expressions. They are also capable of complex cortical activity, which is one of the prerequisites towards using language as means of communication.

Chimpanzees have demonstrated a limited capability to understanding human speech as well, as was proven in numerous experiments (Taglialatela et al. 2015). However, their reliance on multimodality in order to convey basic information is the result of limitations of their vocal apparatus. As stated by Taglialatela et al. (2015), chimpanzees are capable of repetitively replicating over a dozen of basic sounds, and are capable of enhancing their volume depending on the distance between them and other members of their tribes. However, their laryngeal muscles lack the strength, flexibility, and fine control of these muscles as well as local chords. Their lips and teeth are not optimized for talking or producing a more varied palette of sounds. The chimpanzees elongated craniofacial structure poses additional difficulties in extending their vocal range (Taglialatela et al. 2015). Although chimpanzees possess the mental capacity for understanding complex systems of communication, they are held back by their own physiology.

Vocal Capabilities of Ardipithecus Ramidus

The research performed by Clark and Henneberg (2017) provides evidence of impressive vocal capabilities of the Ardipithecus Ramidus species, which exceed those of any non-human primate. The provided analysis states that the physical and mental evolution of the species in comparison to its predecessors  the Pan Troglodytes, was motivated by the increased necessity for socialization in the context of the palaeoecological environment of swamps and forests of the late Miocene  Early Pliocene periods (Clark & Henneberg 2017).

One of the primary factors that affected the development of vocal capabilities in Ardipithecus Ramidus was the adoption of a more erect posture when compared to their nearest predecessors. The researchers argue that this factor, along with the increase of overall brain mass and reduction of facial and jaw length provided increased range of sounds. Because of these changes, the larynx, which is the main part of the body responsible for vocal abilities of a species, was located deeper inside the neck, which in turn reinforced control by providing extra muscles to affect it (Clark & Henneberg 2017). The more erect posture lead to the development of cervical lordosis previously unseen among the remains of Pan Troglodytes, which in turn allowed for greater larynx and neck mobility (Clark & Henneberg 2017). The increase of control over the larynx, thus, allowed Ardipithecus Ramid to express a larger variety of sounds, which in turn enhanced its ability to socialize with other group members (Clark & Henneberg 2017).

Craniofacial morphology changes that took place in the transition were also important. Evidence on language evolution indicates a distinct correlation between the appearance of a flex cranial base and shorter jaw in conjunction with the overall skeletal configuration and the increased importance in socializing and mating rituals and behavior, as the language allowed mediating issues vocally rather than physically (Clark & Henneberg 2017). While older sources associate the appearance of first vocal languages and communication methods with the Australopithecus, the physiology of Ardipithecus Ramid indicates that the transformation occurred much earlier.

Lastly, Ardipithecus Ramid shares a similarity to Australopithecus afarensis in the overall shape of the hypoglossal canal  a structure that has been recently used in modern anthropology as a means of determining the capability for speech. Its differentiation in Ardipithecus Ramid from Pan Troglodytes lies in shared traits of canals with the Australopithecus and Homo genomes, namely in the topography of prevertebral muscle as well as at the insertion sites (Kimbel et al. 2014). The similarities make it possible to conclude that Ardipithecus Ramid also possessed the capability of speech and that their language was more similar to those of Australopithecus rather than with to those of chimpanzees, whose hypoglossal canals are defined by deep concavities and anterolateral prominences (Kimbel et al. 2014).

To summarize, the increase in vocal capabilities of Ardipithecus Ramid, when compared to Pan Troglodytes, was largely motivated by a more erect posture in combination with a beneficial cranial morphology, both of which were likely motivated by the environment that the species resided in. The necessity for a more socialized and organized existence as a means of survival trigger a gradual development of the non-human primates into Ardipithecus Ramid.

On Further Evolution of Australopithecus

Australopithecus is suspected to be capable of speech largely due to their cranial and skeletal morphology in combination with archeological findings of primitive tools used by the species to hunt and gather fruits. The evolution of these tools indicates the growth in skill, which could be achieved only through teaching and passing information from one individual to another, thus improving on previous practices, which would be impossible without a way of relaying information past the mimicry of gestures and expressions (Kimbel et al. 2014). In addition, Australopithecus possessed even more defined bipedalism than the Ardipithecus Ramid, as well as better-evolved tools for facilitating a more informative and complex language. Another difference between the two species lies in changes of the ear canal, which allowed Australopithecus to better perceive the sounds made by other members of their species (Kimbel et al. 2014).

Conclusions

This paper illustrates the gradual evolution of speech organs from Pan Troglodytes to Ardipithecus Ramid and Australopithecus, indicating that the evolution of the species was followed by increase in socialization skills and the capacity to emanate and understand a greater multitude of sounds, which were used not only to express basic emotions but also to warn others of danger, settle mating disputes, and transmit knowledge of skills. These findings further support the theory that Ardipithecus Ramid is indeed the missing link between Pan Troglodytes and Ardipithecus Ramid.

Reference List

Clark, Gary, and Maciej Henneberg. 2017 Ardipithecus Ramidus and the Evolution of Language and Singing: An Early Origin for Hominin Vocal Capability. HOMO  Journal of Comparative Human Biology 68(2):101-121.

Kimbel, William H., Gen Suwa, Berhane Asfaw, Yoel Rak, and Tim D. White. 2014 Ardipithecus Ramidus and the Evolution of the Human Cranial Base. PNAS 111(3):948-953.

Taglialatela, Jared P., Jamie L. Russel, Sarah M. Pope, Tamara Morton, Stephanie Bogart, Lisa A. Reamer, Steven J. Shapiro, et al. 2015 Multimodal Communication in Chimpanzees. American Journal of Primatology 77:1143-1148.

White, Tim D., C. Owen Lovejoy, Berhane Asfaw, Joshua P. Carlson, and Gen Suwa. 2015 Neither Chimpanzee nor Human, Ardipithecus Reveals the Surprising Ancestry of Both. PNAS 112(16):4877-4884.