In his report, Dr. Kreig talked about the origins of transhumanism and its interrelationships with other scientific trends. One of the related trends is eugenics, which in one way or another, considers ways to change humanity. The lecturer claims that this branch is the self-direction of human evolution, so in fact, it is the right goal to create a method by which people can influence human evolution in the future.
In this context, the Darwinian theory, supported in the 19th century by Darwin and later other scientists, such as Herbert Spencer, does not lose its relevance. He coined the term survival and created a social movement called social Darwinism, which considered the issues of weeding out parts of humanity that were not necessary for evolution. The same thoughts began to spread within the framework of eugenics in the early 20th century in the form of various conferences and meetings.
The issues of population control and population selection were raised in the Washington media, talking about 15 million people who should be left as the best part of evolution. Obviously, this movement gained great popularity during the time of Hitlers Germany. Nevertheless, by the 1960s of the 20th century, the movement began to go underground. The ideas of transhumanism in a modern format were touched upon by Stephen Hawking. He talks about the emergence of a superman, that is, a new race of people, which will arise as a result of a sharp evolutionary leap when people begin to make corrections to their own DNA.
In place of individual DNA sections, mechanical-electronic components can be integrated, which can gradually completely displace DNA from the genome, just as DNA displaces early life forms. First, it is necessary to eliminate known genetic defects for which single genes are responsible, which can be identified and corrected. Other human characteristics, such as intelligence, will not be easy to upgrade because gene complexes are responsible for these qualities, and it will be more difficult to find them, as well as to determine the connections between them.
Transhumanists say that it is good for all of us to reduce social determinism and the division of society. The world can be different and qualitatively new if people are freed from gender, age, and other labels. Humanity has a chance to enter a new, freer era, but for this, it is necessary to abandon the proclamation of its own exclusivity in the evolutionary plan. Transhumanism pushes society to recognize or at least admit the possibility of things that have always been considered impossible. If this happens, there may be a place in the structure of evolution for robots that will occupy their own stage and have evolutionary self-sufficiency.
The main reason why it is not possible to do this in todays society is, for the most part, the lack of popularity of the ideas of transhumanism. Many do not even know approximately what it is, and those who are familiar with the term superficially talk about insulting their ancestors. The task of scientists is to raise public concern about issues of transhumanism and its insufficient prevalence. This scientific trend is inextricably linked with the study of DNA and can influence fundamental discoveries in the field of genetic engineering and the study of mutations. Science can afford to go beyond the rational, and only in this case is there an opportunity to get a completely different, more interesting continuation of human history.
Antibiotic medications have been used for a long time to kill infectious bacteria that cause diseases. The medications have made a great contribution to human life as several bacterial diseases that used to kill people in the past can now be dealt with using the medications. Unfortunately, some bacteria have developed resistance to the antibiotics that were once used to kill them (Schmidt, 2009).
The resistant bacteria can survive and continue to multiply even in the presence of the antibiotics that were once used to eradicate them. An example of an antibiotic-resistant bacterium is Staphylococcus aureus (golden staph). Golden staph has built resistance against most of the antibiotics, such as gentamycin, penicillin, and methicillin, which were used to treat infections caused by it. Golden staph causes infections such as scalded skin syndrome, bloodstream infections, impetigo, bone infections, and pneumonia (Edlin & Golanty, 2012).
The principles of natural selection and evolution of a trait can be used to explain how the antibiotics resistant golden staph bacteria evolved. The principles assert that, with time, variation, and heredity, bacteria evolve when selective pressure, such as antibiotics, is introduced to them. The selective pressures include using mild doses of antibiotics for a long time to treat bacterial infections, using them to treat viral infections, and failing to complete the prescribed doses (Edlin & Golanty, 2012).
There will be a serious consequence to human health if golden staph continues to resist antibiotics. Firstly, there will be an extensive increase in the number of infections caused by golden staph. Secondly, the infections are likely to become mild as there would be no medications to control them. Lastly, the health sector may have to spend huge amounts of money in trying to develop new antibiotics to eradicate golden staph-related infections (Schmidt, 2009).
Several steps can be taken to slow down the golden staphs resistance to gentamycin, penicillin, and methicillin. Firstly, physicians should desist from using antibiotics to treat viral infections. Secondly, the physicians should stop prescribing mild doses of these antibiotics over a very long period. Lastly, the physicians should use a combination of antibiotics and other drugs to treat infections caused by the bacterium. These steps, if strictly followed, are likely to slow down golden staphs resistance to the three antibiotic drugs (Schmidt, 2009).
References
Edlin, G., & Golanty, E. (2012). Health and wellness. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Schmidt, M. A. (2009). Beyond antibiotics: Strategies for living in a world of emerging infections and antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books.
Much of the Middle Ages astronomy and geography may be traced back to the claims of Claudius Ptolemy, a Greek mathematician, astronomer, and geographer. He created the first world map with longitude and latitude lines in the second century as part of his book Geography. The concept of a universal coordinate system was revolutionary, and some are still in use today. However, he is most recognized for discovering the cycles and epicycles that allowed the geocentric view of the universe to function for 1400 years. He wrote about it in The Almagest, a book about the movement of the stars and planets (Gr
i, 2018). This is the belief that Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton, who lived over a thousand years later, disproved. As a result, Ptolemy is a controversial figure in the history of science. Robert Newton claims that Ptolemy was an astronomical con artist despite being a brilliant scientist.
Ptolemys massive 13-book work, The Almagest, contains some interesting information about the planets. Newton claims that he could not have created some of the tables he discusses with the tools he discusses because they are too exact compared to the current ones. The human race as a whole makes numerous errors. Ptolemy, for example, claimed to have computed the autumnal equinox at 2 p.m. on September 25, AD 132, although he was more than a day off (Gr
i, 2018). According to Newton, Ptolemy altered observations made hundreds of years before his time by changing the measurements to meet his theories. When asked about Ptolemys testable claims, Newton said that some, if not all, of Ptolemys hypotheses, appear to be founded on evidence that appears to be fabricated. However, most of Ptolemys work was a significant milestone in understanding Geography.
