The last research study dealt with ethnographic observation of Twin Oaks Intentional Community. It was through field work that the community was noted as one of the intentional communities. According to Christian, “an intentional community is a group of people who have chosen to live with or near enough to each other to carry out their shared lifestyle…” (xvi).
The second paper will analyze this community according to what was observed in field work. The study involved not only performing some interviews with its members but also getting information through interactions during meal times. There are several lessons one can learn by observing and analyzing this community and its culture.
As stated in the former paper, the community under observation cherishes values like peace, sharing, cooperation and equality. They like to work together in order to promote peace and equality among themselves. These are some of the aspects of culture observed in that community.
The event in which this analysis was done met the required expectations. It was similar to the prospect because some lessons were to be learnt by studying this community. One of the main lessons learnt was their effort to bring gender equality in the community. Twin Oaks had provided a good example of an unrelenting effort to defeat gender related inequality challenges in a community (Smith 240).
They had put consistent effort to stop inviting new members from the dominating gender that had created imbalance. In fact, they clearly set a rule in place that would ensure gender balance at all times. That was the reason why they do not invite new members of the dominating group.
It is also important to note that this community aimed at helping one another by embracing non violent activities. Every member had to participate in decision making although final decisions belong to a ‘Board of Community Planners’ (Smith 243).
As an observer, any community needs to improve education programs in order to build a strong practice of collective child rearing. Twin Oaks has another cultural aspect and practice in child care. The way they practice childcare is indeed a great lesson worth emulating. Child care is not for women only but it is a communal and voluntarily task extended to any member in the community.
The community practices collective child rearing responsibility (Levinson 679). In this case it is clear that children would have ample time with adults even if they are not related. However, children face some challenges in education due to lack of sufficient educational programs and facilities. The entire process of raising children is under the control of the wholecommunity. According to its policies, there should be planning and direction on these matters.
One of the main objective facts that distinguish itself from observation and interpretation is Twin Oaks’ ability to continuity. This is an important lesson one can learn by studying this community. Through this study, it is clear that Twin Oaks had the ability to maintain itself for years (Fosket & Mamo 170).
The community had experienced successful maintenance because it had endured changes for some length of time. This flexibility had helped them to transcend through emerging changes in the community. In the process of writing notes during field work, several factors were put into consideration. These factors were considered to be integral in sustaining a community and included contact, collaboration and connectedness. Twin Oaks needs to embrace these values.
The continued anthropological research on Twin Oaks is helpful since there are myriad of lessons to be learnt. Intentional community living is a solution to survive in a disintegrated social order.
The lesson that can be learned in the case study is how to create a unified life together especially for the purpose of pulling efforts as a common unit during difficulties. This is a deliberate attempt to start a group of people to work together in order to accomplish a common goal.
It is also imperative to note that there are well defined policies and internal control measures in an intentional community. As a matter of fact, such controls are necessary as part and parcel of maintaining law and order as well as peaceful co-existence. Twin Oaks was able to come up with some stringent policies that helped its community to live and work together. The community was quite harmonious largely due to the set rules that acted as guidelines.
Finally, there were several questions that came up while carrying out this exercise. For instance, what would be the need of creating life together or living as a common unit? Definitely, there are myriad of reasons behind this. For instance, if people live as a unit, harmony and social interaction will be cultivated. The other inquiry would be whether this form of community living can be embraced globally and at the same time achieve the same desired results.
It is vital to note that intentional community life has its own merits and demerits which may vary from one geographical location to another. Factors such as cultural differences as well as individual values and belief systems do matter a lot when it comes to setting common rules and regulations in such communities. Interestingly though, Twin Oaks was able to create a cohesive living environment among its people.
Works Cited
Christian, Diana. Creating a Life Together: Practical Tools to Grow Ecovillages and Intentional Communities. Gabriola Island: New Society Publishers, 2003.
Fosket, Jennifer & Mamo, Laura. Living Green: Communities that Sustain. Gabriola Island: New Society Publishers, 2009.
Levinson, David. Encyclopedia of Community: From the Village to the Virtual World. Massachusetts: Berkshire Publishing Group LLC, 2003.
Smith, Vicki. Worker Participation: Current Research and Future Trends. San Diego: Elsevier Ltd, 2006.
Maps and Dreams by Hugh Brody is an ethnographical account of the research which was conducted at a Beaver Indian reserve in British Columbia. Combining the chapters with the first-person narration and the parts with verified scientific data, the author implements an original approach for providing an account of his observation and the results of the experiment.
Mixing the scientific and humanistic approaches and implementing the anthropological framework and the concept of the bio-cultural triad for covering various sides of life of Beaver community, Brody uses dialogic procedures for depicting and explaining the processes in the Indigenous community.
Hugh Brody implemented a mix of scientific and humanistic approaches for covering the naturalistic issues in his ethnographic account of life of a Beaver Indian reserve. Funded by the federal government, the ethnographer has spent more than a year in northwestern British Columbia for examining the possible impact of the planned natural gas pipe upon the conditions of life of Indigenous population.
Disregarding this federal mission, Brody’s book under consideration contains not only verified data on history and economy of the Beaver reserve, but also his personal views of their lifestyles and their culture. Mixing the chapters with first-person reportage with scientific data, the author noticeably struggles with the difficulties of describing the phenomena of an unknown culture using the native language.
There is a contrast between the scientific methods implemented for studying various dimensions of the community and partially subjective manner of representation of the achieved results, which emphasizes the complexity of the processes in the reserve. The ethnographer suffers from a culture shock which can be seen in his reactions to the surrounding events and difficulties with adapting to new environment.
However, after spending some time in the reserve, the researcher undergoes the influence of this community, empathizes with Indians and understands certain cultural and linguistic phenomena which previously he perceived as weird and unthinkable.
On the other hand, the ethnographer’s presence and research had impact upon Indians’ behavior as well, even complicating the process of investigation to certain extent. Thus, supplementing the anthropological framework with additional sources of information, including even personal impressions and interpretation of the Beaver traditions and lifestyles, Brody combined scientific and humanistic approaches to exploring the Indian reserve, making his extensive observations multifaceted.
Taking into account the initial goal for conducting the research, it can be stated that economic data is one of the significant components of the overall investigation. Emphasizing the strong links between the Indians’ traditions and their current lifestyle, Brody shows how important is the role of hunting and fishing in their economic activities even despite the incursions of Europeans into their territories and accustomed living conditions.
It is stated that “the new frontier allowed hundreds, even thousands of Whites to hunt or fish deep inside the heartlands of many Indian hunting territories and traplines… This access causes the most direct threat to the Indian interest in northeast British Columbia” (Brody 218). In other words, examining the impact of the European intervention, the ethnographer does not separate the economic activities from the rest of anthropological framework, viewing them in the cultural and sociological contexts.
