Category: Ethnocentrism

This work is a commentary review of the article Consumer ethnocentrism: an integrative review of its antecedents and consequences by Mahesh N. Shankarmahesh. This article has justified the inclusion by the fact that it has achieved its objective. In this case, the article has given an integrative review in regards to the antecedent and the impacts of consumer ethnocentrism (Shankarmahesh, 2004). Furthermore, Mahesh gives a historical overview of how customers antecedents and ethnocentrism have affected the rate at which world trade grew and developed. In this regard, he used an international focus to evaluate the impacts of globalization and the convergence of economic ideology. Moreover, the review has used quotes derived from old sources such as that of Summer and Murdock which are quite useful in the entire and analysis. This has enabled him to have a historical context on consumer antecedent and ethnocentrism. In the review, the author provides the reader with several suggestions especially with a keen focus on future research. This has been done by incorporating ideas derived from an individual discussion about the antecedents and consequences (Shankarmahesh, 2004). Contrastingly, the review has also met the justification for exclusion from the fact that the information provided has been critiqued by scholars.

More explicitly, the review has also distinguished between what has been done and what needs to be done through his research findings. This can be analyzed from his categorical findings. In the review, Mahesh has identified four categories of antecedents. These include socio-psychological, economic, political, and demographic factors which are all vital in the entire analysis (Shankarmahesh, 2004). All the named types of antecedents have been gathered from the literature through some succinct analysis of the article provided. However, it is clear from the review that there is a need for further research on the direct and indirect consequences that occurred due to consumer ethnocentrism and antecedents. From the review, the author confirms that scholars need to equally scrutinize whether there are better means of increasing effectiveness while reducing consumer ethnocentrism at the micro-level. In this case, the author gives a clear confirmation that companies in foreign countries have not successfully been able to liberate their products from consumer ethnocentrism (Shankarmahesh, 2004). However, it is imperative to note that the review acts as evidence that research done has adequately given an integrative framework on how the existing antecedents and their impacts can be solved. For this case, it acts as a vista through which scholars will further their research on how to market international goods and services. Additionally, it is evident from the review that the identified antecedents require relevant moderators and mediators. The latter elements are relevant since they provide a profound platform on which various aspects of trade growth largely depend. Though some moderators have been addressed in the review, the author builds a foundation for future research.

Besides this, the author has successfully emerged very competent by the way he has applied correctly vocabulary. This has fostered clarity, coherence and as well eliminated ambiguity in the review. In addition to this, it is evident that the author in the reviewed article has applied appropriate methodology in his research (Shankarmahesh, 2004). The approaches used are very comprehensive and thus offering the work an updated summary. Both qualitative, quantitative methodologies, as well as theories from scholars, have been employed in the work. Examples of qualitative methodologies include analyzing individual discussions and literature from written sources. Quantitative tools used include surveys and questionnaires (Shankarmahesh, 2004). For this case, the review has been able to integrate a wider coverage to research on the essence of the global marketing topic. Moreover, the research approaches have built an avenue to further research in the future. Examples of theories used include materialism and dogmatism to bring out his points well.

It is also evident that the review has a scholarly significance towards the research problem. For this case, it has a practical implication due to the issue of antecedents and consequences of CET on global trade (Shankarmahesh, 2004). In this case, they can be used by international marketing agents to improve their marketing strategies bearing in mind that there are hosts of challenges which international businesses encounter in the course of their operations.

Shankarmahesh (2004) gives justification for the inclusion of consumer ethnocentrism with antecedents and consequences. To begin with, the author contends that the exit of tariffs and the emergence of non-tariff barriers in international trade has resulted in challenges in global trade. Consumer acceptance or rejection of products is no longer based on price or quality but nationalist ideologies. These ideologies are referred to as non-tariff barriers and they include consumer ethnocentrism. Secondly, he claims that such tariffs as consumer ethnocentrism have been precedent by some factors and will lead to specific consequences, therefore justifying why this study of antecedents and consequences is imperative.

