Indians rebelled against British in 1857. The rebellion made British realize that their influence against the Indians had diminished, making the London-based British government to enhance direct control against the Indians than before. The then Indian country relied on British East India company capabilities to govern.
The British did their best to understand the Indian fork-lore and control the population of India so that they could be able to control them easily and without hardship. The British concentrated much on female infanticide and widow immolation.
This was more in the northern and western parts of the country (Muckerjee 98). The colonial rulers tried measures like manipulating people into divulging confidential information so that they could get information on the ground and be able to get information at first hand.
Also officers that were serving in the Indian Civil Service after the rebellion brought up an opinion that in order to avoid future unrest they had to obtain a better understanding of the colonial subjects and especially those from the rural areas (Muckerjee 104).
The British government faced challenges in their movement since they had earlier made the people of India become an official British government publication and this could go a big mile in hindering the success of their actions against the Indians. This was later in quoted by Robin Moore in his report.
He stated that their ignorance of the customs and beliefs of the Indian people had a hit against the British and that this had resulted to a distant loss of administrative power to British government (114).
The British officials had assigned some two personnel by the names Watson and Kaye to compile photographs in the attempt to document the Indian people in a statistical, methodical and ethnographically manner.
According to Moore (1908) this collection included physical attributes, aspects of life and ways of dressing. These characteristics would complement the studies that were written. These studies revealed the characteristics that were common in Indian communities (78).
But the educated Indians were not happy that their own Indian people had been suggested unfairly and dispassionately. An Indian Sadhana Naithani noted the relations that existed between the Indians and the British.
This relation existed through institutions, English officers, peons, office clerks or domestic servants. He also got such relations from oriental literature and intellectual anthropological studies (Moore 1908).
The British ethnographic studies and their categorizations made emphasis on official publications and they made that an essential part of the British administrative technique. The technique was from Herbert Hope Risley who was an English administrator in the Indian Civil Society (Risley 88).
He believed that the technique was a way to hold together the myriads units of Indian society. He observed the marriage patterns among the Indian communities. These were done according to class or social groups. These two delineations were viewed as a caste system. Some believed that this caste can be likened to race.
He also believed that changes in the occupation sector in a community could possibly lead to an instance of endogamy. Risley wrote about ways that promoted ethnographic acts among to the Indians.
Hence Risley promoted so much racism to the Indians in the name of making the British not lose its power against the Indian country (200). Some Indian administrative officers also desired to produce anthropological studies. These studies would show a linkage between all communities in India.
Works Cited
Moore, Robin. Imperial India, 1858- 1914 in A. Porter (ed), The Oxford History of the British Empire. Vol. III. London: Oxford, 1999. Print.
Muckerjee, Raj. Awadh in Revolt: A Study in Popular Resistance, 1984. Delhi: Raja, Print.
Risley, Herbert. The people of India. Delhi: Nabu Press, 1908. Print
Indians rebelled against British in 1857. The rebellion made British realize that their influence against the Indians had diminished, making the London-based British government to enhance direct control against the Indians than before. The then Indian country relied on British East India company capabilities to govern.
The British did their best to understand the Indian fork-lore and control the population of India so that they could be able to control them easily and without hardship. The British concentrated much on female infanticide and widow immolation.
This was more in the northern and western parts of the country (Muckerjee 98). The colonial rulers tried measures like manipulating people into divulging confidential information so that they could get information on the ground and be able to get information at first hand.
Also officers that were serving in the Indian Civil Service after the rebellion brought up an opinion that in order to avoid future unrest they had to obtain a better understanding of the colonial subjects and especially those from the rural areas (Muckerjee 104).
The British government faced challenges in their movement since they had earlier made the people of India become an official British government publication and this could go a big mile in hindering the success of their actions against the Indians. This was later in quoted by Robin Moore in his report.
He stated that their ignorance of the customs and beliefs of the Indian people had a hit against the British and that this had resulted to a distant loss of administrative power to British government (114).
The British officials had assigned some two personnel by the names Watson and Kaye to compile photographs in the attempt to document the Indian people in a statistical, methodical and ethnographically manner.
According to Moore (1908) this collection included physical attributes, aspects of life and ways of dressing. These characteristics would complement the studies that were written. These studies revealed the characteristics that were common in Indian communities (78).
But the educated Indians were not happy that their own Indian people had been suggested unfairly and dispassionately. An Indian Sadhana Naithani noted the relations that existed between the Indians and the British.
This relation existed through institutions, English officers, peons, office clerks or domestic servants. He also got such relations from oriental literature and intellectual anthropological studies (Moore 1908).
The British ethnographic studies and their categorizations made emphasis on official publications and they made that an essential part of the British administrative technique. The technique was from Herbert Hope Risley who was an English administrator in the Indian Civil Society (Risley 88).
He believed that the technique was a way to hold together the myriads units of Indian society. He observed the marriage patterns among the Indian communities. These were done according to class or social groups. These two delineations were viewed as a caste system. Some believed that this caste can be likened to race.
He also believed that changes in the occupation sector in a community could possibly lead to an instance of endogamy. Risley wrote about ways that promoted ethnographic acts among to the Indians.
Hence Risley promoted so much racism to the Indians in the name of making the British not lose its power against the Indian country (200). Some Indian administrative officers also desired to produce anthropological studies. These studies would show a linkage between all communities in India.
Works Cited
Moore, Robin. Imperial India, 1858- 1914 in A. Porter (ed), The Oxford History of the British Empire. Vol. III. London: Oxford, 1999. Print.
Muckerjee, Raj. Awadh in Revolt: A Study in Popular Resistance, 1984. Delhi: Raja, Print.
Risley, Herbert. The people of India. Delhi: Nabu Press, 1908. Print
The article represents a distinct persuasion of the author in the enforcement of urban science education by means of more ethnographic and political implications. However, it needs more critical evaluation to state the competence of the research in fitting the real state of things. The methodology of such a kind presupposes the incorporation of cultures, beliefs, and attitudes of children studying at school. However, the researcher brings in her own mite by making survey on the example of homeless children. In this respect solely political approach should be derived from two challenges that are argued in the article.
The first is that there should be rational and correct distribution of teaching and learning resources taking into account the massive character of students learning in one class. The second challenge is that students personal preferences as for gender, cultural, ethnical, and religious background provide a scope of methods to be implemented. Both suggestions embody interpretivist-subjective and positivist-objective perspectives. Such a controversial view on the approaches taken in the research complies with the changeability of the social life at the moment.
Critical ethnography with a set of surveys taken helps to convey the gist of the research by keeping up to the idea of great difference among students in their individual prerogatives. This is why the criticism of the article starts at the point where urban schooling is identified to be a source for the initial innermost misunderstanding having been inflicted to subtle conscientiousness of different students. The second reason to state the significance of the research is its practical use which comes out to be based through a sort of questionnaire. Its objectiveness gives more reasons for a researcher as well as an observer to state the importance of implementing an appropriate practice for any among contemporary teachers.
Here one should outline genuinely critical perspective in which the research follows the implementation of main features as of its trustworthiness and cutting edge character. Evidences collected in the article promote a weighed design of how a teacher should perceive the problems going around the lowest strata of students. Thus, for the researcher it was a challenge to cope with urban poverty and make some connections between this social phenomenon and science education.
The outcomes of the research state that cultural, class, and gender differences in the society on the example of Well Springs make students silenced in doing science. The controls in the research are surveyed through the authors subjective engagement with the reality of childrens living. Here, the analysis touches upon understanding of partiality and relativity of truth as such. On the other hand, the research further encounters a discoverable and rather verifiable character of truth about the case. It is grounded on the particular scientific and statistical approaches taken by the researcher.
Taking a look at the US census for the previous years a researcher motivates an observer to infer that by arranging the proper science education the American society could get out of the pit of poverty among children living and studying in America. Critical ethnography which is especially amplified in the study puts observers into the picture of how it is more applicable to involve children from problematic urban settings into the process of science education. Three components of critical ethnography, methods, methodology, and epistemology, are perplexed to signify the state-of-the-art approach in generating knowledge sufficiently.