Ptolemy assembled what was known about the universe and what the Greeks believed about it. For more than a thousand years after his death, his writings kept his ideas about the world alive across Europe, the Byzantine Empire, and Islamic countries. Astronomers could better forecast where planets would be and when the sun and moon would eclipse. For example, following the fall of the Roman Empire in 641 CE, Muslim Arabs took over Egypt, with most Muslim scholars acknowledging that Ptolemys astronomical theories were correct. They used most of the records by Ptolemy as the foundation for more research in the field. For 1400 years, all astronomers, including Christians, Greeks, and Muslims, followed the Ptolemaic system, with additions and modifications. Famous scientists like Aristotle believed in the geocentric universe and the spherical nature of planets and stars, though the earth was considered an imperfect sphere.
Ptolemys Geography concluded with an atlas of maps that employed his grid method and continued the Ptolemaic custom of placing north at the top of the map. Because he had to rely on the best estimations of merchant transit times, Ptolemys gazetteer and maps were far from accurate. They were incapable of accurately measuring longitude at the time. Like most old material, Ptolemys magnificent work was lost over a thousand years after it was initially written down. His writings were discovered and translated into Latin, the language of instruction at the time, towards the beginning of the fifteenth century. Because geography was so popular in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, more than forty volumes were written on the subject. In the Middle Ages, dishonest cartographers used Ptolemys name on various atlases to make them appear more reputable. Because Ptolemy miscalculated the size of the Earth, Christopher Columbus believed he could sail west from Europe to Asia. Ptolemy regarded the Indian Ocean as a huge inland sea bordered to the south by an unknown land. There was a lot of exploration because many felt there might be a large continent in the south. It is good that Renaissance geographers knowledge and experience were discovered anew because it led to the development of theories that constitute the foundation of contemporary geography.
Germans had made significant progress and established a firm foothold in the field by the 18th and 19th centuries. They provided both a theoretical and a practical foundation. Following the work of Humboldt and Ritter, the function of universities altered dramatically. Historically, the primary objective of colleges was to teach students things like languages, philosophy, religion, and current law and reasoning. Teachers across the country agreed on a unified curriculum for teaching a variety of physical, biological, and social science disciplines in the mid-nineteenth century. During this period, several geographical societies were founded. These societies created books and learned about their surroundings. During the second part of the twentieth century, geographers from all over the world attempted to develop a unified definition for their field.
German scholars proposed several theories to define the term geography. Politics in Europe were turbulent around the middle of the nineteenth century. Military commanders and government officials required maps and charts to understand more about the distinctions in geography and culture in different parts of the world. Geography was made up of all knowledge that could be shown on a map since it was beneficial. Alexander von Humboldt, a German explorer and naturalist was widely regarded as one of the most brilliant scientists of his day. Humboldts most important scientific contribution was discovering the links between climate, geography, the environment, and culture. His theories were revolutionary at the time, and climate change researchers today may be able to learn from them. Some appraisals of Humboldts scientific impact fail to include how his distinctive maps and scientific drawings influenced his thinking. Humboldt noticed linkages that others had overlooked by displaying material previously displayed in tables.
Humboldt was one of the first scientists to use maps to generate and evaluate theories. He utilized isotherms, for example, to indicate regions where the average temperature was the same. Because these lines are so prominent and accurate, scientists often overlook them while looking at modern weather maps. In 1817, Humboldt used this knowledge to create a map. These graphics challenged scientists long-held idea that a regions average temperature was mostly determined by its latitude. The latitude lines on Humboldts map moved up and down, but the isotherm lines did not. In his quest for solutions, he discovered that mountains, ocean currents, and other natural elements influence weather. These findings were significant milestones, setting a foundation for modern geography. Maps that followed were drawn, including latitudes, which led to broadening geography knowledge in weather and climate.
Increased essays, books, revolutions, inventions, and scientific discoveries characterized the enlightenment era. The enlightenment ideas fueled the revolutions in different parts of the world, including French, Germany, and America. One of the areas impacted was Geography which experienced increased research and publication of reading materials. As the demand for geographic information rose, more and more people needed to understand the fundamentals. People were also becoming more aware of how geography may shape national identities by emphasizing how diverse peoples circumstances differed from those of their peers. Unlike the enlightenment era, the geography of the 19th century was based on facts. Scientists such as Humboldt would assess the findings of the enlightenment era and make corrections, setting a firm and accurate foundation for modern geographical studies.
Common knowledge was rejected by Enlightenment intellectuals in Britain, France, and other regions of Europe in favor of the belief that rational change might make people better. The Enlightenment produced numerous materials, brought the world into view, and changed it through maps and text, exploration, and conflict, both within and beyond physical and intellectual borders (Fischer & Withers, 2021). New information was generated and debated, as well as the different tools used to learn more about the world. The process of analyzing the existing materials and more experiments broadened the thoughts of scientists, making them question some findings in later studies. New techniques of portraying the world and its people impacted notions about the nature and growth of human society. Studies of the movements of people and ideas reveal how foreign regions shaped Enlightenment science and the credibility of science.
According to Kuhn, paradigm shifts are what enable scientific progress. A paradigm is a broadly recognized scientific discovery that provides a practitioner community with model issues and their solutions over a set period. It is a set of ideas, beliefs, and methods of doing things on which community members rely. Paradigms set guidelines on how scientists should behave and think when approaching different situations. Scientists will likely accept the status quo until they encounter anything that does not fit (Mair, 1986). When new ideas threaten the existing paradigm, scientists begin to doubt its roots, and as a result, a new one is adopted. The newly adopted is used until discoveries cannot be explained, and the process continues.
Kuhns paradigm explains the changes in geography, especially the quantitative neo-positivist geography in the 1950s. The period abandoned the idiographic way of discriminating between areas in favor of a nomothetic method centered on the search for models of spatial structure and phenomena (Reis Junior, 2017). The quantitative revolution played a significant role in developing geography as a distinct subject that investigated things on the earths surface about their position. It examined geography through a scientific lens based on statistical methodologies. The goals of this era were to discover universals, create models, and establish methods and theoretical foundations that might be used to create geographic realities.
People used to believe that geography was studying and describing the earths surface. However, the definition and purpose of geography have evolved. The purpose was to depict and explain the many geographical events that occurred on the earths surface in a clear, structured, and logical manner. The most visible change is the effect of the quantitative revolution, which resulted in changes in the techniques and methods of representing geographical events in a spatial context (Reis Junior, 2017). A group of physicists and mathematicians spearheaded the initiative resulting in the quantitative geography revolution. Its expansion influenced the physical sciences first, then the biological sciences. It was discussed in all social sciences by the end of the 1960s. In the past, examples of this have been found in economics, psychology, and sociology. On the other hand, anthropology and political science do not fit under this category. The purpose of this new method of thinking about geography was twofold. The first was to transform geography from a discipline of storytelling to a field of science (geo + images). The second goal was to examine and explain the spatial patterns that occur due to geographical events logically and objectively. The ultimate goal was to provide a philosophical and theoretical underpinning for geography so that it could become a scientific field.