Drawing a significant part of their sustenance from hunting, Beaver people continued to hunt on moose, deer and caribou notwithstanding the changing environment and Europeans’ incursions. Establishing the links between the economic activities, traditions and beliefs of Indigenous population, Brody defined the place of economies in ethnography and the interconnected character of these disciplines.
Depicting the cultural and religious beliefs of Indigenous population in their connection to nature and anthropological issues, the ethnographer implemented the concept of bio-cultural triad for explaining the strong links between the human biology of Beaver community and their cultural choices, namely diet and modes for drawing sustenance.
Exploring the sides of the triad, Brody treats Beaver diet and eating traditions as an effective strategy of biological adaptation of the community to their natural environment. Providing valuable statistical data concerning the population size, structure, proportions and morbidity rate, Brody shows that these cultural practices were effective for using the available environmental opportunities and compensating for the existing drawbacks of the natural conditions.
Considering the impact of independent environmental features, including climate, flora, fauna and other natural resources upon the socio-natural environment and cultural choices of the Beaver community, the ethnographer emphasizes the integrity of various dimensions of community life.
Incorporating the rules of reasonable use of resources, hunting on large and small animals and watching their behavior and natural habitat into the system of their religious beliefs and ethical norms, Beaver people managed to create favorable socio-natural environment for their community which was only partially constrained by the incursions of Europeans.
Brody uses the example of differences in the maps created by White people and Indians for demonstrating the gaps between their perception of the same territories and plans for using the same resources, demonstrating their colliding interests. Along with the differences in the maps, the concept of bio-cultural triad is used by the ethnographer for depicting the high level of adaptation of Indigenous population to their natural environment and the impact of European intervention upon their lifestyle.
Expressing his personal opinion of the investigation results and impressions from living in the Indian community and attempts to understand its cultural phenomena, the ethnographer uses a reflexive perspective for presenting his account of Beaver traditions, lifestyle, economy and other anthropological parameters, involving readers into a dialogue.
Viewing the anthropological issues through his own eyes and combining scientific and humanistic approaches, the author affects his readers’ cultural beliefs and their perception of life in general. Brody’s description of Beaver system of values preconditioned with peculiarities of their natural environment and affecting their lifestyle and economic activities had impact upon my personal views of wealth, power, duty, honor and democracy.
Taking into account the concept of the bio-cultural triad, most ethical issues can be viewed from a new perspective, simplifying the debates concerning beliefs and activities of society representing them as the two interdependent sides of the processes in the community. This endless circle of the mutually-dependent phenomena emphasizes the complexity of anthropological framework, which can be implemented for exploring the methods in any community.
Application of this framework to Brody’s experiment with Beaver reserve is valuable for testing its elements as implemented for the analysis of Indians’ original lifestyle and traditions which are unique due to separation of this small community from the rest of the population of the continent.
Complimenting the statistic, historical and economic data with his own emotions, the researcher provides his personal observations as an active participant of the investigation for showing the gap between the systems of values in Europeans and Indigenous population. Thus, the chosen perspective and approaches along with the manner of presentation of the materials had impact upon my own perception of cultural beliefs and anthropological phenomena.
Mixing the scientific and humanistic approaches to presenting the results of the ethnographic research and personal observations, Brody encourages the readers’ involvement into the dialogue. Analyzing the issues discussed in the reflexive chapters of the book under consideration, it can be stated that the author partially implements the dialogic procedures (Omohundro 392).
The contrast between the ethnographer’s perception of Beaver traditions and the beliefs of Indigenous population is one of the most important dialogic questions. The methods used by Brody for collecting the materials and conducting his surveys require effective communication with the native inhabitants of the reserve and can be regarded as a part of a dialogue strategy.
Comparing and contrasting the cultural beliefs in representatives of different communities, the author touches upon the problem of their origin, trying to get to the roots of the problem. Expressing his own doubts and leaving specific questions without definite answers, the researcher encourages following debates and dialogue.
Presenting the scientific facts along with his personal observations, the researcher leaves space for readers’ counterarguments and personal views. In that regard, the methods implemented by the author as well as his manner of presentation of the facts, observations and opinion can be regarded as dialogic.
The approaches, concepts and manner of presentation of the materials chosen by Brody for depicting the variety of cultural phenomena and beliefs of the Beaver community had impact upon my understanding of the elements of anthropological framework and processes in their integrity.
Works Cited
Brody, Hugh. Maps and Dreams:Indians and the British Columbia Frontier. Waveland Press, 1998. Print.
Omohundro, John. Thinking Like an Anthropologist: A Practical Introduction to Cultural Anthropology. McGraw Hill Publishing, 2007. Print.
One way to obtain primary data for qualitative research is through ethnographic analysis. This paper discusses the example of Leah, who intends to use ethnography to explore work-life balance possibilities. The characteristics of this approach and the main risks affecting objectivity are assessed.
Ethnographic Analysis: Meaning
Qualitative data analysis is a widely used paradigm for analyzing non-numerical data and allows textual materials to be analyzed, processed, and interpreted to discover common patterns within them. One tool for qualitative analysis is ethnographic research, a unique type of social observation of respondents in their natural environment but not in a laboratory setting (IRB-SBS, 2020). In terms of a literal interpretation, ethnography should be understood as a specific research way of knowing the world through the study of social relationships in it (Department of Anthropology, 2021).
The primary resource for ethnographic research is note-taking, in which the respondent fills out notes or pages of a personal diary, recording their observations and experiences in the context of the research question. In Leah’s case, for example, ethnographic analysis notes would indeed include personal feelings about the extent to which college work supported the individual’s family life, including any doubts and comparisons with previous experiences. It is fair to acknowledge, however, that respondent interviews, in which notes are taken by the interviewer rather than the individual directly, are also identified as a method of ethnographic research, in which case the respondent answers prearranged questions (IRB-SBS, 2020).
The participants in an ethnographic interview are not absolutely all the people with whom the researcher interacts in the course of the analysis, but only those with whom the dialogue is constructed for research purposes. For example, everyday communication with colleagues at work may not be considered ethnographic analysis, but talking about how they manage to combine work and study already classifies them as research participants. Thus, ethnographic analysis is a qualitative research method based on recording an individual’s personal experiences and observations in order to analyze these records further.
Benefits of Overt Surveillance
When implementing ethnographic analysis, the choice of an observational approach, namely open or covert, plays an essential role. The difference between these two techniques is transparent: in the case of open observation, the group of respondents knows that the researcher is conducting an analysis and is aware of its goals, whereas covert observation is implemented through discreet methods in which the group is unaware of the research being conducted (Allan, 2020). Each of these methods proves helpful depending on the applied purpose of the research being conducted, but the author should be careful about which approach to choose, as each is associated with some risks.