Hence, as the researcher claims ones views of knowledge generation is connected to ones understanding of the research process (Barton, 2001, p. 905). Hence, politicizing such an aspect of social life as ethnography would contribute into the area of educational growth throughout urban settings. Science involvement comprises the research prospects and evaluation of students self. Thereupon, the researcher should apply to the peculiarities of critical points as of assumptions on education. Barton (2001) outlines critical ethnography as closely related to research as participatory pedagogy.
The researcher provides a scope of evidences which are going around the significance of critical ethnography at large. This is supported by a set of reasons to prove the applicability of ethnographic approach. First, it is vital to admit that primordially education serves o please political interventions inside the society due to setting cultural and traditional values. Second, owing to liberal direction of critical ethnography, it grasps the idea of the struggle for human rights.
In this respect the research should be understood as praxis. Third, ramifications of the research are based on the mutual responsibility on the part of a researcher as well as of researched. The premise of agency is the basis for making such an incorporation of the aforementioned requirement. Fourth, critical ethnography serves as the means to detect an oppressed group (community) of people and provide a genuine research on historical, cultural, and epistemological reasons which led to the state of oppression. Thus, the fourth point draws parallels with the second point.
The research includes facts and assumptions mainly focused on the epistemological features for gaining knowledge effectively. Its main advantages are in its practicality which spreads over the current situation with teaching in urban settings. Releasing power of the ethnographic research to facilitate the quality of teaching and learning is a preliminary objective to be reached out. However, the researcher omitted the empirical implementation of techniques and approaches for stating the causes of disproportionate distribution of knowledge in urban schools.
On the other hand, along with the US census on poverty and stratification of American families it would be an asset to incorporate comparative analysis between the character of critical ethnography in urban setting and in rural areas. There should be an explicit difference to put observers on realizing the significance of critical ethnography for stimulating science education.
It is no wonder the researcher fully addresses to the epistemological approach in finding out the best arguments for critical ethnography as the means for stimulating science education among urban schools. In this respect the interpretivist-subjective assumption is theoretically correct for embracing the gist of the research. The idea is that knowledge is observed to be viable while getting through cultural and social framework. The researcher has chosen the way of finding out the way to explain difficulties and problematic situation in urban schooling. A scope of personal insights has been provided to prove the validity of the initial hypothesis.
Ethnomethodology and ethnography are perplexed in the research into a vortex of rationally weighed elements for encompassing the internal and external validity of the study. The methods which characterize the research in its interpretivist-subjective coloring are pursuant to participatory activities and participatory pedagogy, in particular. Data collected are performed in the form of interviews. Thus, it is more interpreted logically by means of the researchers personal assumptions correlated with some philosophical rumination.
The complexity of the setting under analysis provides another challenge for the researcher, namely being engaged with the socially uncovered layers of the society. To say more, the construct of the research relies expressly on the social implications. Hence, the paradigm of the study shows solely social way of conducting the research practically and applying it theoretically.
Denshire, S., 2006, Towards and auto-ethnography of an occupational therapists published body of work, Proceedings of the ACSPRI 2006 Social Science Methodology Conference, December, pp. 115.
The study is peculiar for its loose connection to the field of occupational therapy. It is no surprise that this area of professional training along with its responsibilities and main directions gets most of people confused. However, the researcher implements the definition of occupational therapy as more concerned with teaching and anthropology than with therapeutic practice and trends (Denshire, 2006).
The researchers intent gets through the variable of ethnographical peculiarities in the workplace. In this respect the problematic point being addressed in the research touches upon auto-ethnography. The significance of applying to some special kind of corpus is seen by the author to be predominant throughout occupational practice in the multinational workspace. Moreover, the position of the researcher is felt in interpretivist-subjective as well as in critical perspectives.
The analysis of the article proves the idea of social and cultural variables impacting the occupational aspects of therapeutic implementation. Thereupon, the criticism of the research encompasses features of ontological and epistemological positions. Providing discourse of the main idea of boarding new corpus in language, the researcher evokes for making writing practices more relied on the ethnographical peculiarities. Realizing occupational therapy as a key human-related profession, the researcher is quite inclined to support arts-based auto-ethnographic inquiry to be loosely concerned with counter-historical practice.
To be honest, this way of discussing the problem lacks particular connection to the economical approach. The researcher is, of course involved into the vortex of changes in the world and seeks to turn it around by means of the findings in the article. In this respect the main intentions of the researcher are aimed at a more reflexive and rich in ethics practical involvement. On the other hand, the problematic corresponds to the features applied to human status, authority, and ethnical identification. Thus, the main point to be addressed in the study is to encompass the influence of auto-ethnography on a reading of occupational therapists published body of work critically.
The outcomes of the study fall into the claims that really the implications of autobiographical features in the body of work on occupational therapy impacts conscientiousness of both practitioners and ordinary observers. The figure of the researcher is embedded into the scope of personal feelings and suggestions about the case. Social inequalities are posed to be significant for the researcher, as a critical observer of the real life. Thereupon, the researcher states that auto-ethnography is a means to illustrate life concepts and challenges on the example of personal experience and feelings. In addition, the research showed that connecting professional reality with cultural and personal juxtaposition helps to emphasize the reliability of positive feedbacks on the part of the target audience.
Entitling the emphasized story boards as Always a writer , Being a therapist and Becoming academic, the researcher missed to mention relevant socio-economic features important to validate the reliability of the article at large. This claim comprises the overall research. It also provides a notion of systematic change within the target audience by making vocabulary used in the aforementioned literature more or less applicable for reading.
In fact, it corresponds to the academically correct justification as per researchers interpretivist-subjective perspective. Thus, the practical use of auto-ethnographical approach in occupational therapists published body of work has been proved to fit into the whole problem.
The above listed interpretation of story boards spreads over the use of everyday language, metaphor, analogy, heightened ambiguity (Denshire, 2006, p. 8). On the other hand, arts-based inquiry showcased its practical implementation in terms of writing. Moreover, the analysis of the article highlights that after writing for some publications on occupational therapy an author admits personal careers, academic recognition in bright lights as a precious contribution to the whole professional field.
That constitutes the critical position adored by the researcher. Conversely, it provides claims for the applicability of the article to be used by contemporary specialists in public services. The identification of the main point also touches upon publication imperatives, as Denshire (2006, p. 10) remarks. Based on solely personal experience and survey, the study evidenced the validity of the research by dint of different examples of eminent researchers in the same sphere of work.
As a matter of fact, the researcher underlines the gist of composing a survey on current inability of masses to get along well due to some social attributes. Further still, the study infers viable facts and evidences on the importance of embodying personal ramifications in the story board, so that to shake the conscientiousness of a reader. Thus, doing so, a writer wins a huge scope of appreciations. It is practically useful.
However, the main weakness of the research is that its structure determines solely researchers speculation in the gist of the study. It lacks appropriate statistical or comparative data to support the study by contrasting its efficiency as opposed to the previous findings. In turn it characterizes the study as being customized for the purpose of the researchers self-accentuation of personal vision on teaching and cognitive prospects in occupational therapy.
Nevertheless, the more varied outlook is better to be taken at the future implications of the findings stated in the article. Hence, the researcher has not taken into account the overall connections of the study to the reality of current practice in occupational therapy. On the other hand, it would be applicable to extend it by a bit more assumptions on therapeutic use of linguistic prospects suggested above.
The theoretical approach applicable in terms of the analyzed article comprises the ideas of post-structuralist perspective. In fact, the scope of features that are represented in the study touches upon the subjectivity of the reality in its terms. On the other hand, the educational value of the study crosses the boundaries of typical approaches in the variety of materials proposed for learning but not applying to the target audience.
Nonetheless, the reality of occupational therapy as a cross-relational discipline can be perceived and further acquired by means of discourse. In this respect language is considered to be the main source for improving and accumulating knowledge on a large scale of practical implementation. Knowledge which can be extracted out of the research is discursive at large. It complements each assumption of the researcher to provide logical and empirical grounding for what is, in fact, achieved.
The figure of the researcher is also felt in terms of reducing power relations to the optimal level. It helps the audience understand the strategically important relevance of the study toward perception of truth indicated throughout the article. Several attempts to signify the role of language in genuinely human-related professional domain state the constructive unity of the researcher and the workspace as having juxtaposition by discourse.