In contrast to neo-positivism, Vidalian regional geography focuses on specific regions rather than the world as a whole. Bernhard Varen, sometimes known as Varenius, was possibly the first to discuss the distinction between global and local geography in the 1600s. This is analogous to the distinction between general geography and regional geography. In systematic geography, researchers examine how one or more aspects of the human environment or population performance vary worldwide or in a specific location. According to Varenius, general geography primarily concerns common practices and conceptions. Trying to figure out where everything on earth was once thought to be the pinnacle of geography. Over time, the word systematic geography came to refer to all broad-ranging studies, while regional geography referred to more narrowly focused investigations. The systematic sciences that existed at the time prompted systematic geographers to seek universal and comprehensive notions. However, regional geography continues to have a position in specialist study. Classical regional geography aims to combine all the topics covered in systematic geography into a single map. The quantitative neo-positivist geography was a real scientific revolution because it helped fill the gaps left in the field of Geography. Most of the information was based on assumptions, especially because there was no use of quantitative data. However, with the new approach, more accurate methods were discovered and have remained important even in todays modernity.
According to Max Horkheimer, the typical positivist approach has two flaws. First and foremost, he stated that it did not depict how people communicate with one another. The fundamental criticism leveled with positivism was that it failed to see how much of the social realities it created were not attributed to the objective universe but rather were the result of how peoples minds had been molded by society and history. Positivism disregards the historical and sociological circumstances that influence how social concepts are presented because it does not value the function of the observer in shaping social reality. Positivism created a false picture of the object being researched by making social reality appear to exist independently of the activity that caused it to occur.
Most of positivist geographys potential responsibilities in a prosperous capitalist society had already been filled by more established social sciences, and criticisms of positivism were well-developed before the field ever existed. Geography has always been at odds with the scientific goals that it has set for itself. On the other hand, people who disagreed with geographys scientific goals were met with Hartshornean orthodoxy and the end of regional geography. However, most of the more recent and complicated criticisms and much of the movement for positivist geography have come from non-geographers.
Even if positivism was questioned early on, it persisted. When behavioral geographers stated that models should account for the subjective component, they were not criticizing positivism but aided it. Humanists who were stunned by the harsher criticism rejected positivism right away. However, many critics have examined the paradigms assumptions and begun with the existing contradictions and illogicalities. All of these objections have one thing in common: positivist science oversimplifies the social reality in which it operates. People desire and cannot have a perfect, objective, value-free geography based on natural sciences. The positivist paradigm holds that science is socially neutral, which is incorrect because science has a very evident social function that influences its methods and results. The greatest location to find these tools is in the social science discipline. The development of social technology is aided by public policy analysis, urban and regional planning theory, behavioral geography, location theory, and the search for meaning, whether motivated by altruism or careerism.
However, many people now consider geographys methodology and instruments to be the subjects technology. Technology has always been linked to natural sciences. This could be due to the word technologys tangible implications. Given the assumptions underlying the categorial paradigm, it is not surprising that the big picture is still being overlooked. Positivism prefers introspective research to pry into other peoples private lives because it necessitates a clear distinction between truth and value, theory and practice, and the pure and the practical. In other words, the positivist paradigm does not guarantee a satisfactory interpretation of geography or other associated historical events. There is a lot of subjective information assumed, and until the information is considered, findings under the approach should remain questioned.
Social sciences must be rethought as technical puzzles before they can be used to solve important societal problems. This demonstrates the importance of science to the world as a whole. The growing gap between sciences technical skills and its ability to solve important problems has caused a crisis of faith and a growing crisis in modern science. This systemic issue cannot be solved by human rights laws that seek to halt research. It is a common misconception that sciences hidden agenda is how to gain control and manipulate the phenomena being studied. Overall, neo-positivist geography was weak because of assumptions and possible fabrication of results. A quantitative method was the most appropriate in explaining the universes geography; indeed, further studies showed insufficiencies and corrections were made in the decades that followed.
References
Fischer, L., & Withers, C. W. (2021). Geographical print culture in the German-speaking territories, c. 1690c. 1815. Journal of Historical Geography, 72, 1-12.
Gr
i, M. (2018). The Balkans on the geographical maps of Claudius Ptolemy. Glasnik Srpskog geografskog druatva, 98(2), 83-117.
Mair, A. (1986). Thomas Kuhn and understanding geography. Progress in Human Geography, 10(3), 345-369.
Reis Junior, D. F. D. C. (2017). A historiography of Brazilian theoretical and quantitative geography: The Rio Claro case, from flourishing to fall. Cybergeo: European Journal of Geography.
The Catholic Church believes in both the creation and evolution theory. According to the Catholics, all Christians believe in a unique creation carried out by God in six days, and there is a strong belief that the earth evolved with the Guidance of God. Catholics believe that God initiated the continued evolution process and that all humans, whether evolved or made explicitly by God, have unique souls for every individual (Barron, 2010). Early contributions of evolution in biology were made by Augustinian Friar, who was a Catholic scientist. The attitude of the Catholic Church has slowly been redefined and been incorporated into evolution. The church supports evolutionary creation, and they are at liberty not to believe in any part of the evolutionary theory (Schori, 2017). Catholic schools in the United States teach about evolution theory, which shows that there is an acceptance of evolution about Gods creation.
The relationship between faith and science occurs through the creation theory and the evolution theory. There have been continued struggles between science and Christianity. In 1996, Pope John II affirmed evolution theory in the case of studies but rejected it for the sake of humankind (Szrot, 2020). The most convenient way of understanding the relationship between science and religion is that science focuses on the natural world, whereas religion concerns both supernatural and natural worlds (Batsukh, 2017). Scientific views do not recognize supernatural beings such as God and Angels, included in the Christians faith in God. Scientists believe that their approach is the best because scientific theories have been used to predict the future, which has become accurate, for example, the early experiment explaining the gravitational force in the moon, which turned to be true many years after the study. The religious believe that God, through his supernatural powers, intervenes in the world and influences every occurrence.