Overt observation has clear advantages over closed observation because it resolves most ethical issues. In particular, open observation requires Leah’s colleagues’ consent so they will be aware of the observation (Allan, 2020). In addition, with open observation, Leah’s colleagues will be able to prompt her with some valuable advice and be more involved, which also has the potential to be suitable for the study. This allows for a partnership relationship (rather than a vertical hierarchy) between the parties involved, which positively impacts the communication well-being of Leah and her colleagues.
Disadvantages of Overt Surveillance
Leah has chosen overt observation as an approach to the ethnographic research she is conducting, which means that the respondents will know they are being observed. The obvious risk of this approach is the emergence of some bias, in which Leah’s colleagues may try to appear better than they are in real life, as the Hawthorne Effect postulates (Fry, 2018). In addition, the very nature of open-ended observation involves selecting respondents who know or are close to Leah, which poses the threat of an unrepresentative sample — it is unlikely that another researcher would be able to collect the same sample and replicate the results given the personal skills and personality traits of specific colleagues (IRB-SBS, 2020). Proximity to the objects of observation can also form undesirable consequences for objectivity, as Leah may empathize and distort information to suit the needs of colleagues.
Insider Researcher: Implications
Insider research can lead to unintended consequences of emotional burden, as was shown in a case study in which Leah worries about the emotional well-being of her colleagues and herself (Aburn et al., 2022). In addition, with this approach, Leah could affect changes in communicative relationships with colleagues, including the emergence of conflicts, which would also prove to be an undesirable consequence for the author. On the other hand, Leah would be dealing with people she knows, so she would be able to avoid stereotypical thinking and more easily gain trust and acceptance from them, which would positively affect the research being conducted. Thus, specific consequences include threats to the emotional well-being of the parties involved, modifications to communication, the emergence of conflict, and facilitated trust-building.
Researcher Involvement
Whether the researcher should be an outside observer is sensitive for ethnographic research. There are reasons and justifications for both answers, so each author is free to choose his or her observation method. However, in Leah’s case, detachment from observation can be disruptive because it prevents engagement and trust-building. When a group of respondents realizes they have the same research experience as Leah, it increases motivation, engagement, and trust. In other words, Leah should not be aloof, as this could negatively affect the communicative part of the observation. On the contrary, Leah should not only have the same experience of completing personal diaries as the respondents but should openly state it to achieve the desired effect of the observation. Meanwhile, if Leah does the same work and is not a detached observer, it will contribute to a personal understanding of the weaknesses and strengths of such observation that Leah can describe in the limitations of her thesis. It is also expected that engaged observation can lead to positive relationships between Leah and colleagues even after the dissertation research is completed, which can facilitate the formation of applicable connections. Thus, for Leah, given the context of the research, personal interest in the topic under study, and communicative challenges, the choice of engaged observation, in which the author stands on the same side as the respondents and lives similar experiences, would be appropriate.
Key Work-Life Balance Factors
Leah’s primary research interest is in exploring work-life balance possibilities in contemporary companies. This interest is likely motivated by the increasing trend of today’s employee sustainability agenda, in which employers seek to foster a good work environment that does not interfere with employees’ family lives (Kelliher et al., 2019). This topic is a broad issue for participants in academic discourse; quite a few case studies have explored this balance. For example, Kelliher et al. (2019) point to a rapidly changing model of balance in which personal life is no longer perceived as an employee performing strictly family and parenting functions; instead, personal life includes time away from work that an individual can spend as they see fit, whether it be hobbies, leisure time, or education.
Specific work-life balance factors have also been extensively studied by authors. For example, Wood et al. (2020) report on HRM’s implementation of numerous practices that allow employees to balance work and personal life effectively. These should include programs to train employees in effective time management and soft skills development, developing adequate communication to express personal experiences to the immediate supervisor, and fostering a culture of discipline. Similar findings were made by Rani & Priya (2020), who pointed to flexible work schedules, listening to the employee, and supporting family issues as predictors of building a sustainable balance. It is easy to see that both papers discuss the need to develop communication between employees and managers that allows employees to express their concerns and receive in return the necessary resources, including support for family issues, to develop this balance. An interesting perspective on an essential factor for balance was offered by Nagy (2020), who pointed out that using technology is also a significant opportunity for work-life distinction. Technology allows one to keep in touch with work matters outside of the office and in one’s free time to do one’s own thing in the office. Nagy, unlike previous authors, does not suggest communication or the development of corporate culture as balance factors, but the use of technology also strengthens these factors, so his conclusions are consistent with those of other authors. Thus, the analysis of the three sources found that the critical factors for developing balance are communication, corporate culture, discipline, technology, and employee support.
Alternative Scenario for Research
The ethnographic approach to research is not the only correct strategy, as there are additional tools for qualitative analysis. In particular, conducting a semi-structured interview instead of open observation can also be a good tactic for obtaining the desired information. The point of the interview is that the author prepares their own questions, chooses a convenient time with the respondent, and conducts the interview-the semi-structured approach that meets some flexibility of such questions, so if the author wants to, they can ask additional contextual questions (Bearman, 2019). The sample is also formed by the author of the study and does not necessarily have to include only people they know, which increases the unbiased nature of the data. In order to conduct interviews, the researcher must gather informed consent and educate respondents about the goals of the project (Arifin, 2018). Finally, an essential advantage to choosing interviews is the significant optimization of time and resources spent.
During the interview, the author records participants’ responses using notebook notes or a voice recorder, having obtained prior consent (Arifin, 2018). The data are text or audio notes that are later used for transcription and coding. The thematic analysis allows for the identification of patterns common among respondents’ responses; for such patterns, it is possible to construct a cloud-based textual model as a visualization of the detections (Evans & Lewis, 2018). In addition, coding allows for highlighting critical elements in a large-scale dataset and identifying the main themes named by multiple respondents. In this way, it is possible to analyze textual data and identify key findings from it qualitatively.
Conclusion
Thus, ethnographic analysis has been shown to be a good qualitative research strategy for Leah’s case — through open observation she will be able to obtain valuable primary findings and build partnerships with her colleagues, but the woman should consider several described risks associated with bias.