Thereupon, the necessity of truth can be felt through partial and perspective features of discourse as such. The researcher also has chosen the method of discursive analysis of materials and texts by other researchers, so that to amplify the usability of the study.
Reference list
Barton, A., 2001, Science education in urban settings: seeking new ways of praxis through critical ethnography, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Vol. 38, No. 8, pp. 899917.
Denshire, S., 2006, Towards and auto-ethnography of an occupational therapists published body of work, Proceedings of the ACSPRI 2006 Social Science Methodology Conference, pp. 115.
The population that appears in and around the S at 600 South 9th Street, fronting on a corner with South Street, reflects a diverse, liberal, and generally upwardly mobile and creative neighborhood. The atmosphere, literally and metaphorically, is stimulating to the senses and the intellect.
The S on South Street near the Whole Foods supermarket is in a highly advantageous position for observation. The two large supermarkets (Superfresh is the other one), the large pharmacy (CVS), the three playgrounds (Seeger, Palumbo, and Starr Gardens), the community garden, the eclectic shopping and night life of South Street itself, the mural art of Isaiah Zagar, and other attractions, all pull a wildly varying crowd of people into, and by, the coffee house.
The street itself has always been a symbolic dividing line between the Center City neighborhood and South Philadelphia. The area was historically a neighborhood where freedmen of African descent lived and worked and had a lively and comprehensive community. In fact, a historical marker notes that W. E. B. DuBois did his seminal work of sociological observation and analysis on African-Americans in this very neighborhood.
This was also a region of the city where Jewish merchants had their businesses, such as grocers. A bit farther to the south is the heart of Italian South Philly, and the Italian Market, which is now known as the 9th Street Market, to reflect the influx of Latino and Southeast Asian merchants. All this was conveyed to me by customers at the Starbucks, sometimes in rather strong terms, but is also documented in the names of the stores and the faces of the merchants themselves.
The shop itself is typical of the Starbucks franchise, benefitting from visual access both the 9th and to South. It is not very large, but has several seating options along South.
The smell is overwhelming of coffee, backed up by the scent of pastries that tempt visitors. This smell is not just a scent, but carries with it a strong punch of caffeine, according to the staff. They insist that the caffeine released when the beans are ground and tossed around during the coffee-making process is absorbed into the mucosa of the lungs, and passes into the bloodstream that way. I have had no further opportunity to follow up on this fascinating bit of amateur science.
Although the health code does not allow dogs, they are prominently in evidence right outside the shop. They are tied to the lamp posts whenever an owner stops by. This provides a whole additional panoply of behavior to observe, both of the animals and of their owners. A striking number of them were greyhounds, lovely, often skittish, and very carefully tied up.
I asked about these beautiful rescued animals and was told repeatedly that although greyhounds love nothing better than lap-sitting, they would take off and run away unsafely if allowed off the leash. They certainly managed to get into a number of conflicts, prompting their owners to race outside and disentangle the mess, apologizing profusely and evidencing all the same embarrassment that the parents of kids demonstrate when their children act out – several even inside the Starbucks.
I chose to set myself up there on a blisteringly hot day, the XX day of XXXXXXXXXXX, XXXX, between 2:30 and 5:30. The baristas were a young woman with a piercing and a young man with a tattoo. They were competent and friendly without being intrusive.
I asked the first person who seemed willing to speak to me why he was here, and he said that he had a young child at home and needed some peace and quiet to concentrate on work. His stated purpose was work, specifically trading stocks on a short-term basis.
However, the website on his screen was more relevant to a private male sexual activity than to research on the fundamentals of a company being evaluated for a stock purchase. He seemed embarrassed at being observed and I moved away promptly to avoid irritating him. Later on, he fielded several increasingly frantic phone calls from home urging him to come back and share the burden of child care.
He took these cell phone calls on loudspeaker, allowing anyone sitting next to him to hear the mother of his child pleading for some relief while he rolled his eyes or squinted at the screen of his laptop. The inconsiderateness of all these behaviors seemed to be all of a piece. He was one of many, many men coming in with a laptop and apparent work (or job-hunting) to accomplish, but the only one who behaved this way.
In fact there was one fellow, a young man with a full arm, or ”sleeve” of tattoos (which he said he had obtained on a “tattoo holiday tour” to Thailand that paid for itself in the low cost of the detailed ink work), who clearly used Starbucks as his corner office. From 2:30 to 5:30, he had what was clearly an appointed meeting with someone every 20 minutes or so.
He finished up each interaction by entering data into his laptop and then pressing SEND with evident satisfaction. He could have been anything from a spy to a sales supervisor, but he did not invite or welcome my advances, forestalling me by saying, “I have an appointment with someone now”. He was willing to talk about his tattoos, and those of his girlfriend’s, but nothing else.
Tattoos and other body modifications were common among all the customers, and a number of people made complimentary comments on other customers’ decorations. The most dramatic was a jewel anchored under the skin of a young woman’s chest, as though a tie tack had been attached to her breast bone.
Other customers approached her several times to make commentary, which she accepted with equanimity, noting, however, that although she loved the look of it, it was so painful to acquire that she would never have it re-done if it fell out. This made me a bit sick to the stomach, especially when she described having pierced her own ears at 16 when her parents did not permit her to have them done by a professional “piercer”.
The next customer with whom I was able to interact in detail was a young woman whose conversation with the barista I could overhear quite clearly. She had short hair, cut in a very current and aggressively un-pretty style, and wore glasses that are called cats-eye, according to her.
She also talked with another customer, apparently previously a complete stranger. The conversation addressed her plans for her wedding. The reception was to be at the Mask and Wig Club, by coincidence, and she found her budget stretched by the basic rental, so she was casting about for ways to save elsewhere.
She was going over all the websites she had visited in her efforts to find a wedding dress (and bridesmaids’ dresses) at a modest price, and exclaiming over the prices at J. Crew. Another woman, older and wearing a wedding ring herself, asked her whether she had investigated secondhand purchase. The bride-to-be responded that she had not done so yet, but would consider it.
She immediately performed a search on the internet, and exclaimed over the attractive results on Craigslist. The older married woman then recommended that she check out thrift shops, and recommended the Hamper Shop, the Junior League Thrift Shop, and the Bryn Mawr Hospital Thrift Shop, all of which could be accessed by train stations on the Main Line. She also recommended looking there for bridesmaids’ outfits, men’s formal wear, and funky gifts for the bridal party.
The bride thanked her delightedly and I took the opportunity to ask her whether this sort of interaction was unusual in the coffee house. She said that she had gotten gigs from the coffee house, and made friends and found dog-walking jobs there as well. She then took herself off, looking very pleased with herself, and promising the barista and the other lady that she would bring pictures after the wedding.
This brought me to 3:00 p.m. I sat and watched without attempting interaction for a while after that, noting a rapid influx of moms with kids and dads with kids, ranging from tiny toddlers to school age children. They all promised a cold drink and a sweet pastry before their next activity.
These activities included ballet at the Rock School, baseball at Palumbo, music lessons, martial arts, going to one of the playgrounds to play, or having a tutoring session. There were several sets of twins and one set of triplets. The moms were dressed professionally for the most part, while the dads generally were not.
A group of moms took over one table, and allowed their rather obviously adopted Asian daughters to order whatever they wanted. I approached them and asked what brought them together in what almost seemed like an official meeting. They told me that they had formed an informal mutual support group after discovering how hard it was on their daughters and on them as parents of children who looked so different from them.
They told me that they met at the children’s museum, or libraries; at other museums such as the Academy of Natural Sciences, and several nice playgrounds around the city, such as the one at Brown Street in the Art Museum area, as well as Seeger, Palumbo, Starr Gardens, or Three Bears playgrounds. Some of the moms were in pairs, suggesting that these represented two-mom households. They were not excluded or treated in any way differently from the other parents.
None of these adoptive moms were, however, very welcoming to me as an apparent non-parent. They were vague about times and locations. I inferred from this that they might have been concerned regarding child predators of any type.
I watched a 20-something woman take a text message and suddenly crumple, changing in an instant from a highly poised, very attractive person into a weeping, tear-streaked bundle of wrinkled linen, cradling her mobile device like a wounded hand. I did not feel that I was an appropriate person to approach her, in spite of her distress.