The case study describes the mechanisms behind the emergence of drug-resistant bacteria. The generation of drug-resistant bacteria has arisen from the selection of genes that have been mutated through time and have rendered these strains to be insensitive to current antibiotics that are being prescribed by physicians to their patients. The case study also described that the environment itself carries drug resistant bacteria that have originated from the administration of excessive antibiotics to both humans and animals.
Scientific terms
Natural selection The mechanism of transferring favorable genetic features to the offspring is known as natural selection. Favorable genetic features are often associated with the appearance or characteristics of a species, making them more robust to survive in our changing environment (Parrish 458).
Antibiotic resistance The capability of a bacterial species to survive the impact of the administration of chemicals that are designed to induce death is known as antibiotic resistance. It has been determined that antibiotic resistance has arisen through the process of natural selection (Gould 3). However, antibiotic resistance can also be induced in the laboratory through genetic manipulation.
Resistance allele A gene is generally represented by two forms which are called alleles. In the case of a resistance allele, this gene form has accumulated mutations that make it different from the normal allele and has therefore acquired is insensitivity to the effects of a particular antibiotic (Macgowan 106)
Susceptible bacteria Any bacterial strain that carries a normal allelic form of a specific gene is said to be susceptible because it is sensitive to the effect of a particular antibiotic. This bacterial strain is the exact opposite in reaction to resistant bacteria (Sipahi 530).
Evolutionary biology The specialized field that is involved with the study of descent of organisms through time is known as evolutionary biology. This field of biology aims to determine how related at least two species are to or from each other, through the use of features that may be morphological, genetic or ecological, or even a combination of several biological areas (Arendt 870)
An alternative to antibiotic use could be the administration of vitamins that would help the patient in overcoming a bacterial infection. For example, a simple cough may be treated with drinking lots of fluids supplemented with vitamin C, which is known as a good free radical scavenger that collects any oxygen free radicals that could have been generated by the bacteria present in the body of patient.
It should also be understood that bacterial infections do not last forever unless they are extremely robust or resistant to vitamin supplementation. Once the bacteria have noticed that there is not enough nutrients present in the body of the patient, the bacteria itself will stop dividing and will eventually die. In addition, sore throat can also be treated with a gargle solution that contains salt. It is known that bacteria do not survive high salt concentrations hence if a patient salt-containing gargle solution several times a day when the symptoms of sore throat are still present, the bacteria will be eradicated and this prevents chances of generating drug-resistant bacteria.
Works cited
Arendt D. The Evolution Of Cell Types In Animals: Emerging Principles From Molecular Studies. Nature Reviews Genetics, 9(2008):868-882.
Gould IM. Whos Winning The War? Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 62(2008):3-6.
Macgowan AP; BSAC Working Parties on Resistance Surveillance. Clinical Implications Of Antimicrobial Resistance For Therapy. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 62(2008):105-114.
Parrish CR, Holmes EC, Morens DM, Park EC, Burke DS, Calisher CH, Laughlin CA, Saif LJ, Daszak P. Cross-species Virus Transmission And The Emergence Of New Epidemic Diseases. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 72(2008):457-70.
Sipahi OR. Economics Of Antibiotic Resistance. Expert Reviews in Antibiotics and Infection Therapy, 6 (2008):523-539.
Homologies are traits evident in two or more than two organisms that were inherited from a common ancestor. Taxonomy looks at the similarities present in an organism to determine a common ancestor. The similarities can be exhibited in the physical characteristics, genes, the functionality of the various structures present. The structures that fall into the same lineage of ancestry are known as homologous structures.
A dolphins flipper, human arm, cat arm, and bats feathers are homologies. While human beings have a humerus, ulnar, radius, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges, this structure appears in similar organisms such as bats, whales, and other mammals. This denotes that these organisms have the same ancestors. The tailbone in human beings and the monkeys tails are homologies, except that the tail in humans is a vestigial structure. This denotes that they evolved from one ancestor with a tail.
Furthermore, all primates share the same vertebrate erection; for instance, whales and tiny human beings have an equal number of bones of the vertebrae with a giant giraffe. The structure of the bones is the same in all the above-stated organisms. Additionally, cats, human beings, and dogs have the same pelvis structure and are homologies to a vestigial pair in snakes. The bones in the snake are the last remaining parts of the pelvis though the snakes bones however, the snake does not have bones. Evidence has shown that the organisms classification into the same group based on the traits has not yielded positive results in the tracing of the ancestry or the origin (Boe et al. 128). This has brought a challenge in trying to classify the homologies into the same characteristics. There are also discrepancies between the organ and character that make it impossible to classify the organisms.
The remarkable similarity is only referred to as part of the homology. In cladistics, determining whether an organism is homologous and therefore comparable to another is a question of the organisms transformation condition. Homoplasy an error in the homology assignment. The type that occurs is more related to phylogenetics, making phylogenetics more difficult in the analysis. Construction of the tree when there is homoplasy occlusion can be challenging, especially in the analysis part.
The primates are recognized to have taxa classification similar to those of clades. There are two recognized orders, including Strepsirrhini and haplorrhine. The former are lorises and lemurs, while the latter include apes, humans, and monkeys. These two orders differ in the structure of the mouth, placenta, and nose. The strepsirrhines have a moist and bare muzzle and have a reflective layer behind the retina known as tapetum lucidum. In contrast, the haplorrhines such as monkeys have a hairy muzzle and less wet, and do not have a tapetum. Instead, they have fovea.
The uterine wall of strepsirrhines does not have preparation during pregnancy. Unlike the haplorrhines that have to be vascularized every month, they do not menstruate, and menstruation occurs have no uterine; the orders are then divided into infraorders. The strepsirrhines are divided into Lemuriformes and lorisiformes, while the haplorrhines are divided into simiiformes and tasiiformes (Boe et al. 219). The former is divided into catarrhine, platyrrhine, and tarsiers. The latter is the new world monkey while the former old-world monkeys.
Primate Physiology
All primates have prehensile feet and hands, and most of them have five digits inclusive of the opposable thumb. The primates hands and feet can perform different activities such as gripping, grabbing, climbing trees, and holding onto branches. Humans are exceptional since their feet are not prehensible but rather pentadactyl. The hands of humans are sensitive compared to other primates. Same as the other features that define primates, these features add their ability to live successfully live-in tress and perform other characteristics.