In addition, the author explicitly shows a line of difference between what has been previously done regarding consumer antecedents and consequences and what needs to be done currently. About previous research, as regards CET in various aspects including economic, political, demographics, gender, education, race, ethnicity, and social class, he recommends future research in government procurement, how it can be overcome, and the liability of foreignness in CET. The aforementioned factors are quite crucial in the growth as well as the development of international trade. More vividly, there is consideration of scholarly literature in the examination of this topic in a historical context. When quotes from summer, Murdock, and Sharma are duly applied to this scenario, the author acquires the historical context of the emergence of consumer ethnocentrism with appropriate inclusion of correct vocabulary with clarity and elimination of ambiguity consumer ethnocentrism as regards international trade (Shankarmahesh, 2004). Owing to the articulation of variables such as gender, demographics, economies, education, race, and ethnicity, the article correctly explains the existent relationship of the variables to the phenomena of CET. This piece synthesizes some pieces of literature and lacks a critique of other sources of literature and thus does not fully synthesize literature accordingly. Indeed, this may be posed as a weakness in the article which requires to be reviewed further. Although he claims that more research needs to be done as regards government procurement and supplies, he presents contradictions as regards political studies in CET antecedents and consequences. It is obvious that political influence on CET comes from the presiding government and the same trends should be reflected in its procurement and supplies. This claim of future research fails to achieve validity.

Reference

Shankarmahesh, N. (2004). Consumer ethnocentrism: an integrative review of its antecedents and consequences. St Louis: University of Missouri Press.

The film selected for review and aiding in analyzing the concept of ethnocentrism and its effects on individuals, societies, and multinationals is The Namesake.

Released in 2007, the film chronicles the lives of an Indian couple and their children as they attempt to adjust to the cultural dynamics involved in emigrating from West Bengal in India, to the US, and raising their children to appreciate the intricacies of these two varying cultures (Bahri, 2007, p.10).

The film is divided into two parts, the first part portraying the couple (Ashoke and Ashima) in India, then the second part portrays their life in the US, with subsequent scenes involving movement between the two countries.

Ethnocentrism is the belief that ones own culture, (in-group), is superior to other cultures and involves the tendency to view other cultures as secondary, with the central focus and point of reference being the individuals culture. In the film Namesake, Ashoke and Ashima want to raise their children to respect and practice their Indian culture and value their Indian heritage, which they believe is better and superior to the more liberal American culture.

They especially want their children to remain true to the Indian culture of courtship and marriage, which involves arranged marriages, an expectation that unsurprisingly causes friction with their children who have taken to the comparatively liberal American culture of courtship and marriage. Viewing the film, one gets the sense of importance that Indians attach to the institution of marriage.

Unlike the American culture, that puts emphasis on courtship and getting to know ones spouse before marriage, Indian couples rarely court, and yet as portrayed in the film, marriages in India last longer than most American marriages.

Ethnocentrism has an impact on how societies and individuals in it relate to members of other societies. Watching the film, the struggles of Gogol Ganguli (the couples first son), as he tries to fit into the American lifestyle in his teen hood resonates with me. Many Americans view the American culture as the prototype for all cultures, and Asian cultures, especially Indian culture, is viewed  a view I had before watching the film  as overly conservative and retrogressive.

No matter how hard Gogol tries, by dating American women, listening to American songs like rock music, and reading American books, he finds that he cannot escape from his Indian heritage, and finally resolves to understand his Indian culture more.

He finds out that his own heritage is not necessarily inferior to the American culture. Watching the film also gave me an insight into the Indian culture that positively altered my view of the same. The sense of communal warmth that permeates the Indian society is admirable, and Indian communities are much more closely-knit than the American communities are. I especially found the elaborate ritual of honoring the dead in Indian society as a befitting send-off for the dead honorable in Indian Society.

Multinationals and other organizations that operate across different nationalities and cultures encounter the effect of ethnocentrism especially concerning consumer products. As an American, I tend to buy only American products at home, and consumer products from Asian countries especially India and China are frowned upon in our home.

American cars such as Ford and Chevrolet models are also preferred to Japanese models like Toyota and Honda. This practice therefore, dictates that multinationals have to factor in the effect of ethnocentrism on their products as part of their consumer research studies.

Consumer ethnocentrism therefore, has an impact on the sale of imported goods within an importing country, especially since imported goods affect domestic output and may negatively impact on local jobs (Durvasula & Lysonski 2006, p.12). The direct relationship that the concept of ethnocentrism has on the sale of foreign products in America is especially significant.

References

Bahri, D. (2007). The Namesake. Film Quarterly, 61(1), 10-15.

Durvasula, S., & Lysonski, S. (2006). Impedance to globalization: The impact of economic threat and ethnocentrism. Journal of Global Marketing, 19(3/4), 9-32.