Ethnography allows for a variety of data collection methods. One of the more popular amongst them is called participant observation. This method of data collection is often used in qualitative research as it focuses on interaction with a specific group of people in the context of their cultural environment. It was first devised in the field of anthropology. Bronislaw Malinowski is often cited as one of the first practitioners of this method during his research of the people of Papua New Guinea (Ferraro 113). A researcher that utilizes this method is expected to create relationships within the group, participate in its daily life, and adhere to its customs. It allows the creation of an authentic impression of the culture of the group and many novel insights. This method involves research in the field, establishing rapport with the people, recording of data, and its analysis. In some cases, participation is limited depending on the situation. This method of data collection has been used not only in the research of isolated native communities but also in research of societal sub-cultures, as they are often defined by a strong sense of identity. By interacting with the people directly, a researcher can better understand their mindset and provide more accurate results (Spradley, Participant Observation 53).
Analysis
During my research, I mostly used qualitative methods with one exception. Qualitative research is an all-encompassing term that includes a variety of research methods focused on the understanding of people and groups of people. Data acquired through this research is not empirical but holds a great value nonetheless. Qualitative research is often done through interviews and observation as they provide the best insight into the nature of the group or individual people. On the other hand, quantitative research provides empirical data, usually in countable figures of units.
The first technique I used is questioning. During my research in the field, I asked people about the prices of ingredients, the length of food preparation, and which ingredients work best for which foods. For my second technique, I utilized sensory ethnography to gain a better understanding of the food. I have smelled the pleasant odors that occurred during cooking, tasted the food, and watched as the ingredients were prepared. Karen Nakamura finds this technique to be very effective in the case of field research (132). My next technique included observation of the customers. They were represented by people of all ages, including school children and the elderly. Martin Hammersley finds observation to be a primary form of research (35). I have also used interviews to gain a better understanding of the subject. During my trip to the cooking school, I was able to gain a lot of information about the food itself. According to James Spradley, interviews are an essential part of fieldwork (The Ethnographic Interview 3). Lastly, I used the technique of mapping to outline the most popular locations of street food vendors. Through my research, I found that a pattern emerged. The food was always fresh and took very little time to cook. This quickness allows street food establishments to sell quality Thai food without a loss in quality.
Sensory Ethnography
The most important parts of this research were done through the use of sensory ethnography. As the name suggests, it is a type of ethnography that focuses on the use of senses, such as sight, smell, taste, and others. In the research on food culture, it is an essential tool because the smell and taste are both aspects that cannot be shown through text or images. Sarah Pink in her book “Doing Sensory Ethnography” provides an example of similar research: “Based on his experience of living in one area Cohen can report on the routines and cycles of garbage accumulation and removal, its smell (as he experienced) and the activities that people engaged in, adding cooking and food smells” (99).
Conclusion
Street food in Hong Kong represents a crucial part of the culture. Its high quality is afforded by the quick preparation time and fresh ingredients of Thai cooking. This research made me change my opinion on street food in this area.
Works Cited
Ferraro, Gary. Classic Readings in Cultural Anthropology. Cengage Learning, 2015.
The world is full of many complex things which are strenuous and hard to crack. It is difficult to explain how they function, how interrelated with one another they are and how they harmoniously coexist in the ecosystem without the slightest friction emanating from the interaction.
This necessitated the invention of tools and techniques that would be used by scholars to aid them in coming up with logical explanations that are expected to delusively dissect the complex societal processes that range from the socio-cultural to the social-economic processes.
Therefore, this study aims at identifying and explaining in details the concept of ethnography and the research methods that are applied in this area of study. This study will also seek to empower the readers with the necessary knowledge that will help them analyze and evaluate qualitative data captured from the research carried out.
Therefore, for this study to achieve this objective, it will attempt to conceptualize the ethnographic methods from studies that have previously been carried out in this field. In addition to this, the paper will define the term ethnography and also identify the main issues in ethnographic research methods.
The paper will also define participant observation and the pitfalls that have arisen from its application in carrying out research. It is from this thesis that the study is expected to architecture a conclusion that will exhaustively summarize the study.
Definition of Ethnography
Ethnography was first applied in anthropology where it was used to carry research studies that were expected to collect qualitative data. Therefore, ethnography can be defined as the qualitative method that is used to study the culture of a given social organization where the results are obtained through active participant observation or interviewing of the subjects under observation by the researcher.
Ethnography is expected to demystify cultural phenomena that characterize the society where knowledge and insights that give meaning to any particular community are studied, learnt and understood in depth by the researcher to discern the underlying fundamental factors that make the society keep on functioning (Ellen, 2001).
Main Issues in Ethnographic Research
The success of any scientific research is partly dependent on the researcher in which his or her ability to apply the research tools and techniques that are most applicable to that specific topic under evaluation as this will raise the credibility of the findings made by the researcher.
Therefore, this study conceives the desire to identify and explain the main tenets of ethnographic research with the objective of discerning that ethnography adheres to the canons of reliability in coming up with the results of any research carried out.
One of the major considerations in the study of ethnography is the issue of ethics. The majority of the ethical issues discussed in ethnographic research fall in five categories, which are informed consent, privacy, harm, exploitation, and the consequences that may arise in future research works.
The ethical issues that arise in ethnographic research should not act as pitfalls in social research studies, but they should be resolved satisfactorily so that effective and efficient research can be carried out (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2007).
Other major features in ethnography entails the selection and the sampling techniques that are employed in identifying which case should be studied, the problems that are encountered in carrying out the research, the identification of the data collection techniques that will be employed in the case being studied, the recording of the data collected and lastly, the data analysis techniques applied (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2007).
Participant Observation
Participant observation can be defined as a qualitative method in ethnology research that is used by researchers in the areas of cultural anthropology in which the researcher in given the opportunity to get a close familiarity with a given social group or community in which the researcher is expected to learn some of the practices that a particular group indulges in, through active participation of the researcher alongside the members of group (Watson, 2005).
In participant observation, the researcher gets the chance to mimic the day to day life of the people under review as he or she interacts with the study group in their daily activities. This method allows a researcher to obtain information that is free from biases as the problem associated with behavioral change that comes from the realization that someone is conducting an observation are eliminated.
It is has been noted that the period of ethnographic study that uses participant observation is relatively long. The researcher’s direct involvement with the community gives him or her absolute opportunity to know the diverse perspectives that underline the behavior and interaction criteria of any particular group and how this interplays among its members.
However, it should be noted that the researcher has the opportunity to either observe the community alone or by actively participating in the activities and making the research observations in the process.
This research method is unique because the researcher is able to place him or herself in the community setting and thus the data collected is firsthand and unprecedented. This makes this research method distinct as it approaches the group under review directly in its environment.
This negates the traditional research methods where the group that is being researched on is the one that comes to the researcher. It is from this community setting that researchers are in a position to make careful, precise, calculated and objective notes from the community practices as they see them happening as they are part and parcel of the observed community.