To my relief, another customer who apparently knew her well enough to sit down across from her without asking laid a hand on hers and spoke soothingly to her. I did not hear all of their conversation, but it included references to the sender of the message as an idiot, and “cold”, as well as some profanities regarding the cowardice and poor manners of ending a relationship via e-mail or SMS text message. They agreed that he might have been “fine”, but he was “ignorant”.
As the work day ended, roughly at 5:00, the numbers of customers with grocery bags from Whole Foods, Superfresh, and Essene’s all increased. There was a smell of rotisserie chicken and take-out food from some of the bags, suggesting that few of these people were cooking for themselves in the intense heat. This supposition was confirmed by repeated references to the heat and the inappropriateness of trying to cook by the customers themselves. Several spoke of grilling, with enthusiasm.
I asked several people what had been here before Starbucks, and received some strongly phrased responses. A middle-aged woman described her Jewish grandfather’s grocery business, which had been successful until “white flight” took the customers away. She also described a vibrant area with myriad small businesses and its own movie theatres, night clubs, and other venues catering to the fairly successful African-American population.
Another middle-aged of apparently Italian extraction, judging from the “Kiss Me, I’m Italian” key ring that dangled from her purse, pointed out that the Italian Market was neither Italian nor as much of a market as it once was. She was rather scornful of the recent immigrants from Central America and Southeast Asia who have populated the area. She used derogatory words to describe immigrants who did not learn to speak English promptly.
The role of this Starbucks in the life of the neighborhood was encapsulated for me in an observation of a woman tapping away at her laptop who offered to do SEO copywriting for her neighbor at the next table. They exchanged contact information, and then I asked her whether this happened often.
She said that this was the first time she had ever had the courage to promote herself and her freelance writing and editing this way. She was clearly pleased with herself, and explained SEO copywriting in detail to me. It sounds like three dimensional chess but without the fun.
As the dinner hour approached, I folded up my own tents, having exchanged contact information with at least 3 people who seemed either pleasant or useful to me in the future. The Starbucks here functions as a Commons, a town square, a pub, and all from 5:30 a.m. to 9:30 p.m.
The one thing that worried me was that there was still avid and distressed discussion of the shocking attack and rape in a neighborhood coffee shop last winter. I could not find out from either staff member whether any change of policy had resulted, but was referred to Media Relations instead.
The experience was challenging because these were all complete strangers, with no clear connection to the campus. On the other hand, it was liberating that no one knew me. I had no definite preconceptions about their origins or role in their community. People, however, behave much the same all over this area.
The neighborhood seems to have a strong presence of working mothers, stay-at-home dads, same-gender couples, people who put their ethical and political opinions in practice. I would infer that the demographics of this region of the city reflect this.
The analysis of the social environment is the important aspect of realizing the cultural background and the social problems of the clients. Thus, this research will help understand the requirements and problems of the clients, which influence their decisions and considerations. The interviewed person is a Costa Rican female, a mental health worker in New York City, who does not speak Spanish. In general, her job is close to social work considering her salary, nevertheless, it is one of a few opportunities to earn her living. Her ethnic background is the Spanish and Latin American immigrants, who moved to the USA in the late 1940s.
Originally, she may be regarded as a middle-class citizen of the US community, as she does not have the higher education, and is paid a minimal salary, required to survive in New York City. In the light of this statement, it should be emphasized that there is an increasing crowding and the demand for the public health facilities, where the interviewee works, and the fact is that these demands are essentially higher in comparison with the governmental allocations for these spheres.
Nevertheless, the street life, the increasing poverty level, and the neighborhood activities, associated with the street life and poverty, give the sense of community and the common effort of overcoming the possible difficulties, as well as the preservation of the ethnic values and traditions within these immigrant communities. Thus, it should be emphasized that the ethnographic interview with this person will be mainly aimed at disclosing her living habits and the ethical values, she aims to preserve. Moreover, she will be asked about her job, and the entire interview will be regarded through the prism of social problems, attributable to immigrant living. The most burning problem for her community is the increasing poverty.
Cultural Guide
The cultural background of the interviewee entails the traditions and customs of the immigrant community, as well as the ethnic traditions of the Costa Rican people. Originally, the aspects of increasing poverty make the preservation of cultural traditions more complex. Nevertheless, people work, live, entertain and the feeling of community makes them stronger. Initially, there is a strong necessity to ask the respondent to describe her typical working day:
We, as mental health workers are obliged to provide special services and care for people with mental health difficulties. Thus, my working day is full of concerns, worries, and cares, as most of these people are not able to take care of themselves. Often, there is no break, and the whole day is spent caring for and serving the patients of the medical center. Originally, clients of the mental health centers experience mild to moderate mental health problems, consequently, the main task of the workers is to help these clients in their everyday activities. The skills, which are required for working with such patients, are anxiety management, cognitive behavior therapy, and problem-solving treatment.
Additionally, we are often involved in teamwork, and GP practices are common for us. We are recruited to help people, thus, various backgrounds are welcomed, and the average working day presupposes psychological help, nursing, social work, etc. Moreover, there are whales of paperwork, which is exhausting and too demanding. I like working with people, and I feel important, but when I have to fill in all the papers and forms, I become mad.
The working day and the cultural environment of the respondent reveal the fact, that coping with everyday difficulties is not a simple task, especially considering the growing poverty level. The fact is that the new coming immigrants, who originate from developing countries increase the number of unemployed people, and thus, the crime rates are also growing.
In the country, where I was born, crime and poverty are closely linked with each other, nevertheless, people resort to crime in an extreme situation, as the successors of conquistadors never resort to crime. The fact is that most people have forgotten that nobleness is valued more than the temporary benefits of its lack, so, we aim to preserve this in our community.
The investigation of the cultural background is closely linked with researching the personal attitude of a person towards the culture of the country he or she is living in. Thus, the respondent was offered some questions about it, and her response was full of sorrow.
As we are talking about culture and the aspect of poverty, my impression claims that citizens of the USA are wealthy enough from the financial perspective, nevertheless, the country with a long history and instances of courage, wisdom, and victories is losing the sense of self-respect, as people stopped reading classical literature, they steadily forget their history. Originally, this may be regarded as one of the reasons for the growing crime rates.
The cultural guide part presupposes the definition of the cultural background of the person, thus, there is a strong necessity to give the word to the respondent, for she could explain her self-definition and the attitude towards cultural groups.
I do not consider myself as an immigrant or a visitor in the USA, as I live here, I work here, I help American citizens in the mental health center. Nevertheless, I can not feel myself as an American, as I have a different cultural background in comparison with the people I meet every day. On the one hand, they are the same, on the other hand, most of them feel superior, and it should be emphasized that the sub-cultural category, which I belong to, is something average between an immigrant and a citizen, despite the fact, that most of my life I have been working in the USA. I live here, in the open community with other Hispanics, and we feel, that the sense of community is one of the few senses that allow us to survive and endure all the difficulties.
As for the matters of religion, we are mainly religious people, as we have to be kind to each other, help each other to overcome difficulties. Originally, it is difficult to stay human without belief in our hearts.
The other aspects of cultural background may be estimated by asking indirect questions, as people often disregard such aspects as assimilation, attitude towards family and sexual life, and sexual minorities. Religious people often do not welcome gender minorities, nevertheless, most of them realize that it is not their fault, as homosexuality is an inborn psychological violation. Thus, the interviewee revealed the tolerant attitude towards sexual minorities, realizing that they are also people and have the right to work, rest, and adequate human life.
Mental health issues touch the respondent deeply, as her grandfather had been suffering from dementia, so, she preferred working as a mental worker because of that disease to help other people overcome their difficulties and feel that they are not abandoned.
Socioeconomic status is one of the most difficult aspects of the interview, from the communicative perspective. Originally, the respondent told enough on the matters of her position and the poverty in the district; nevertheless, it should be stated that the real position requires in-depth analysis, basing on her behavior and the values of her everyday life. Thus, she told the following:
In everyday life, we often have to save money and shorten our expenses, as earning the minimum salary is the price for staying useful for the surrounding people. I often have to go to bed with an empty stomach, especially if I meet homeless children. I got used to sharing my dinner with them, that is why I often have to stay hungry, and they tell me their stories instead, which impress me, and I feel entertained, and inspired by their stories. Thus, I have an opportunity to observe poverty and homelessness within children almost every day and try to analyze it from the perspective of my education and life position. The socio-economic position is a bit higher, in comparison with the other members of the immigrant community, nevertheless, I often feel equal to them. This is the only way to overcome the feeling of loneliness.