The shoulder and the hips joints of the primates are flexible and limber, unlike other mammals. The shoulder helps them to swing over trees, and the hip joint increases the range of motion; these features assist the primates in their arbor-able lifestyles. The brain of primates is highly distinguishable from other primates. The olfactory area is reduced, and the cerebrum is augmented to increase sight and social behavior. Other features include the presence of a nail at the fingertips, but other mammals have claws. Primate has collarbone and can erect, which is even visible in quadruples. Most species of primates have bipedalism. Moreover, the primates have one offspring per pregnancy, and they possess the adaptation of climbing trees since they are descended from tree-dwellers.
Streprrhinis have a nose that is moist and have muzzles for example the bush babies and the dogs. Their noses secret much mucus and add onto the moist by frequently licking their nose using their tongue. This allows cooling and evaporation and also contributes to their sense of smell. On the other hand, haplorrhines have a dry nose that is covered by downy hair and does not have a muzzle. The hairy nose prevents the entry of impurities. There is a reflective layer known as tapetum lucidum found in strepsirrhines behind the retina, which increases surface area for light at night, hence enabling night vision (Boe et al. 222). Haplorrhines have no tapetum; they instead have a fovea that enhances vision. However, not all strepsirrhines are nocturnal, and not all haplorrhines are diurnal. Haplorrhines have a highly vascularized uterus that undergoes preparation for pregnancy every month, and when there is no fertilization, the wall is shed in the form of menstruation. They have a hemochorial placenta, while the strepsirrhines have an epitheliochorial placenta, they do not undergo pregnancy preparation, and they do not menstruate.
Catarrhines have a narrow nose, forward-facing, and the nostrils separated by the nasal septum, while the platyrrhines have a flattened nose. The catarrhines have a more oversized cerebrum for sight and social behavior, while the platyrrhines have a smaller cerebrum. Catarrhines have a hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis regulating gonadal hormone production, while platyrrhines do not have such an axis. In platyrrhines, the presence of androgens is involved with the social ranking and behavior and less involved in reproduction based on cells. Platyrrhines reach sexual maturation after a short period of typical life expectancy of more than a decade compared to catarrhines that take time before reaching sexual maturity. Platyrrhine, due to its increased life expectancy, is preferred for clinical studies compared to catarrhines.
Comparative Anatomy
Orthograde posture means walking straight or upright, the limbs do not move in parallel, while in pronograde stance, the limbs move in parallel to one another while waking. The scapula is dorsally placed for orthograde mammals, while for the pronograde primates, the scapula is shorter. The length to width of the scapula, also known as scapula index, is decreased in upright primates, while in quadruple mammals, the scapula is longer and less broad; therefore, the index is increased. The ribcage of bipedal organisms is flattened, and the acromion process of the scapula is extensive. Simultaneously, in quadruple, the rib cage is uneven, and the acromion process is more diminutive. This is because there is a need for more use of deltoid muscles due to hands freeing.
The hands of quadruple animals are long curved and less opposable thump than the orthograde that has shortened and more muscular and fully opposable thump. The orthograde have complete grip precision due to the firm hands and fully opposable thumbs compared to the pronograde. The ancestor of bipedal organisms was a tree dweller animal that could walk quadrupedally between one branch of the tree. From the ancestor, the two trends of locomotion were obtained. One which led to the gorillas elongation of the forelimbs so that their lengthened limbs knuckles can support the animal when walking. The second trend consisted of shortening of the trunk, relocation of the shoulders blades, and increased emphasis on the trunk erection and growth in the hind limbs support. This trend led to the achievement of bipedalism.
The hand gripping and the tool behavior can explain the opposable thumps. There are various reasons to support that the foot selection was the last compared to the selection of the hands that led to grip precision. The hallux selection was much more robust, and the selection of the lateral toes followed it. The changes in the feet happened after the hands were selected to precision grip. Scientists have shown that the early ancestors used to walk quadrupedally and still used their feet to hold onto the branches of a tree, they walked differently on the ground (Boe et al. 248). The big toe evolved due to the push-off power during walking and learning.
Hence, the big toe was the last to grow because it was the last to change. After all, mankinds ancestors lived mostly on trees, and the feet were used for grabbing the trees. Moreover, due to the hypothesis that bipedal movement evolved due to the stone age period, this freed the hands to carry tools. This is evidence that the precise grip happened first that made it possible for throwing, clubbing, and holding tools, then the big toe (Boe et al. 208).
The three structures of the brain consisting of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain stem. The cerebrum is the most significant part of the brain that carries around 85% of the brains total weight, and it has frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal areas. It is the last part of the brain to evolve and controls all voluntary activities, such as emotions, intelligence, communication, and creativity. The cerebellum is the part of the brain underneath the cerebrum, and it is the first part of the brain to evolve. It takes around 10% of the total weight of the brain (Boe et al. 204). However, around half of the brain neurons are located in the cerebellum. It is responsible for posture, balance, cognitive functions, muscle tone, and coordination. The brainstem is located underneath the cerebrum and the cerebellum. It connects the rest of the brain to the spinal cord. It accounts for 5% of the brain and is also the oldest to evolve. It controls the sleep-wake cycle, regulates the lungs and the heart, coordinates the brain and the peripheral nervous system, and controls reflexes.
The olfactory centers dominate the cerebrum of most mammals. In primates, the sense of smell is less critical and more visual areas in the brain. Due to the use-disuse rule, primates did not use a sense of smell more than a sense of vision, which led to the enlargement of the occipital lobes responsible for fiction and the parietal lobes accountable for touch. The shape of the brain has the same features throughout the primates. In strepsirrhines, the two bony orbits are 140 degrees apart, while in haplorrhines, the angle is 20 degrees (Boe et al. 203). Moreover, due to the large size of the brain of haplorrhines, there is an elaboration of the visual and tactile senses.
Technology and Intelligence
Language is a fundamental element in evolution, and the what people say have their emotions. Language shapes the ongoing experiences and perceptions. The use of emotional words such as anger and disgust to label some posed facial expressions reduces the brain areas activity associated with uncertainty, such as the amygdala. When one expresses a particular emotion using language, the children will register that in the brain, and whenever they have the same feelings, they will communicate the same registered emotions.
The language supports the conceptual knowledge used in the emotions.