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to enquire the influence of ethnocentrism on customers purchase intention towards foreign products that moderated by social media. Much attention is given for foreign customers because there are many issues that multinational corporations have to consider to get the benefits from foreign customers. The paper looks at recent research dealing with need for uniqueness and trust of the product because both of them are important factors from the customers’ point of view. Besides, ethnocentrism relates to the customers believes that the products that made by their home country are the best and refuse to use imported products. Moreover, the study gives a detailed analysis of the impact on customers’ need for uniqueness on buy intention towards foreign products: firstly it will define about the description of each construct, secondly disclose the hypotheses, and lastly goes to the methodology that will be used to test the hypotheses.

KEYWORDS: Purchase Intention, foreign products, customers needs, social media

I. Introduction

Nowadays, with the growth of globalization, international expansion become a common strategy to be implemented by a multinational corporations (MNC). Customers can easily access and exposed a great variety of products and services from other countries because MNCs can provide both domestic and international customers’ need. However, MNCs may face the difficulties to fulfill customers’ need because MNCs have to distinguish different of those needs in virtually every product category (Fakharmanesh & Miyandehi, 2013). Therefore, MNCs need to know the motivations of local and different foreign customers that buy its products so that MNCs can improve their ability to fulfill the needs. This study will focus only for foreign customers because there are many issues that MNCs have to consider to get the benefits from foreign customers. Besides, studies stated that customers in developing countries prefer foreign products to domestic products because they believe that foreign products have better quality than domestic products and it can impress customers’ status in the society (Frimpong, 2011).

Most of the earlier study stated that customers purchase products from other countries relates to their understanding about the country-of-origin reputation of the consequence (Torres & Gutierrez 2007; Rezvani, 2012; Renkon, 2012; Akdogan, 2012; Wong, 2007). However, there is not only country-of-origin that impact the client buy intention towards imported products. Fakharmanesh and Miyandehi (2013) explained that consumer usually compares the domestic and foreign products based on its mark and company names, product labels, or linguistic, visual and aural symbols. Another motivation can be ethnocentrism, materialism, conformity, need for uniqueness, vanity (Ahmad, et al, 2013), belief and fashionability (Afzal, et al., 2013). This study will meet on the need for uniqueness and trust because both of them are important factors from the customers point of view. Besides, ethnocentrism relates to the client believes that the products that made by their home country are the best and reject to use imported products (Shimp & Sharma, 1987).

Therefore, MNCs should refer about ethnocentrism customers because it may conduct to low customer intention to purchase their products. Furthermore, social media may be able to used by customers to get information about overseas products because it is an simple and low-cost way to collect data. Through social media, customers can get knowledge for their uniqueness and build them more reliance with the product. Besides, since social media shares wide information about foreign products, it may provide the customer with strong ethnocentrism a new insight about it. It then may impact their thoughts about an imported product and raise their aim towards it. However, even though social media is significant in terms of foreign consequence purchasing, there is no study that explains about it. Therefore, the target of this study is to consider the influence of social media on the impact of customers’ need for uniqueness, faith, and ethnocentrism on their buy intention toward foreign products.

II. Literature Review and Hypotheses Development

2.1. Customers’ need for uniqueness and purchase intention

Every customer has her/her own preference for the products he/she is bought. The product can be similar to others in the same group or in contrary some of the customers do not want to be the same. Every customer has her/her own option for the products he/she is bought. The consequence can be similar to others in the same group or in opposite some of the customers do not want to be the same. The second category of customers wants to have a product that different from others. It means that they have a need for uniqueness. Consumers’ need for uniqueness refers to individuals’ pursuit of differentness from others that can be reached by acquisition, utilization, and disposition of consumer goods or service, in order to develop their personal and social identity (Tian, et al., 2001). Furthermore, they categorized customer’s need for uniqueness into three behavioral manifestations or dimensions: creative choice counterfort, unpopular choice counterfort, and avoidance of similarity. According to Synder and Fromkin (1977), in the theory of uniqueness, the need to be different from others person is created by the situation that threatens the self-perception of uniqueness. Individuals have different individuals degree of uniqueness motivations that can be reached with different ways, such as possession displays or style of interpersonal interaction, depends on their preference to assure their uniqueness motivations through consumer behaviors. Therefore, to assure their need for uniqueness, consumers start to consider imported products. Some consumers think that domestic products are general because others can purchase it simply. In other words, the same domestic products are owned by many people. Therefore, when customers want to assure their need for uniqueness, they will obtain a foreign product because it is different from others who purchase domestic products. In this case, customers who have a high level of need for uniqueness will have more wish for buying a foreign product. Based on that, the following hypothesis is developed:

H1: There is a positive impact on customers’ need for uniqueness on purchase intention towards foreign products.