The researcher has the opportunity to recording the group’s activities in the field research notebook as they happen.
Therefore, it is evident that participant observation as a research method is a milestone ahead of others in uncovering very crucial factors in the society with regard to issues such as interaction between the researcher and the participant. These provide the researchers with a thorough understanding of the problem at hand prior to the initiation of the research study (Ellen, 2001).
Disadvantages of Participation Observation
Despite the efficiency and effectiveness of participant observation to bring to light some of the mysterious practices of the society, the method has a number of drawbacks that have tainted its application in the carrying of research studies in ethnography. One of the major drawbacks of participant observation is the fact that it is time-consuming.
Basing our argument from various past studies, it is evident that most of the research studies that have been conducted using this method have taken more than one year. This drawback makes participant observation practically inapplicable in majority of research studies that require short data collection periods.
In order to mitigate these drawbacks, other measures that may shorten the overall project duration may be adopted. One of the major steps that have been applied to mitigate this problem is using native researchers to study the community as they have a solid understanding of community practices, thus they do not need time to familiarize themselves with community practices (Watson, 2005).
Another drawback that emanates from participant observation is the difficulty of accounting and documenting the data collected. This is because it is very difficult for any researcher to document all crucial data for the study while at the same time, fully concentrate, actively participate and make observations of the activities taking place in the group under review.
More so, an effective research depends on the memory as well as the intra and inter-personal discipline of the researcher. This over-necessitates the importance of having a superficially diligent researcher (Antonius, Robben & Sluka, 2007).
Styles of Field Work
The style of field research refers to the research facet that focuses on the behavior of certain members of a particular society (Ellen, 2001). This is in contrast to ethnography that is involved with identifying and uncovering the practices of a particular group and consequently, attempting to bring out the underlying meaning that is attached to a particular behavior.
The fieldwork style employed by the researcher depends on four factors which are physical, cultural, linguistics and archeology. The cultural factor employs attempts to identify all the aspects of human life that are learnt over a lifetime.
Here, research studies have attempted to demystify how the different groups that exist in the society are in control of all the activities that take place in that society and how duties and responsibilities are delegated harmoniously among the community members.
Physical factors in style of field concentrate on the study of how humans have evolved over time and how they have continuously become sophisticated in their ways of doing things among other factors. It has attempted to discern how human evolution has been influenced by the environmental and cultural factors.
The archeological factor entails the study of the things that have been invented, created and improved by humans over the years. The linguistic factor is concerned with demystifying the factors that influenced the formation and evolution of the languages spoken by different races and tribes of the world.
Also, within the scope of the linguistic factors is discerning how the language and culture of a particular people in the universe have interrelated with the languages and the cultures of other people over the years (Watson, 2005).
Relationship of Fieldwork Style to Theory and Problem
This study attempts to come up with an elaborate analysis that is meant to explain the relationship that exists between the fieldwork styles and theories and how this relationship has contributed to theoretical development. It is evident that fieldwork style has played part in the development and formation of the best theories that are expected to fit practical activities of the group that is being studied.
Thus, fieldwork style is very crucial in the formation of the theory that tightly aligns to the topic under investigation. The relationship is embedded on a three phase approach that entails theory selectivity, theoretical integration and creation of the theory itself.
These three phases are fundamental in carrying out ethnographic research because they enhance problem clarification and theoretical congruence as articulated in the fieldwork style employed by the researcher (Antonius, Robben & Sluka, 2007).
Theory selectivity stresses on concept definition in which the researcher is expected to outline the problem at hand in clearly so that they can choose the best theory that to be used. On the other hand, theoretical integration works on forming a bridge in which the problem under research is harmoniously linked with the theory that was identified in the theory selection phase.
This phase ensures that it critically evaluates the problem based on the fieldwork styles that were employed to ensure the theory applied fully solves the problem under investigation. Lastly, the creation of the theory phase identifies all the factors that influence the study and from this the research findings are documented (Antonius, Robben & Sluka, 2007).
Summary
Ethnographic research has played a very crucial part in the study of the social, cultural and physical aspects of the communities in their own setting where the finding of the research have tremendously increased the insights that are held by social scientists on the behaviors that characterize certain communities in the world.
It has opened a number of avenues in social research in which things or practices that seemed obvious in the society can be studied and in-depth knowledge acquired.
Conclusion
Therefore, it is prudent to conclude that ethnography has become the tool in which this mysterious aspect of the society can be expressed in a more powerful, vivid and relevant manner so as to align the exact behaviors of the members of the society and the perceptions that are held by outsiders with accurate scientific findings.
References
Antonius, C. G., Robben, M., & Sluka, J. A. (2007). Ethnographic fieldwork: an anthropological reader. San Francisco : Wiley-Blackwell.
Ellen, R. F. (2001). Ethnographic research: a guide to general conduct. Chicago: Academic Press.
Hamersley, M., & Atkinson, P. (2007). Ethnography: principles in practice. London: Taylor & Francis.
Watson, C. W. (2005). Being there: fieldwork in anthropology. New York: Pluto Press.
It is important to note that ethnographic research and writing can come in many forms, but there are key essentials to be ensured. Barker’s study of the Marshallese people and their victimization by the U.S. government is an outstanding demonstration of how ethnographic research and writing should be conducted. She used the engaged anthropology method and ethnographic authority writing to expose the apparent structural violence inflicted upon the Marshallese people.
Evaluating Ethnography
Firstly, one of the key elements of ethnographic research is to focus on the people being studied rather than data or records. Guest (2020) states that ethnographers can utilize a range of strategies, which range from qualitative and quantitative data gathering to key informant identification, kinship analysis, social network analysis, and mapping tactics. For the writing, Guest (2020) emphasizes the importance of polyvocality, reflexivity, and ethnographic authority. Some of these approaches and methods can be observed in Barker’s study used in her book. Specifically, she utilizes engaged anthropology, which Guest (2020) defines as “a commitment not only to revealing and critiquing but also to confronting systems of power and inequality” (p. 76). Barker’s (2013) methods include developing trust, learning the language, archival research, oral history gathering, observation, repeated fieldwork, and work on the policy realm. The latter part is a critical identifier of why she adhered to the engaged ethnographic research. She underwent all the essential ethnographic strategy steps ranging from preparation to strategies, mapping, perspective analysis, and proper documentation.
For the ethnographic writing, Barker adopts polyvocality, reflexivity, and ethnographic authority, as emphasized by Guest. However, the biggest element is authority since she utilized engaged anthropology to help the communities she was studying. Barker adopted these methods because she wanted to empower the Marshallese people, and it allowed her to find the most plausible solutions to their problems. She reported that “as an applied anthropologist working for the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) government, I worked with Marshallese leaders and their local attorneys to produce tangible outcomes for communities and the nation” (Barker, 2013, p. 148). Her goal was not limited to the acquisition of information only, but she sought to empower the Marshallese people and bring justice by ending their suffering. The engaged anthropology method and ethnographic authority writing adopted by Barker allowed her to meet the goal of her research project.