Comparison
Originally, the narrations by the interviewee do not differ from the actual situation essentially. The fact is that all the thoughts and stories which seem naïve and far from reality are close to the truth, as the aspect of self-identity for Costa Ricans is one of the most important aspects of their life. Originally, they often aim to live in close communities and share sorrows and success. It is normal for them to share their food with children, independently whether these children are members of their community or just homeless children from somewhere else. The aspects of their self-identity are described by Flores (2005, p. 195):
Costa Ricans as a group in the United States continues to have a concrete connection to the people of Costa Rico. A strong indicator of the Costa Rican identity of Stateside Costa Ricans is their use of the Spanish language. Most Costa Rican Americans speak English as well as Spanish. In New York, they make up the largest American multi-lingual population.
Nevertheless, even though identity is one of the key aspects for them, some do not speak Spanish, like our respondents, and have never been to Costa Rico, as they were born in the USA. Originally, they just aim to stay together independently at their place of birth, as they all feel themselves Costa Ricans and believe that they will be able to succeed in life only by staying together.
The socio-economic position of the Costa Rican community is mainly poor, as most of them do not have higher education. Some are living illegally on the territory of the USA, thus, they do not have an opportunity to get a highly paid job. This is also the reason for the increased crime rates, poverty, and homelessness. As it is emphasized by Helmuth (2005, p. 415):
Studies and reports over the last fifty years or so have documented the high poverty status of this community. However, the picture of Stateside Costa Ricans at the start of the 21st century also reveals significant socioeconomic progress and a community with growing economic power.
Nevertheless, poverty stays at high levels. This is closely associated with the difficulties in getting a higher education by Costa Ricans, as most do not have an opportunity to attend schools because of the disastrous situation with schools in immigrant communities. Independently on the self-identity and friendly relations within the community, the Costa Rican community is the worst from the perspective of education (Dohm, 2007), as they start working from an early age, and rarely attend schools.
Our respondent was lucky enough, as her parents wished her to get the education, and insisted that she attended a school. Nevertheless, she failed her entrance exams in the university, and her education ended with the nursing and psychology courses. Thus, she works as a mental worker in one of the centers in New York City.
Another aspect that should be analyzed is the poverty within the Costa Rican community. Originally, the poverty rate of the Costa Rican community (27,6%) is much larger than the rates of other ethnic groups in the USA. It is exceeded only by the Dominican community, which is 29 percent. The root of this problem has been already defined, and by Riffe, Turner, and Rojas-Guyler (2008, p. 101), the following statement should be emphasized:
Costa Ricans of the community has been associated with problems faced by communities with persistently high poverty levels. Some have characterized them as part of the urban underclass in the United States. Nevertheless, while except for Dominicans, Stateside Costa Ricans have almost the highest poverty rates of any group in the United States, over three quarters live above the poverty line. This rate is also about half the poverty rate of Costa Rico in 2000 of 85.6 percent.
Thus, the comparison of the real facts with the narrations revealed the actual ethnic background of the Costa Rican community and the cultural guide for the clients-representatives of this community.
Clinical-Community Concerns
Originally, the concerns are closely associated with the crime rates within the community, as the high poverty rates can not be imagined without crime. Thus, the social workers should be accurate and careful while working on the territories of Costa Rican communities.
Nevertheless, most of the people are friendly and open to communication. This was particularly emphasized by the respondent, and the interview, in general, flowed in a friendly and light manner, as Costa Ricans are mainly open and communicative people. Moreover, it should be stated that the necessity to be careful is also associated with the behavior of social workers, as they should be friendly and open to cooperation. The fact is that these people accurately feel the soul and thoughts of their guests and collocutors, thus, any prejudice should be left, as people will feel it immediately. Decades of leaving within the other immigrant, almost separated from the other people taught them to feel like strangers at a distance.
Reference List
Dohm, K. (2007). Ana Y. Ramos-Zayas, National Performances: The Politics of Class, Race, and Space in Costa Rican Chicago. The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 41(1), 113.
Flores, J. (2005). From Bomba to Hip-Hop: Costa Rican Culture and Latino Identity. New York: Columbia University Press.
Helmuth, C. (2005). Culture and Customs of Costa Rica. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Riffe, H. A., Turner, S., & Rojas-Guyler, L. (2008). The Diverse Faces of Latinos in the Midwest: Planning for Service Delivery and Building Community. Health and Social Work, 33(2), 101.
Ethnography proved to be a very important source for various data for archeological researches. Ethnographic observations may shed light on numerous “gaps” in the study of Prehistoric times. Data obtained during ethnographic surveys may also raise numerous questions and refute some commonly accepted theories which turn to be quite doubtful.
Many remarkable ethnographic works contribute to the development of the overall study. For instance, the works by Arthur or Silitoe and Hardy provide data which, by all means, should be taken into consideration by archeologists. Thus, Arthur observes, Xauta women, a group of a Kongo modern community, whereas Silitoe and Hardy Wola community of New Guinea. Both researches focus on the use of lithic tools and raise some important questions to be answered by archeologists.
The two works under consideration study the role of lithics as working tools and the influence of the working tools on the distribution of social roles in the society. The authors research the use of stone by modern communities which may shed light on the role of the development of stone tools in Prehistoric times.
These works research the labor patterns of people, they depict some details of the ways people in modern communities work. The authors focus on different aspects of the issue, and both of them make somewhat unexpected conclusions. Thus, Arthur concentrates on the role of women in the use of lithics and the role of females in the development of Prehistoric communities, whereas Sillitoe and Hardy study the use of stone tools and their role in the Prehistoric period.
Interestingly, Silitoe and Hardy suggest that archeologist should rethink “the place of stone tools within society and material culture” (Silitoe & Hardy 563). The data obtained by Silitoe and interpreted by Hardy testify that the modern community Wola uses more than two hundred kinds of raw materials to produce different tools, however, lithic materials are the most lasting ones, i.e. stone tools can be preserved for centuries while other materials vanish in several years (Silitoe & Hardy 563).
These findings prove that archeologist should take into account the development of modern communities in reconstructing the past. Likewise, Arthur casts doubt on the commonly accepted theories in archeology, however, the author is concentrated on the role of women in Prehistoric communities and offers “an alternative to the man-the-toolmaker model and redefining Western “naturalized” gender roles (Arthur 228).
Thus, the survey provides data that testify that women reveal quite sophisticated skills in tools making and, despite the widespread theory that women are not scrupulous in raw materials use, proves that females “prefer high-quality stone raw materials to ensure the quality” of their products (Arthur 238). So, the ethnographic observations revealed in the studies under consideration provide archeologists with new data which can shed light on many historic issues.
These new perspectives contribute to the development of the middle-range theory. Of course, archeologists have very few details to construct the trustful theories about the life in Prehistoric times. They only have remains of some tools which can lead to distorted facts (Silitoe & Hardy 563).
Fortunately, ethnographic observations may lead to deep understanding of the behavior of prehistoric people. For instance, Silitoe and Hardy dwell upon the types of work done by males and females, and working tools produces by men and women (562).
Besides, Silitoe and Hardy suggest that archeologist may be mistaken while determining “activity areas on the basis of the distribution of stone artefacts” (560). Thus, the survey data suggest that working tools are unlikely to have been “discarded within a working area”, but rather lost or put aside, while the majority of tools was rather kept nearby to be easily reached whenever it can be necessary (Silitoe and Hardy 560).
The survey also depicts certain operations which are made while producing some particular tools (Silitoe and Hardy 558). Likewise, Arthur depicts various techniques in producing working tools and collecting raw material (229). The survey reveals valuable data concerning working techniques, workers’ age and skills (Arthur 234). On the basis of the data obtained Arthur comes to unexpected conclusions.
Thus, as opposed to the common believe that women used to do less skilled work and use less sophisticated techniques and tools, the observation of the modern community in Africa has proved that women were responsible for a respectful work, i.e. hidework which required sophisticated skills, significant strengths and high-quality tools (Arthur 238).