2.2. Customers’ trust and purchase intention

Trust is a ‘psychological conditions comprising the aim to allow vulnerability based upon positive expectations of the intentions or behavior of another’ (Rousseau, et al., 1998). Trust can reduce the uncertainty created by others (Blau, 1964). Because of that, reliance is significant in terms of purchasing overseas products because in this activity usually firms and customers do not meet each other or so-called online shopping. Besides, the complexity and variety of cross-country interactions make the chance of unpredictable behavior (Gefen & Straub, 2003). Therefore, customers need to get trustable firms so that they can obtain a foreign product without any doubts. Furthermore, when customers have trust to such consequence, they will simplify their process of choosing and reducing a period for decision-making (Crosby & Taylor, 1983). It means that customers will use only a little time to assess the product and straightly make a decision to purchase the product because they already knew the characteristics of the consequence and faith that product will not make them regret. Besides, customers who have confidence will reduce their risk perception towards the suppliers when they act with them and feel more pleasant to share their individual information that important in e-trade transaction (Leeraphong & Mardjo, 2013). Thus, customers will more clear to obtain a foreign product because there is nothing they be concerned about. In other words, they will more often purchase foreign products. Therefore, the strong the belief of the customer to the product/brand, the higher will be their buy intention (Bhattacharya, 1998; Lacoeuilhe, 1999). Based on that, the following hypothesis is developed:

H2: There is a positive impact on customers’ trust on purchase intention towards foreign products.

2.3. Ethnocentrism and purchase intention

Ethnocentrism refers to the tendency of people that aspect their own group as the best among others and explain other groups from the point of view of their group. It makes them refuse other people who have a different culture and take the same one (Booth, 1979). In terms of purchasing product, customers with a high level of ethnocentrism will think more about the appropriateness or principles of purchasing imported product instead of domestic products (Shimp & Sharma, 1987). According to Crawford and Lamb (1981), buying the foreign product will produce strong emotional involvement especially about nationwide safety and loss of jobs. Costumers will reject to purchase foreign products because they think that it has a negative influence on the national economy and improve the number of unemployment (Shimp & Sharma, 1987). Those perceptions offered the concept of ethnocentrism in terms of psychological and social. Furthermore, in the marketing sphere, ethnocentrism becomes one of the dynamic factors in customer purchasing choices. Ethnocentrism is significant to be considered by the firms that have foreign customers because firms need to enquire whether most of the foreign customers have strong ethnocentrism or not. If the foreign customers have a high level of ethnocentrism, the firms have to find the way to handle with that because customer ethnocentrism has a negative and strict impact on buy intention towards foreign products (Renko, et al., 2012).

In contrary, it has an important positive influence on buy intention of products that manufactured domestically (Shoham & Brenečić, 2003, Nguyen, et al., 2008; Evanschitzky, et al., 2008; Ranjbaim, et al., 2011). Based on that, the following hypothesis is developed:

H3: There is a negative impact on customers’ ethnocentrism on purchase intention towards foreign products.

2.4. Social media

Social media has become one of the ways people live nowadays because it is not only a way to reach with friends or relatives but also for business. The popularity of social media and social networking has made marketers become more attractive on how they can get economic values through it. Social media is used by marketers to support their brands and build customer brand relationship because it can be multi-way communication, discussion, and collaboration between firms and consumers (Turri, et al., 2013). The benefits of social media that can reduce the gap between sellers and buyers, even across countries, are an significant issue for MNCs because they run around the globe. MNCs can use social media to associate with foreign customers around the world. Therefore, MNCs need to perceive how they can use social media to impact or build the consumers’ buy intention towards foreign products.