Structural Competency
Secondly, the concept of structural violence is of critical relevance and importance for the Marshallese case study. The term structural violence can be defined as a category of violence that is perpetrated by a social institution or structure aimed at a specific group of people, which leads to continuous health inequality (Guest, 2020). In sum, Barker’s (2013) linguistic analysis revealed that the language of the Marshallese people and their cultural elements essentially avoid assigning blame by using passive communication rather than active. In addition, the communities tended to respond as a collective instead of an individual. Barker (2013) writes: “instead of responding in the first person when they did not know the time, people often replied in the collective plural … ‘we don’t know’” (p. 94). She looks at language because it allows anthropologists to uncover “what people think about human behavior” (Barker, 2013, p. 93). Analyzing the language helps to expose structural violence by understanding how the victims perceive and communicate their pain and struggles.
Barker’s interviews essentially focused on the Marshallese women, who are the most vulnerable to linguistic taboos. The decoding process of their experiences with U.S. medical attention, atoll residence, and sex variables demonstrate that they were exposed to a severe form of structural violence (Barker, 2013). They were denied the basic care they required from the U.S., although the pain inflicted by the radiation was serious in most cases. It became apparent that the RMI government was effectively too weak to ensure justice for its people against the U.S. Their social institutions and structures inflicted significant harm to the Marshallese people’s health and well-being, constituting the textbook definition of structural violence. Although the local language is avoidant of assigning blame or speaking from the individual perspective, the negligence and dismissal of the U.S. were clear.
The concept of structural violence is useful to apply to other case studies described by Barker, especially the human radiation experiments. The victims of these experiments were military servicemen, prisoners, graveyard bodies, pregnant women, and people with mental disabilities (Barker, 2013). These actions by the United States Public Health Service, the United States Atomic Energy Commission, and the United States Department of Defense were examples of structural violence. These are institutions and government structures which inflict harm on specific groups of people, comprising the textbook definition.
My personal stance is that the broader public should be educated about structural violence and the hidden histories of radiation exposure because it is relevant to many other areas. For example, oil spills and company-caused pollution are examples of structural violence against certain communities. People need to know how to identify and act to fight back against institutions and organizations since they can inflict severe harm without being as evident compared to an individual perpetrator.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Barker exposed the structural violence inflicted upon the Marshallese people by utilizing the engaged anthropology method and ethnographic authority writing. Her accounts adhere to the principles of polyvocality and reflexivity as well. She approached her fieldwork by being prepared and engaged since she sought to empower the victims of structural violence. Her research is highly important outside radiation exposure cases since this form of damage can be done by companies, organizations, and institutions in various forms.
References
Barker, H. (2013) Bravo for the Marshallese: Regaining control in a post-nuclear, post-colonial world (2nd ed.). Thomson Learning.
Guest, K. (2020). Essentials of cultural anthropology: A toolkit for a global age (3rd ed.). W.W. Norton & Company.
The key aspects provided in the interviews by Gmelch are closely associated with the matters of tourism and tourism management. Thus, as it is stated in some of the interview, tourists generally expect the attitude of obeisance towards them, and the workers of the tourism sphere feel themselves as the obedient servants. The aim of the paper is to analyze the interviews, arranged with various workers of the tourism industry, and either confirm or dispose this statement.
Analysis
The tourist workers, independently on the actual sphere and origin of the services should be polite with the tourists, and provide all the necessary conditions and services, required for the full fledged rest. People are expecting to relax and liberate themselves from the unnecessary troubles and cares, and going to trip, they would like to forget and not to hear of the possible formalities. Thus, as it is emphasized in Lassiter (2006, p. 51):
The workers at the airport are the ones who get to see the incoming tourists at their worst because apart from being frazzled with jetlag, the heat that they may be unaccustomed to being subjected to long cues, most still hold on to the misconceptions they have formed or heard about the country they are about to visit. As explained by one interviewee who works at the currency exchange counter, some visitors expect an attitude of obeisance and servitude from the locals.
Considering this statement, it should be emphasized that coding of this theme in various interviews is closely associated with the fact, that workers of the hotels, airports and other tourist and road objects are of either different racial background or lower social class. Especially such an attitude is observed in the destination country, where some people feel themselves as guests, but behave like ungrateful visitors. Consequently, tourists, who are generally people with sufficient financial reserves, feel themselves higher, in comparison with the service personnel. Nevertheless, the main reason of such attitude is not in the factors of race or social class. People, who pay for the expected services, expect that the performance of these services will be the highest. Moreover, they feel themselves superior. Paying money, they become clients. Clients are always right. Thus, as it is stated in Lassiter (2006, p. 56)
For the hotelier, the major concern is having repeat clientele other than middle class families who are having a once in a lifetime holiday. This means that service has to be tip top all the way if guests are to be sufficiently impressed. Thus the amicability and superior service of the hotel staff is a key point. It means that management has a greater say in how their employees act, dress and talk.
Originally, the entire attitude of tourists towards the personnel of the hotels varies essentially. It is difficult to estimate the behavior of the tourists only in accordance with these criteria, as people are different, and while some treat personnel as servants, while the others are polite and tolerant.
Conclusion
The attitude of tourists towards the personnel is defined not only by social position or racial origin. The key defining factor is the upbringing and education, as while some people are polite and tolerant, the others are rude and sometimes even violent. Consequently, the themes, coded in the interviews require additional analysis.
Bibliography
Lassiter, Luke. Invitation to Anthropology. Altamira Press, 2006
Lassiter, Luke. Invitation to Anthropology. Altamira Press, 2006
According to Abalos (2012, p.1), “ethnography is the in depth study of naturally occurring behavior within a culture or a social group; it seeks to understand the relationship between culture and behavior, with culture referring to beliefs, values and attitudes, of a specific group of people”. This type of research was invented by anthropologists. Anthropologists endeavor to understand human behavior through the use of ethnographic studies. Anthropology is a diverse field that aims at describing human behavior and as a result, it requires anthropologists to be part of the society they are studying so as to gain an in depth understanding. This is achieved only when anthropologists use in depth interviews and observations. Ethnographic studies resemble grounded theory research methods in one way, in that the investigator is not supposed to have a predefined hypothesis. This prevents the investigator from predetermining what is observed or the feedback from the respondents. Actually, the investigator comes up with hypotheses in the process of the study.