Moreover, ethnographic observations helped reveal social dynamics which resulted in Arthur’s suggestion that “women are among – if not the first of—the earliest stone toolmakers, that women are responsible for Stone Age scraper tool kits” and that it is impossible to “solely associate high-quality formal stone tools with men” (238). Thus, it is obvious that such data and observations add a lot of answers to archeologists’ questions.
Of course, not only behavior connected with labor can be studied with the help of the ethnographic observations. Many other useful data can be used by archeologists. For instance, it is possible to observe social stratification. It is possible to note what social strata exist within the modern communities.
Ethnographic observations may focus on privileges and duties people of different social layers accomplish. It can be helpful to depict the signs of privileged layer and lower layers. Such signs can be revealed in cloths, items of personal decoration, and some other attributes. It can be also helpful to observe behavioral patterns with different age groups. Archeologists may find out many details from ethnographic researches in this field.
For instance, it is possible to observe what roles people of different ages play in modern communities. It can be essential to understand the place which elderly people occupy in such communities. It will enable archeologist to draw conclusions about the possible reasons for societies flourishing, surviving or vanishing. By all means, such data will enable archeologists to understand many processes which took place in Prehistoric times.
To conclude, it is possible to point out that ethnographic surveys reveal valuable data about the development of modern communities which can be used for the reconstruction of the development of people communities in Prehistoric times. Thus, on the basis of such surveys scientists can come to deeper understanding of the major changes and stages of development of Prehistoric people.
Moreover, concentrating on various aspects ethnographic observations are certain to provide comprehensive and trustful details for further archeological analysis and acquisition. All this brings up the necessity to further develop ethnography and continue researches in this field.
Works Cited
Arthur, K.W. “Feminine Knowledge and Skill Reconsidered: Women and Flaked Stone Tools.” American Anthropologist 112.2 (2010): 228-243.
Sillitoe, P. & Hardy, K. “Living Lithics: Ethnoarchaelogy in Highland Papua New Guinea.” Antiquity 77.297 (2003): 555-566.
The last research study dealt with ethnographic observation of Twin Oaks Intentional Community. It was through field work that the community was noted as one of the intentional communities. According to Christian, “an intentional community is a group of people who have chosen to live with or near enough to each other to carry out their shared lifestyle…” (xvi).
The second paper will analyze this community according to what was observed in field work. The study involved not only performing some interviews with its members but also getting information through interactions during meal times. There are several lessons one can learn by observing and analyzing this community and its culture.
As stated in the former paper, the community under observation cherishes values like peace, sharing, cooperation and equality. They like to work together in order to promote peace and equality among themselves. These are some of the aspects of culture observed in that community.
The event in which this analysis was done met the required expectations. It was similar to the prospect because some lessons were to be learnt by studying this community. One of the main lessons learnt was their effort to bring gender equality in the community. Twin Oaks had provided a good example of an unrelenting effort to defeat gender related inequality challenges in a community (Smith 240).
They had put consistent effort to stop inviting new members from the dominating gender that had created imbalance. In fact, they clearly set a rule in place that would ensure gender balance at all times. That was the reason why they do not invite new members of the dominating group.
It is also important to note that this community aimed at helping one another by embracing non violent activities. Every member had to participate in decision making although final decisions belong to a ‘Board of Community Planners’ (Smith 243).
As an observer, any community needs to improve education programs in order to build a strong practice of collective child rearing. Twin Oaks has another cultural aspect and practice in child care. The way they practice childcare is indeed a great lesson worth emulating. Child care is not for women only but it is a communal and voluntarily task extended to any member in the community.
The community practices collective child rearing responsibility (Levinson 679). In this case it is clear that children would have ample time with adults even if they are not related. However, children face some challenges in education due to lack of sufficient educational programs and facilities. The entire process of raising children is under the control of the wholecommunity. According to its policies, there should be planning and direction on these matters.
One of the main objective facts that distinguish itself from observation and interpretation is Twin Oaks’ ability to continuity. This is an important lesson one can learn by studying this community. Through this study, it is clear that Twin Oaks had the ability to maintain itself for years (Fosket & Mamo 170).
The community had experienced successful maintenance because it had endured changes for some length of time. This flexibility had helped them to transcend through emerging changes in the community. In the process of writing notes during field work, several factors were put into consideration. These factors were considered to be integral in sustaining a community and included contact, collaboration and connectedness. Twin Oaks needs to embrace these values.
The continued anthropological research on Twin Oaks is helpful since there are myriad of lessons to be learnt. Intentional community living is a solution to survive in a disintegrated social order.
The lesson that can be learned in the case study is how to create a unified life together especially for the purpose of pulling efforts as a common unit during difficulties. This is a deliberate attempt to start a group of people to work together in order to accomplish a common goal.
It is also imperative to note that there are well defined policies and internal control measures in an intentional community. As a matter of fact, such controls are necessary as part and parcel of maintaining law and order as well as peaceful co-existence. Twin Oaks was able to come up with some stringent policies that helped its community to live and work together. The community was quite harmonious largely due to the set rules that acted as guidelines.
Finally, there were several questions that came up while carrying out this exercise. For instance, what would be the need of creating life together or living as a common unit? Definitely, there are myriad of reasons behind this. For instance, if people live as a unit, harmony and social interaction will be cultivated. The other inquiry would be whether this form of community living can be embraced globally and at the same time achieve the same desired results.
It is vital to note that intentional community life has its own merits and demerits which may vary from one geographical location to another. Factors such as cultural differences as well as individual values and belief systems do matter a lot when it comes to setting common rules and regulations in such communities. Interestingly though, Twin Oaks was able to create a cohesive living environment among its people.
Works Cited
Christian, Diana. Creating a Life Together: Practical Tools to Grow Ecovillages and Intentional Communities. Gabriola Island: New Society Publishers, 2003.
Fosket, Jennifer & Mamo, Laura. Living Green: Communities that Sustain. Gabriola Island: New Society Publishers, 2009.
Levinson, David. Encyclopedia of Community: From the Village to the Virtual World. Massachusetts: Berkshire Publishing Group LLC, 2003.
Smith, Vicki. Worker Participation: Current Research and Future Trends. San Diego: Elsevier Ltd, 2006.
Maps and Dreams by Hugh Brody is an ethnographical account of the research which was conducted at a Beaver Indian reserve in British Columbia. Combining the chapters with the first-person narration and the parts with verified scientific data, the author implements an original approach for providing an account of his observation and the results of the experiment.
Mixing the scientific and humanistic approaches and implementing the anthropological framework and the concept of the bio-cultural triad for covering various sides of life of Beaver community, Brody uses dialogic procedures for depicting and explaining the processes in the Indigenous community.
Hugh Brody implemented a mix of scientific and humanistic approaches for covering the naturalistic issues in his ethnographic account of life of a Beaver Indian reserve. Funded by the federal government, the ethnographer has spent more than a year in northwestern British Columbia for examining the possible impact of the planned natural gas pipe upon the conditions of life of Indigenous population.
Disregarding this federal mission, Brody’s book under consideration contains not only verified data on history and economy of the Beaver reserve, but also his personal views of their lifestyles and their culture. Mixing the chapters with first-person reportage with scientific data, the author noticeably struggles with the difficulties of describing the phenomena of an unknown culture using the native language.
There is a contrast between the scientific methods implemented for studying various dimensions of the community and partially subjective manner of representation of the achieved results, which emphasizes the complexity of the processes in the reserve. The ethnographer suffers from a culture shock which can be seen in his reactions to the surrounding events and difficulties with adapting to new environment.
However, after spending some time in the reserve, the researcher undergoes the influence of this community, empathizes with Indians and understands certain cultural and linguistic phenomena which previously he perceived as weird and unthinkable.
On the other hand, the ethnographer’s presence and research had impact upon Indians’ behavior as well, even complicating the process of investigation to certain extent. Thus, supplementing the anthropological framework with additional sources of information, including even personal impressions and interpretation of the Beaver traditions and lifestyles, Brody combined scientific and humanistic approaches to exploring the Indian reserve, making his extensive observations multifaceted.