Language is a fundamental element in evolution, and the what people say have their emotions. Language shapes the ongoing experiences and perceptions. The use of emotional words such as anger and disgust to label some posed facial expressions reduces the brain areas activity associated with uncertainty, such as the amygdala. When one expresses a particular emotion using language, the children will register that in the brain, and whenever they have the same feelings, they will communicate the same registered emotions.
The language supports the conceptual knowledge used in the emotions. Language helps humans to acquire abstract concepts. Humans make meaning of the ongoing sensory perceptions through language. Psychological constructivist feelings state that language is a glue for knowledge, critical concepts and shapes sensory perceptions continuous processes. The essential elements of the mind that make language necessary are the representations of the sensations inside the body, and the knowledge concepts are used to make these sensations meaningful.
Language has a critical role in memory. For example, one is likely to remember childhood memory when others like the language they spoke. It acts as a hook to draw and resurface memories. The thoughts and feelings are dependent on the knowledge people have. There is a link between language and memory in the hippocampus since the hippocampus relates the incoming words to the brain via semantic knowledge, generates meaning, and stores them as what is known as semantic memory. Episodic memory is dependent on language since it is built on past experiences and events. Displacement is the capability of referring to small and spatial objects during communication. It is one of the critical features of human language. This ability is not direct and is unique to human beings, and it is evidence of evolution in language, though it is absent in animal communication. For example, if a cat comes near an individual and they call the cat, it will meow when they ask where it has been the whole day, it will repeat the same sound. It has no ability to communicate about spatial and distant events. This shows that it does not have displacement. Human beings can speak of the past, present, and even the future.
Displacement allows human beings to talk about distant objects and places even when they are not sure of their existence. This feature is essential since it distinguishes humans from other primates. The uniqueness of the environment that human beings live in enables selecting the language to coexist and understand one another. Language evolved even as other human features were underdoing evolution. This gave human beings higher functions such as the distinct language.
There are many theories that try and explain how Humans evolved. The Human evolutionary theory is one such formulation that has evolved from its basic form as propounded by Charles Darwin to include many other facets and disciplines. This essay focuses on the concepts of human evolutionary theory.
The earliest best-known theory of evolution was propounded by Charles Darwin, whose main thesis was that life has evolved from simple single-celled organisms to multi-cellular, complex living things through the process of natural selection and the primacy of the survival of the fittest. According to Darwin, the environment forced organisms to adapt and led to incremental and random genetic mutations that equipped certain species to cope up and survive better than the others. These random genetic mutations became reinforced in successful species, and those that could not cope up with the environment suffered extinction. Darwin (1859) states that Natural selection acts only by taking advantage of slight successive variations; she can never take a great and sudden leap but must advance by short and sure, though slow steps (p. 244). Man, too has arisen out of this process of natural selection.
In his thesis The Descent of Man Darwin holds that man probably evolved from apes. Darwin(1871) theorizes that mans position as the most dominant species was a result of his intellectual faculties, to his social habits, which lead him to aid and defend his fellows, and to his corporeal structure (p. 67). Darwin further adds that through his powers of intellect, articulate language has been evolved; and on this, his wonderful advancement has mainly depended (p. 68) . Modern evolutionary theory holds much the same conclusions as Darwin that the four main characteristics that made humans the dominant species were, Bipedalism; his ability to walk erect, thumb opposing the fingers, a cognitive intellect, and the power of the speech, which allowed the social organization of the highest degree.
The evolutionary theory holds that evolution is a product of natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow. According to the natural selection mechanism, a genetic mutation that leads to the further reproductive success of an organism is reinforced, leading to a stronger organism that will survive over the other organism which does not have the beneficial mutation. These mutations happen gradually, very slowly over time to be beneficial. The evolutionary theory holds that most mutations are deleterious or harmful, and it is only the slow pace of mutation that allows for adaptation and reinforcement of the species.. However, that does not explain how humans have not mutated to more horrible forms and have yet retained their beneficial traits. The reason is that since humans carry two sets of genes, one from the father and one from the mother, the bad genes inherited from one of the parents get compensated by the genes of the other parent.
The evolutionary theory of humans has many detractors, who point to some significant gaps in information. For example, the evolutionary theory has till to date been unable to explain the missing link between the theorized evolution of humans from Neanderthals to Homo sapiens and whether all humans originated out of Africa or evolved differently in different parts of the world at the same time. Despite some promising paleontological finds in Ethiopia, the absolute validity of the evolutionary theory is a long way off from universal acceptance.
Works Cited
Darwin, C., & Darwin, F. (1896). On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. NY: D Appleton and Company.
Darwin, C., Desmond, A., & Moore, J. (2004). The Descent of Man (1871). London: Penguin Classics.
Geography is the study of the earth and the natural features that characterize it. It deals on matters of land, inhabitants and the natural processes that shape the earth including atmospheric phenomena.
It is through geography that we can get information on land features such as mountains, valleys, faults and many others. Geography can also give information on the behaviour of human beings and animals in response to natural phenomena.
The study of geography is divided into different categories. However it is not clear on the number of the subdivisions of geography. This is because many authors have come up with different ways of dividing this subject. However there are some books which divide geography into broad categories. Some of the branches include physical geography, human geography and environmental geography.
Physical geography deals with the natural features of the earth such as mountains, valleys and topography among others. Human geography covers issues such as settlement and the effects of natural phenomena to the population. Environmental geography deals with environmental issues that may affect the natural behaviours of faunal and floral populations.
This research is about general geography, its history in the past one hundred years and how it has helped determine the behavioural changes the earth has undergone during this period. It also hypothesizes the possible future of geography in the next one century. The research explains how geography will be used as a tool to predict future events.
The events discussed here could either be dangerous or advantageous to the surrounding environment. The reasons for these hypotheses are also given in the report together with a few specific examples of some recent natural phenomena.
History of geography
The first person to use this term was Eratosthenes (Strong, 1998). Eratosthenes was the chief librarian of the popular Library of Alexandria, during the 3rd century. However, Eratosthenes was not the first person to apply the rudimentary features of geography since most people had unknowingly applied geographical features before then.
Ever since the advent of the theory of continental drift by the famous geoscientist Alfred Wegener in 1912, geography has continued to be a popular subject of choice across the globe. In the U.S however, there had been a general decline of popularity in this subject. In the recent past from the last 50 years, the usage and comprehension of this subject had been gradually diminishing.