Proponents of ethnography argue that in order for such studies to produce outstanding results, they should have extended participant observation (Cresewell, 2011). As such, ethnographers are required to spend enough time at the site of study so as to capture as many facts as possible. During their stay at the site of study, ethnographers are required to gather facts from materials such as artifacts. They should record their observations on tape or have audio recordings of interviews conducted (Cresewell, 2011). Generally, ethnographers collect data not only from observations and interviews, but also from life stories and research diaries. Furthermore, ethnographers should have openness and avoid having predetermined hypotheses. Ethnographic studies are unique in the sense that they focus on social cultural interpretation; the data collected is interpreted in social cultural terms (Cresewell, 2011).
According to Abalos (2012, p.1), “ethnographic designs are qualitative research procedures for describing, analyzing, and interpreting shared patterns of behavior, beliefs, and language that develop over time within the society under study”. In order to achieve this goal, the investigator, also known as the ethnographer, must spend enough time in the field and gather relevant information about the society under investigation. This involves understanding the society’s culture, language, and beliefs. While crafting an ethnographic study, an investigator should follow a certain sequence, according to Murchison (2010). This begins with the selection of an ethnographic project. The extent of the study varies depending on the objectives of the study. For example, one study might focus on the whole society in a selected region, while another one may concentrate only on a single social situation or institution. The focus of the study thus influences the time frame for conducting an ethnographic study. Experts recommend that ethnographers should focus on a single social situation rather than the whole society since this will give them the flexibility they require to conduct the study. Secondly, the investigator needs to synthesize questions that will guide him or her during the study. Since this methodology prohibits the notion of having predetermined hypotheses, the ethnographer must select proper questions that will guide him or her during the whole process.
Once the investigator has decided on the type of questions he or she thinks are going to provide good guidance, he or she should then embark on the process of ethnographic data collection. The process of data collection begins with general observation. As such, the investigator observes the general activities of the people and the physical situation of the area of study. After having a general observation, the investigator focuses on specific aspects depending on the objective of the study. This is where detailed data collection takes center stage. It is important for the ethnographer to make ethnographic records during data collection (Murchison, 2010). This includes video and audio records. In the next step, the investigator is required to analyze the ethnographic data collected. During data analysis, the ethnographer comes up with new questions and hypotheses. The new questions form the basis for the more investigations and data collection (Murchison, 2010). This cycle continues until the investigator is satisfied that his or her questions have been answered. The last part involves writing the ethnography. The main purpose of writing the ethnography is to highlight to the outside world the culture or way of life of the group that was under investigation.
Ethnographic designs have several key characteristics. First, ethnographic studies often focus on cultural themes. This means that ethnographers study specific cultural themes with the aim of highlighting to the outside world their findings. According to Abalos (2012, p.1), “a cultural theme in ethnography, is a general position, declared or implied, that is openly approved or promoted in society or group. Unlike other qualitative studies, cultural themes enable ethnographers to interpret their findings in cultural terms. Second, ethnographic studies identify a culture sharing group. This means that whatever is being investigated must be done communally; it should be a societal endeavor. This is particularly different from other qualitative studies which focus on individuals rather than the society. Abalos (2012, p.1) argues that “a culture-sharing group in ethnography refers to two or more individuals who have shared beliefs, behaviors, and language”.
Third, Ethnographic studies involve the analysis of shared patterns such as beliefs, behavior and language (Holloway, 2005). In order to qualify as shared patterns, the phenomena under study must have been acquired over time and should have certain rules that guide them. Fourth, ethnographic studies involve field work. Ethnographers must go into the field and collect data either through observation, interviews, and keep video and audio recordings of the same. Field of work may involve places such as the site where people play, live, or work. This may also include important cultural functions and festivals. This enables the researcher to collect first hand information. Fifth, ethnographic studies often conclude with an ethnographic writing whereby the investigator documents his or her findings to the rest of the world. Investigators are however advised to write their reports reflexively. Reflexivity, according to Abalos (2012, p.1), “refers to the searcher being aware of an openly discussing his or her role in the study in a way that honors and respects the site and participants”.
In conclusion, this paper has noted that “ethnography is the in depth study of naturally occurring behavior within a culture or a social group; it seeks to understand the relationship between culture and behavior, with culture referring to beliefs, values and attitudes, of a specific group of people” (Abalos, 2012, p.1). This type of research was invented by anthropologists. Anthropologists endeavor to understand human behavior through the use of ethnographic studies. Ethnographic studies resemble grounded theory research methods in one way, in that the investigator is not supposed to have a predefined hypothesis. Ethnographic studies are unique in the sense that they focus on social cultural interpretation; the data collected is interpreted in social cultural terms.
References
Abalos, L. (2012). Ethnographic Study. Web.
Cresewell, J. (2011). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. New York: Pearson.
Holloway, I. (2005). Qualitative Research In Health Care. New York: McGraw-Hill International.
Murchison, J. (2010). Ethnography Essentials: Designing, Conducting, and Presenting Your Research. California: John Wiley & Sons.
According to Holloway (2005, p. 172), ethnography research design “is driven by existing theory, new questions, lack of information, or a need for understanding, and it begins with broadly defined questions that are likely to change as the research progresses while responding to encounters and experiences in the field”. Investigators who conduct ethnographic studies visualize questions and answers as integrated elements in human thinking. Ethnographers know that potential questions are likely to arise at any stage of the ethnographic research process. Thus, ethnographic design “is a trade off between looseness and selectivity” (Holloway, 2005, p. 172). The use of ethnographic design continues to expand; nowadays, it is used to explore specific topics or embedded is large multi method designs.
Prior to entering the field of work, an investigator must choose the most appropriate method to access data sources so as to handle research aims and theoretical issues. However, this is partly determined by theoretical interests, opportunities for participation, and practical issues. Holloway (2005) argues that settings for conducting ethnographic studies significantly vary. Therefore, an investigator must take decisive measures when defining the breadth and depth of his or her ethnographic study. The decision taken will be partly influenced by ongoing encounters and the investigators initial interests. Holloway (2005) argues that sometimes an ethnographic study can be opportunistic in nature meaning it is driven by a certain phenomenon within a given setting. In ethnographic studies, Holloway (2005) highlights that an investigator is not interested in everything. On the contrary, he or selects cases to be studied either across or within the setting.
While designing an ethnographic study, an investigator must ensure that different situations and views are represented in the collected data. The investigator is required to define the characteristics of the society under study (Murchison, 2010). This should be followed by identifying the social problem affecting the society in question. This will equip the investigator with appropriate research questions. In addition, the investigator must understand how the society under study interprets its world. This includes documenting what the society does and why it does so. Such data is exceptionally essential when conducting an ethnographic study.