Taking into account the initial goal for conducting the research, it can be stated that economic data is one of the significant components of the overall investigation. Emphasizing the strong links between the Indians’ traditions and their current lifestyle, Brody shows how important is the role of hunting and fishing in their economic activities even despite the incursions of Europeans into their territories and accustomed living conditions.
It is stated that “the new frontier allowed hundreds, even thousands of Whites to hunt or fish deep inside the heartlands of many Indian hunting territories and traplines… This access causes the most direct threat to the Indian interest in northeast British Columbia” (Brody 218). In other words, examining the impact of the European intervention, the ethnographer does not separate the economic activities from the rest of anthropological framework, viewing them in the cultural and sociological contexts.
Drawing a significant part of their sustenance from hunting, Beaver people continued to hunt on moose, deer and caribou notwithstanding the changing environment and Europeans’ incursions. Establishing the links between the economic activities, traditions and beliefs of Indigenous population, Brody defined the place of economies in ethnography and the interconnected character of these disciplines.
Depicting the cultural and religious beliefs of Indigenous population in their connection to nature and anthropological issues, the ethnographer implemented the concept of bio-cultural triad for explaining the strong links between the human biology of Beaver community and their cultural choices, namely diet and modes for drawing sustenance.
Exploring the sides of the triad, Brody treats Beaver diet and eating traditions as an effective strategy of biological adaptation of the community to their natural environment. Providing valuable statistical data concerning the population size, structure, proportions and morbidity rate, Brody shows that these cultural practices were effective for using the available environmental opportunities and compensating for the existing drawbacks of the natural conditions.
Considering the impact of independent environmental features, including climate, flora, fauna and other natural resources upon the socio-natural environment and cultural choices of the Beaver community, the ethnographer emphasizes the integrity of various dimensions of community life.
Incorporating the rules of reasonable use of resources, hunting on large and small animals and watching their behavior and natural habitat into the system of their religious beliefs and ethical norms, Beaver people managed to create favorable socio-natural environment for their community which was only partially constrained by the incursions of Europeans.
Brody uses the example of differences in the maps created by White people and Indians for demonstrating the gaps between their perception of the same territories and plans for using the same resources, demonstrating their colliding interests. Along with the differences in the maps, the concept of bio-cultural triad is used by the ethnographer for depicting the high level of adaptation of Indigenous population to their natural environment and the impact of European intervention upon their lifestyle.
Expressing his personal opinion of the investigation results and impressions from living in the Indian community and attempts to understand its cultural phenomena, the ethnographer uses a reflexive perspective for presenting his account of Beaver traditions, lifestyle, economy and other anthropological parameters, involving readers into a dialogue.
Viewing the anthropological issues through his own eyes and combining scientific and humanistic approaches, the author affects his readers’ cultural beliefs and their perception of life in general. Brody’s description of Beaver system of values preconditioned with peculiarities of their natural environment and affecting their lifestyle and economic activities had impact upon my personal views of wealth, power, duty, honor and democracy.
Taking into account the concept of the bio-cultural triad, most ethical issues can be viewed from a new perspective, simplifying the debates concerning beliefs and activities of society representing them as the two interdependent sides of the processes in the community. This endless circle of the mutually-dependent phenomena emphasizes the complexity of anthropological framework, which can be implemented for exploring the methods in any community.
Application of this framework to Brody’s experiment with Beaver reserve is valuable for testing its elements as implemented for the analysis of Indians’ original lifestyle and traditions which are unique due to separation of this small community from the rest of the population of the continent.
Complimenting the statistic, historical and economic data with his own emotions, the researcher provides his personal observations as an active participant of the investigation for showing the gap between the systems of values in Europeans and Indigenous population. Thus, the chosen perspective and approaches along with the manner of presentation of the materials had impact upon my own perception of cultural beliefs and anthropological phenomena.
Mixing the scientific and humanistic approaches to presenting the results of the ethnographic research and personal observations, Brody encourages the readers’ involvement into the dialogue. Analyzing the issues discussed in the reflexive chapters of the book under consideration, it can be stated that the author partially implements the dialogic procedures (Omohundro 392).
The contrast between the ethnographer’s perception of Beaver traditions and the beliefs of Indigenous population is one of the most important dialogic questions. The methods used by Brody for collecting the materials and conducting his surveys require effective communication with the native inhabitants of the reserve and can be regarded as a part of a dialogue strategy.
Comparing and contrasting the cultural beliefs in representatives of different communities, the author touches upon the problem of their origin, trying to get to the roots of the problem. Expressing his own doubts and leaving specific questions without definite answers, the researcher encourages following debates and dialogue.
Presenting the scientific facts along with his personal observations, the researcher leaves space for readers’ counterarguments and personal views. In that regard, the methods implemented by the author as well as his manner of presentation of the facts, observations and opinion can be regarded as dialogic.
The approaches, concepts and manner of presentation of the materials chosen by Brody for depicting the variety of cultural phenomena and beliefs of the Beaver community had impact upon my understanding of the elements of anthropological framework and processes in their integrity.
Works Cited
Brody, Hugh. Maps and Dreams:Indians and the British Columbia Frontier. Waveland Press, 1998. Print.
Omohundro, John. Thinking Like an Anthropologist: A Practical Introduction to Cultural Anthropology. McGraw Hill Publishing, 2007. Print.
One way to obtain primary data for qualitative research is through ethnographic analysis. This paper discusses the example of Leah, who intends to use ethnography to explore work-life balance possibilities. The characteristics of this approach and the main risks affecting objectivity are assessed.
Ethnographic Analysis: Meaning
Qualitative data analysis is a widely used paradigm for analyzing non-numerical data and allows textual materials to be analyzed, processed, and interpreted to discover common patterns within them. One tool for qualitative analysis is ethnographic research, a unique type of social observation of respondents in their natural environment but not in a laboratory setting (IRB-SBS, 2020). In terms of a literal interpretation, ethnography should be understood as a specific research way of knowing the world through the study of social relationships in it (Department of Anthropology, 2021).
The primary resource for ethnographic research is note-taking, in which the respondent fills out notes or pages of a personal diary, recording their observations and experiences in the context of the research question. In Leah’s case, for example, ethnographic analysis notes would indeed include personal feelings about the extent to which college work supported the individual’s family life, including any doubts and comparisons with previous experiences. It is fair to acknowledge, however, that respondent interviews, in which notes are taken by the interviewer rather than the individual directly, are also identified as a method of ethnographic research, in which case the respondent answers prearranged questions (IRB-SBS, 2020).
The participants in an ethnographic interview are not absolutely all the people with whom the researcher interacts in the course of the analysis, but only those with whom the dialogue is constructed for research purposes. For example, everyday communication with colleagues at work may not be considered ethnographic analysis, but talking about how they manage to combine work and study already classifies them as research participants. Thus, ethnographic analysis is a qualitative research method based on recording an individual’s personal experiences and observations in order to analyze these records further.
Benefits of Overt Surveillance
When implementing ethnographic analysis, the choice of an observational approach, namely open or covert, plays an essential role. The difference between these two techniques is transparent: in the case of open observation, the group of respondents knows that the researcher is conducting an analysis and is aware of its goals, whereas covert observation is implemented through discreet methods in which the group is unaware of the research being conducted (Allan, 2020). Each of these methods proves helpful depending on the applied purpose of the research being conducted, but the author should be careful about which approach to choose, as each is associated with some risks.
Overt observation has clear advantages over closed observation because it resolves most ethical issues. In particular, open observation requires Leah’s colleagues’ consent so they will be aware of the observation (Allan, 2020). In addition, with open observation, Leah’s colleagues will be able to prompt her with some valuable advice and be more involved, which also has the potential to be suitable for the study. This allows for a partnership relationship (rather than a vertical hierarchy) between the parties involved, which positively impacts the communication well-being of Leah and her colleagues.
Disadvantages of Overt Surveillance
Leah has chosen overt observation as an approach to the ethnographic research she is conducting, which means that the respondents will know they are being observed. The obvious risk of this approach is the emergence of some bias, in which Leah’s colleagues may try to appear better than they are in real life, as the Hawthorne Effect postulates (Fry, 2018). In addition, the very nature of open-ended observation involves selecting respondents who know or are close to Leah, which poses the threat of an unrepresentative sample — it is unlikely that another researcher would be able to collect the same sample and replicate the results given the personal skills and personality traits of specific colleagues (IRB-SBS, 2020). Proximity to the objects of observation can also form undesirable consequences for objectivity, as Leah may empathize and distort information to suit the needs of colleagues.