For instance, studies between nine nations during late 1980 revealed that American students in the 18-24 year bracket came in at the last place. Before then teachers at college level detected the lack of interest in specifically geography among American students and began a spirited effort to increase literacy in the subject thereafter (Strong, 1998).
Brief history of the earth
More than 200 million years ago, according to Wegener, the earth consisted of one large land mass called Pangaea. The Pangaea split into two land masses. The northern land mass was named Laurasia while the south moving continent was named Gondwanaland.
This study has been able to be substantiated by matching of the adjacent coasts of the continent. For instance, the entire western coast of Africa can fit almost perfectly to the eastern coast of South America in a jigsaw (Bamber, 2001)
Development of geographic academies
In the period within the first 50 years of the 20th century, the academics of geography had increased to higher levels. There were various studies that focused more on smaller regions compared to preceding geographic studies. Most of this studies utilized methods that described field methodologies to test research questions. Geography and its related research shifted in its methodology around 1950 (Pidwirny, 2006).
Its shift was from ancient methods to more scientific approaches. Basically these approaches were based on quantitative techniques. This was then termed as quantitative revolution. The revolution was related in some way, to the methods in which the researchers studied the earth and the processes occurring within the earth.
Rather than just describing the events in question, geographers began investigating processes that cause natural geographic phenomena and currently this quantitative methodology is still gaining popularity especially with the input of computer technology.
In the past 100 years, several events of geographic importance have occurred. The earth has continued to be shaped physically through processes like earthquakes and volcanic activities. The recent Haiti earthquake attests to this fact. The continental and oceanic plate boundaries have been moving either in collision, apart or sliding past each other. This is known as the theory of continental drift.
The Great Rift Valley in Africa, for example is moving apart and it may soon be filled with either oceanic water or lava or both. Geographic and geologic projections have been able to predict the time it will take for this to occur.
Currently the study of geography has enabled the use of computer technology in disciplines such as geomatics and cartography. This has led to the present use of digital maps. Examples of digital maps can be found in Google maps and several other internet search engines.
The emergence of some technologies such as geographic information system has been known to use a lot of geography. Global Positioning Systems (GPS) and other gadgets have gained increasing popularity by combining Information Technology with geography.
The modern Geography
Earth scientists like William Pattison, have written articles in the Journal of Geography to suggest the composition of modern geography to include spatial tradition, area studies tradition, human land tradition and earth science traditions (Pidwirny, 2006). The study of geography in the next 100 years is projected to be applied to various fields.
Geographic studies have shown that there will be a rise in sea level, and also the coastal stability will decrease (Waugh, 2000) in the near future. This has been substantiated by accurate projections using graphs and available historical data. The success of the research has shown that geography can be used in several disciplines to solve environmental issues, human conflicts and atmospheric issues.
The use of geography in technology
The utility of geography in these fields has also gained popularity in the recent past. This means that geography in the next century will be a formidable tool in solving many issues above and beyond. This is because the subject has proved to be more and more indispensable to the modern world. As an example, we have phones that use Global Positioning System to locate people.
These gadgets are also used to locate stolen vehicles. A device that transmits signals is installed in an automobile. If this vehicle is stolen, its navigation can be monitored and then tracked by the use of a receiver that interprets the signals to indicate the position of the motor vehicle. Thus geography has gained use in security sector.
GIS technology
GIS has been used to refer to that part of geography that studies the surface of the earth using software. Organizations such as the Esri community have come up with software which is currently being used for purposes of location, georeferencing, and geodata management. GIS software has also been used in civil engineering and in military purposes (Elkins, 2010).
One of the aims of this organization is that it hopes to be able to advance its software so that it can find its application to subsurface earth studies. As an example, Esri hopes to be able to monitor mining activities in the underground with its software technology. Currently the software can only project dimensions of particular features in the subsurface environment.
GIS deals with reality models such that it describes geographic objects in relation to their space (Egenhofer et al, 1994). The GIS technology has also enabled the use of algorithm in Geography to describe regions known as holes on the earth.
Hypothesis of future use of geography
To hypothesize on the usage of geography in the next century is quite an easy task. This is so especially because geography together with technology is now being used literally in every aspect of life. First of all it has been established that geography can be used hand in hand with several other disciplines to solve many issues.
Geography has gained wide usage when combined with mathematics, physics, chemistry, social sciences and languages among others. This means that it is increasingly becoming a bridge-discipline. That is to say that in the near future, it will act as a discipline of reference by other subjects.
Geography has gained usage in the study of planetary science such that science has been able to establish the behaviour of planets, stars, satellites and other heavenly bodies through geography. The current studies about global warming base their arguments on the foundations of geography.
Natural hazards such as flooding, landslides, volcanic activities, earthquakes and many others base most of their facts on geographical information. In modern times, geography has been used to foretell a natural phenomenon by simple calculations of time which when worked backwards can predict events such as earthquakes and volcanic activities.
A good example is that geography together with geology was used by American professors to predict the infamous Haiti earthquake. If the Haiti people had taken it seriously, perhaps the magnitude of the suffering would have been greatly reduced. In future therefore, geography will be used to predict and forewarn us on events and be able to advice accordingly.
Conclusion
If we consider all the information given in this work concerning geography, its history and development, we will come to conclude that rudimentary speaking; geography is the study of how earth processes are distributed through space and time. Formulating this definition is entirely based on the facts which have been put forward in this paper.
Human geography determines how natural phenomena tend to affect the behaviour of human beings in relation to the environment. On the other hand physical geography tries to explain the reasons why natural processes follow a particular pattern in space and time.
Egenhofer et al, (1994). Topological relations between regions with holes, International Journal of Geographic Information Systems 8 (2): 129-144, 1994.
This presentation will explore the evolutionary changes that took place since the beginning of Earth. Much attention will be paid to the theory of abiogenesis, and the evolution of species at the early stages. Additionally, this presentation will show how animals and plants evolved with time passing. It is critical to examine the factors that underlie these processes and their outcomes. These are the main questions that should be discussed more closely.
Introduction
This presentation is aimed at discussing the evolutionary changes from the beginning of Earth. Moreover, it is important to discuss the evolutionary changes of animals and plants. One should pay attention to the following aspects:
The transformation of living organisms from the beginning of Earth;
The outcomes of evolutionary changes in animals;
The development of plants;
Current evolutionary changes that can be observed.
Current models explaining the origins of life and evolutionary changes
The theory of abiogenesis
Modern researchers attempt to develop various models that can explain the development of living organisms.