There are three main ethnographic designs. Realistic ethnographies fall in the first category. According to Abalos (2012, p.1), “realistic ethnography is an objective account of the situation, typically written in third person point of view, reporting objectively on the information learned from participants who took part in the study”. An investigator who employs his ethnographic design narrates the study in a third person dispassionate voice. The reporting focuses on the observations of the respondents and their views. The investigator gives the respondents’ views through carefully edited quotations. The investigator does have the final word on the interpretation and presentation of the culture under investigation but without including his or her personal views. Abalos (2012, p.1), argues that the investigator “reports objective data in a measurable style uncontained by personal bias, political goals, and judgment”. In his or her reporting, the reporter selects standard categories which he or she uses to describe the culture under study. Such categories may include family, religion, social life, social systems and statuses.
Case studies are the second type of ethnographic designs. Abalos (2012) argues that case studies are different from ethnography in a number of ways. However, they are a significant type of ethnographic investigations. For example, an investigator who employs case study ethnography may concentrate on a program, event, or activity that involves individuals rather than groups. When an investigator uses this type of design, he or she begins by searching for shared patterns in the group of interest (Murchison, 2010).
Critical ethnographies fall in the third category. Abalos (2012, p.1), argues that “critical ethnographic studies are a type of ethnographic research in which the author is interested in advocating for the emancipation of groups marginalized in the society”. Investigators who employ this ethnographic design usually have political reasons; they endeavor to condemn dominance and prejudice through research. Investigators who employ critical ethnography tend to question the status quo. As such, they aim at bringing justice and fair play in the wider society. Such investigators use literal dialogue with the respondents under study. Through this approach, critical investigators act on behalf of the respondents and they aim at empowering those respondents to have more authority and say. Critical ethnography is commonly used when researchers conduct research with the aim of bringing political change. Ethnography, according to (Cresewell, 2011), is very essential in defining a social cultural problem. It is therefore important for researchers who employ ethnographic studies to design their studies in a manner that will enhance the chances of finding the solutions to the social cultural problems as defined by the research questions (Cresewell, 2011).
In summary, ethnography research design “is driven by existing theory, new questions, lack of information, or a need for understanding, and it begins with broadly defined questions that are likely to change as the research progresses while responding to encounters and experiences in the field” (Holloway, 2005, p. 172). Ethnographers know that potential questions are likely to arise at any stage of the ethnographic research process. Thus, ethnographic design “is a trade off between looseness and selectivity” (Holloway, 2005, p. 172). Investigators must take decisive measures when defining the breath and depth of their ethnographic study. The decision taken will be partly influenced by ongoing encounters and the investigators initial interests.
In addition, while designing an ethnographic study, an investigator must ensure that different situations and views are represented in the collected data. The investigator is required to define the characteristics of the society under study. There are three main ethnographic designs. The first type, realistic ethnography, refers to “an objective account of the situation, typically written in third person point of view, reporting objectively on the information learned from participants who took part in the study” (Abalos, 2012, p.1). An investigator who employs his ethnographic design narrates the study in a third person dispassionate voice. The second category is case study ethnography, and when an investigator uses this type of design, he or she begins by searching for shared patterns in the group under investigation. Critical ethnographies fall in the third category. Abalos (2012, p.1), argues that “critical ethnographic studies are a type of ethnographic research in which the author is interested in advocating for the emancipation of groups marginalized in the society”. Investigators who employ this ethnographic design usually have political reasons; they endeavor to condemn dominance and prejudice through research.
References
Abalos, L. (2012). Ethnographic Study. Web.
Cresewell, J. (2011). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. New York: Pearson.
Holloway, I. (2005). Qualitative Research In Health Care. New York: McGraw-Hill International.
Murchison, J. (2010). Ethnography Essentials: Designing, Conducting, and Presenting Your Research. California: John Wiley & Sons.
Indians rebelled against British in 1857. The rebellion made British realize that their influence against the Indians had diminished, making the London-based British government to enhance direct control against the Indians than before. The then Indian country relied on British East India company capabilities to govern.
The British did their best to understand the Indian fork-lore and control the population of India so that they could be able to control them easily and without hardship. The British concentrated much on female infanticide and widow immolation.
This was more in the northern and western parts of the country (Muckerjee 98). The colonial rulers tried measures like manipulating people into divulging confidential information so that they could get information on the ground and be able to get information at first hand.
Also officers that were serving in the Indian Civil Service after the rebellion brought up an opinion that in order to avoid future unrest they had to obtain a better understanding of the colonial subjects and especially those from the rural areas (Muckerjee 104).
The British government faced challenges in their movement since they had earlier made the people of India become an official British government publication and this could go a big mile in hindering the success of their actions against the Indians. This was later in quoted by Robin Moore in his report.
He stated that their ignorance of the customs and beliefs of the Indian people had a hit against the British and that this had resulted to a distant loss of administrative power to British government (114).
The British officials had assigned some two personnel by the names Watson and Kaye to compile photographs in the attempt to document the Indian people in a statistical, methodical and ethnographically manner.
According to Moore (1908) this collection included physical attributes, aspects of life and ways of dressing. These characteristics would complement the studies that were written. These studies revealed the characteristics that were common in Indian communities (78).
But the educated Indians were not happy that their own Indian people had been suggested unfairly and dispassionately. An Indian Sadhana Naithani noted the relations that existed between the Indians and the British.
This relation existed through institutions, English officers, peons, office clerks or domestic servants. He also got such relations from oriental literature and intellectual anthropological studies (Moore 1908).
The British ethnographic studies and their categorizations made emphasis on official publications and they made that an essential part of the British administrative technique. The technique was from Herbert Hope Risley who was an English administrator in the Indian Civil Society (Risley 88).
He believed that the technique was a way to hold together the myriads units of Indian society. He observed the marriage patterns among the Indian communities. These were done according to class or social groups. These two delineations were viewed as a caste system. Some believed that this caste can be likened to race.
He also believed that changes in the occupation sector in a community could possibly lead to an instance of endogamy. Risley wrote about ways that promoted ethnographic acts among to the Indians.
Hence Risley promoted so much racism to the Indians in the name of making the British not lose its power against the Indian country (200). Some Indian administrative officers also desired to produce anthropological studies. These studies would show a linkage between all communities in India.
Works Cited
Moore, Robin. Imperial India, 1858- 1914 in A. Porter (ed), The Oxford History of the British Empire. Vol. III. London: Oxford, 1999. Print.
Muckerjee, Raj. Awadh in Revolt: A Study in Popular Resistance, 1984. Delhi: Raja, Print.
Risley, Herbert. The people of India. Delhi: Nabu Press, 1908. Print