Insider Researcher: Implications
Insider research can lead to unintended consequences of emotional burden, as was shown in a case study in which Leah worries about the emotional well-being of her colleagues and herself (Aburn et al., 2022). In addition, with this approach, Leah could affect changes in communicative relationships with colleagues, including the emergence of conflicts, which would also prove to be an undesirable consequence for the author. On the other hand, Leah would be dealing with people she knows, so she would be able to avoid stereotypical thinking and more easily gain trust and acceptance from them, which would positively affect the research being conducted. Thus, specific consequences include threats to the emotional well-being of the parties involved, modifications to communication, the emergence of conflict, and facilitated trust-building.
Researcher Involvement
Whether the researcher should be an outside observer is sensitive for ethnographic research. There are reasons and justifications for both answers, so each author is free to choose his or her observation method. However, in Leah’s case, detachment from observation can be disruptive because it prevents engagement and trust-building. When a group of respondents realizes they have the same research experience as Leah, it increases motivation, engagement, and trust. In other words, Leah should not be aloof, as this could negatively affect the communicative part of the observation. On the contrary, Leah should not only have the same experience of completing personal diaries as the respondents but should openly state it to achieve the desired effect of the observation. Meanwhile, if Leah does the same work and is not a detached observer, it will contribute to a personal understanding of the weaknesses and strengths of such observation that Leah can describe in the limitations of her thesis. It is also expected that engaged observation can lead to positive relationships between Leah and colleagues even after the dissertation research is completed, which can facilitate the formation of applicable connections. Thus, for Leah, given the context of the research, personal interest in the topic under study, and communicative challenges, the choice of engaged observation, in which the author stands on the same side as the respondents and lives similar experiences, would be appropriate.
Key Work-Life Balance Factors
Leah’s primary research interest is in exploring work-life balance possibilities in contemporary companies. This interest is likely motivated by the increasing trend of today’s employee sustainability agenda, in which employers seek to foster a good work environment that does not interfere with employees’ family lives (Kelliher et al., 2019). This topic is a broad issue for participants in academic discourse; quite a few case studies have explored this balance. For example, Kelliher et al. (2019) point to a rapidly changing model of balance in which personal life is no longer perceived as an employee performing strictly family and parenting functions; instead, personal life includes time away from work that an individual can spend as they see fit, whether it be hobbies, leisure time, or education.
Specific work-life balance factors have also been extensively studied by authors. For example, Wood et al. (2020) report on HRM’s implementation of numerous practices that allow employees to balance work and personal life effectively. These should include programs to train employees in effective time management and soft skills development, developing adequate communication to express personal experiences to the immediate supervisor, and fostering a culture of discipline. Similar findings were made by Rani & Priya (2020), who pointed to flexible work schedules, listening to the employee, and supporting family issues as predictors of building a sustainable balance. It is easy to see that both papers discuss the need to develop communication between employees and managers that allows employees to express their concerns and receive in return the necessary resources, including support for family issues, to develop this balance. An interesting perspective on an essential factor for balance was offered by Nagy (2020), who pointed out that using technology is also a significant opportunity for work-life distinction. Technology allows one to keep in touch with work matters outside of the office and in one’s free time to do one’s own thing in the office. Nagy, unlike previous authors, does not suggest communication or the development of corporate culture as balance factors, but the use of technology also strengthens these factors, so his conclusions are consistent with those of other authors. Thus, the analysis of the three sources found that the critical factors for developing balance are communication, corporate culture, discipline, technology, and employee support.
Alternative Scenario for Research
The ethnographic approach to research is not the only correct strategy, as there are additional tools for qualitative analysis. In particular, conducting a semi-structured interview instead of open observation can also be a good tactic for obtaining the desired information. The point of the interview is that the author prepares their own questions, chooses a convenient time with the respondent, and conducts the interview-the semi-structured approach that meets some flexibility of such questions, so if the author wants to, they can ask additional contextual questions (Bearman, 2019). The sample is also formed by the author of the study and does not necessarily have to include only people they know, which increases the unbiased nature of the data. In order to conduct interviews, the researcher must gather informed consent and educate respondents about the goals of the project (Arifin, 2018). Finally, an essential advantage to choosing interviews is the significant optimization of time and resources spent.
During the interview, the author records participants’ responses using notebook notes or a voice recorder, having obtained prior consent (Arifin, 2018). The data are text or audio notes that are later used for transcription and coding. The thematic analysis allows for the identification of patterns common among respondents’ responses; for such patterns, it is possible to construct a cloud-based textual model as a visualization of the detections (Evans & Lewis, 2018). In addition, coding allows for highlighting critical elements in a large-scale dataset and identifying the main themes named by multiple respondents. In this way, it is possible to analyze textual data and identify key findings from it qualitatively.
Conclusion
Thus, ethnographic analysis has been shown to be a good qualitative research strategy for Leah’s case — through open observation she will be able to obtain valuable primary findings and build partnerships with her colleagues, but the woman should consider several described risks associated with bias.
Ethnography allows for a variety of data collection methods. One of the more popular amongst them is called participant observation. This method of data collection is often used in qualitative research as it focuses on interaction with a specific group of people in the context of their cultural environment. It was first devised in the field of anthropology. Bronislaw Malinowski is often cited as one of the first practitioners of this method during his research of the people of Papua New Guinea (Ferraro 113). A researcher that utilizes this method is expected to create relationships within the group, participate in its daily life, and adhere to its customs. It allows the creation of an authentic impression of the culture of the group and many novel insights. This method involves research in the field, establishing rapport with the people, recording of data, and its analysis. In some cases, participation is limited depending on the situation. This method of data collection has been used not only in the research of isolated native communities but also in research of societal sub-cultures, as they are often defined by a strong sense of identity. By interacting with the people directly, a researcher can better understand their mindset and provide more accurate results (Spradley, Participant Observation 53).
Analysis
During my research, I mostly used qualitative methods with one exception. Qualitative research is an all-encompassing term that includes a variety of research methods focused on the understanding of people and groups of people. Data acquired through this research is not empirical but holds a great value nonetheless. Qualitative research is often done through interviews and observation as they provide the best insight into the nature of the group or individual people. On the other hand, quantitative research provides empirical data, usually in countable figures of units.
The first technique I used is questioning. During my research in the field, I asked people about the prices of ingredients, the length of food preparation, and which ingredients work best for which foods. For my second technique, I utilized sensory ethnography to gain a better understanding of the food. I have smelled the pleasant odors that occurred during cooking, tasted the food, and watched as the ingredients were prepared. Karen Nakamura finds this technique to be very effective in the case of field research (132). My next technique included observation of the customers. They were represented by people of all ages, including school children and the elderly. Martin Hammersley finds observation to be a primary form of research (35). I have also used interviews to gain a better understanding of the subject. During my trip to the cooking school, I was able to gain a lot of information about the food itself. According to James Spradley, interviews are an essential part of fieldwork (The Ethnographic Interview 3). Lastly, I used the technique of mapping to outline the most popular locations of street food vendors. Through my research, I found that a pattern emerged. The food was always fresh and took very little time to cook. This quickness allows street food establishments to sell quality Thai food without a loss in quality.
Sensory Ethnography
The most important parts of this research were done through the use of sensory ethnography. As the name suggests, it is a type of ethnography that focuses on the use of senses, such as sight, smell, taste, and others. In the research on food culture, it is an essential tool because the smell and taste are both aspects that cannot be shown through text or images. Sarah Pink in her book “Doing Sensory Ethnography” provides an example of similar research: “Based on his experience of living in one area Cohen can report on the routines and cycles of garbage accumulation and removal, its smell (as he experienced) and the activities that people engaged in, adding cooking and food smells” (99).
Conclusion
Street food in Hong Kong represents a crucial part of the culture. Its high quality is afforded by the quick preparation time and fresh ingredients of Thai cooking. This research made me change my opinion on street food in this area.
Works Cited
Ferraro, Gary. Classic Readings in Cultural Anthropology. Cengage Learning, 2015.