Living organisms emerged due to the transformation inorganic molecules into organic substances (Hodge, 2009, p. 148).
Amino acids could be synthesized under the physical conditions that existed on Earth several billion years ago.
There are substances called that autocatalists that can replicate themselves. In turn, the existence of such substances was critical for the existence of early forms of life.
Last universal ancestor
Currently, researchers believe that the diversity of living forms originates from the so-called last common ancestor. The following chart illustrate the way in researchers describe the development of species. It indicate that different organisms have a single origin (Todar, 2010).
It should be noted that the last common ancestor could have lived more than 3.5 billion years ago. Moreover, scientists believe that it is more likely that the living organisms emerged from a single ancestor, rather than from multiple ancestors (Todar, 2010).
The development of living organisms since the beginning of Earth
The evolution of living organisms started from simple cells to complex multicellular organisms.
Simple animals and plants emerged relatively late. At the time, the life on earth existed for more than 3 billion years.
There is genetic evidence confirming that various species evolved from one another (Mauseth, 2010).
Evolutionary Changes of Animals
Animals can be described as multicellular eukaryotes. In other words, these organisms are composes of cells that include a nucleus.
The gradual transformation of species can be attributed to a variety of factors such as natural selection, gene variation, and sexual recombination.
Much attention should be paid to the external stimuli that prompt the gradual evolution of living organisms.
The outcomes of evolutionary changes in animals
It is possible to identify several major results of evolutionary changes.
One should focus on the following aspects:
Adaptation to changing environmental conditions;
Co-evolution and cooperation of species;
Speciation;
The extinction of a species.
These are the main aspects that can be singled out.
The evolutionary changes of plants
Researchers believe that land plants evolved from various green algae. They first emerged approximately 450 years ago.
The development of plants has been based on the transformation of life-cycles.
This process has been based on the transformation ferns, bryophytes, and lycopods into angiosperms and gymnosperms (Mauseth, 2010).
The evolution of plants can be attributed to chromosomal rearrangements, mutations, and epigenetic transformations.
Factors that influence evolutionary changes of plants
The development of plants can be affected by various factors. Among them one can distinguish the following issues:
Temperature and humidity;
The direction and strength of winds;
The evolution of plants can be explained by the need to develop water transportation vessels.
The outcomes of evolutionary processes in plants
Overall, the evolutionary changes of plants increase the ability of plants to adjust to various environmental challenges. One can focus on the following characterizes:
Plants are able to get access to nutrients and water. For instance, this goal can be achieved with the help of roots.
Additionally, they can adjust to dryness. In particular, pollen is one of the mechanisms that enable plants to survive the absence of water resources.
Apart from that, they can control the level of CO2 absorption and water loss.
Current trends in evolutionary changes of animals and plants
The pollution of air and water leads to the destruction of natural habitat. The major outcome of this trend is the loss of biodiversity.
It is critical to remember that nowadays many species are on the brink of extinction. Moreover, the number of such species gradually increases.
Additionally, the activities of human beings adversely impact many ecosystem. The following diagram illustrates the rate of extinction (Species Extinction and Human Population, 2010).
Admittedly, the extinction of species has also existed before.
Conclusion
Overall, the chosen example indicate that evolutionary changes are the result of very complex physical, genetic, and environmental processes. Much attention should be paid to the following issues:
The existence of a common ancestor.
The existence of various factors that prompt evolutionary changes.
The evolutionary transformation of animals and plants can be partly explained by the activities of human beings.
Reference List
Hodge, R. (2009). Evolution: The History of Life on Earth. New York, NY: Infobase Publishing.
Mauseth, J. (2012). Plants and People. New York, NY: Jones & Bartlett Publishers. Species Extinction and Human Population. (2010). Web.
Heritable traits that enable particular organisms to survive and reproduce successfully tend to become common in a population for generations to come. This happens in the process of natural selection: a process responsible for evolution. In natural selection, nature selects the most fit organisms allowing them to reproduce successfully while eliminating the unfit organisms. As a result, the traits of these fit organisms become common over time in a given population while the traits of the unfit organism diminish in that particular population with time.
Take for instance the dark and white peppered moth (Biston betularia). These months are in the same population, that is, an assembly of interbreeding organisms in a given species (Menton, 1991). Offsprings are not identical to their parents but are similar. This implies that every set of offspring has a given range of genetic variations. Since these offsprings interbreed, the successive offsprings have characteristics that their parents do not have (Harding, 1999). The trait under study here is color. White and dark moths came to being under these genetic variations. The population of these moths will have both dark and white moths at the starting point.
After a long time, changes in the environment like the effects of industrial evolution catch up with this population exposing it to selective pressures. Selective pressure in this context refers to any cause that minimizes successful reproduction in some species in a given population. Industrial soot from industries covers trees and this offers the dark moths camouflage that enables them to evade predation from birds. The selective pressure in this population is predation from birds. Birds can only see and eat the white moths due to lack of camouflage. Consequently, the dark moths survive predation and increase in number as the white moths diminish under predation. These occurrences lead to differential reproduction in this population with dark moths having a great chance of successful reproduction as predation reduces the successful reproduction chances of white moths.
It is important to note at this point that, in natural selection and evolution, individuals do not change instead it is the environment that changes.
After several years, the surviving dark moths will have more baby moths compared to the white moths. This is because the dark color (trait) has a genetic orientation. With repeated cycles of these occurrences, this population portrays the effects of natural selection. Due to its advantage, dark coloration becomes more common because it allows dark moths to have more offspring. The result may be a population with dark moths without any white moths. This is the process of natural selection.
Evolution occurs through natural selection in presence of the following: variation, differential reproduction, and inheritance of genetic materials (Understanding Evolution, 2009). In the beginning, the moths had color variations. Thereafter, the population faced selective pressures from predation by birds. The white moths could not survive to reproduce successfully due to predation. The dark moths reproduced successfully due to lack of predation. This is the differential reproduction part of natural selection. Dark baby beetles inherited dark colors from their parents increasing their chances of survival.
Nature selected the fit moths that could stand predation and reproduce successfully. In this case, the industrial revolution that occurred in the environment caused dark moths to survive predation as white moths became extinct from the population.
Reference List
Harding, K. (1999). Evolution for Beginners. Web.
Menton, D. (1991). The Peppered Moth Shows Evolution in Action. Web.