In consumers’ point of view, social media can help them to get knowledge about the product or service they want/need. It will impact the way they think and lastly their decision to buy the product or use the service. For customers who have a strong need for uniqueness, they can get information about overseas products through social media because it provides full information associated to the product and its alternative that enlarge their knowledge of their circumstances (Park & Lessig, 1977). Social media not only supply the information but also can be the area for sharing experiences among customers around the world. In this way, they can find the uniqueness of the products simply and then purchase foreign products. Furthermore, social media provides transparency, truthfulness and trustworthiness information because it is the platform for people to share their opinions, ideas and beliefs (Scott 2010). Marketers can use social media to establish the relationship (confidence and commitment) with customers because they can interact regularly (Turri, et al., 2013). Therefore, a company that uses social media to share information about the product creates customer reliance and commitment that affect their behavior toward the firm and buy intention towards foreign products (van der Heijden, et al., 2003). Since foreign purchasing may be done by the online transaction, consumers have to determine the trustworthiness of a firm (Good, 1988; Ring & Van de Ven, 1992). Consumers can raise their confidence towards the firm through social media because the it provides information in social media (Hong & Cho, 2012). Lastly, customers who have a strong level of ethnocentrism will refuse to purchase foreign products. However, since social media provides the truthfulness and trustworthiness information (Scott, 2010), customers ethnocentrism may use it to think again about their beliefs of overseas and domestic products. Knowledge and sharing experiences through social media can reshape the customer’s beliefs and thoughts about other culture or foreign products because it provides a broad and wide acquaintance to them. Therefore, the costumers may be less ethnocentrism to purchase foreign products after they get data through social media.

However, it will also depend on the attribute of customers and countries because some former studies stated that customer ethnocentrism tendencies depend on the level of the development of a country (Renko, et al., 2012). Customers in developing countries more likely to purchase foreign products than in developed countries because customers in developed countries have thoughts that their domestic products are better than others since they have high technology or manufacture equipment. This study will not distinguish between developing and developed country because the purpose of this study is to enquire the impact of ethnocentrism on customers buy intention towards foreign products that moderated by social media. Based on that, the following hypothesis is developed:

H4: Social media will strengthen the positive impact of customers’ need for uniqueness on purchase intention towards foreign products.

H5: Social media will strengthen the positive impact of customers’ trust on purchase intention towards foreign products.

H6: Social media will weaken the negative impact of customers’ ethnocentrism on purchase intention towards foreign products.

III. Methodology

3.1. Conceptual Framework

In this study, the following conceptual framework is developed based on the research objectives of this study.

3.2. Research Design and Methodology

Samples

This study adopted survey approach to gather appropriate research information, the accomplished sample was selected randomly from customers who purchase foreign products in Taiwan because there are many customers who purchase foreign products from Taiwan and usually through online shopping or social media. Online surveys will be conducted. Overall 500 surveys will be sent to the participants. This study will propose three lucky draws to appreciate the time and efforts from respondents.

Construct Measurement

For the object of the testing these hypotheses, the following five main constructs and one moderating variable will be operated in this study: (1) customers’ need for uniqueness, (2) customers’ reliance, (3) customers’ ethnocentrism, (4) buy intention towards foreign products, and (5) social media. All of those variables will be considered on a seven-point Likert scale. Respondents will be asked to indicate their degree of agreement toward each statement, from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree.

Customers’ need for uniqueness

According to Tian, et al., (2001), the potential questionnaires for customer’s need for uniqueness as follows:

• a. Creative choice counter-conformity
  • 1. I collect unusual merchandise to tell people I’m different
  • 2. I sometimes acquired unusual merchandise or brands to create more distinctive personal image
  • 3. I often look for one-of-a-kind merchandise or brands so that I build a personal style
  • 4. When buying a product my goal is to find something that conveys my uniqueness
  • 5. I often combine things in such a way that I create for myself a personal image that can not be reproduced
  • 6. I often try to find a more different version of ordinary products because I like being original
  • 7. I often try to develop my personal uniqueness by purchasing special products or brands
  • 8. Looking for the interesting and unusual products helps me to create a distinctive look
  • 9. The products and brands that I like most of all, express my individuality
  • 10. I often buy things in terms of how I can use them to form a more unusual personal image
  • 11. I often look for new products or brands that will add my uniqueness
  • 12. When buying a product, I sometimes dared to be in different ways, as others, most likely, do not approve
• b. Unpopular choice counterfort
  • 1. As far as I understand, when it comes to the products I buy and the situations in which I use them, there are customs and rules in order to break them
  • 2. I often buy products unconventionally even when it’s likely to offend others
  • 3. I rarely act in agreement with what others think are the right things to buy
  • 4. Concern for being out of place doesn’t prevent me from buying what I want to buy
  • 5. When it comes to the products I buy and the situations in which I use them, I have often broken customs and rules
  • 6. I have often violated the understood rules of my social group regarding what to buy or own
  • 7. I have often gone against the understood rules of my social group regarding when and how certain products are properly used
  • 8. I enjoy challenging the prevailing taste of people I know by buying something they wouldn’t seem to accept
  • 9. If someone hinted that I had been buying products inappropriately for a social situation, I would continue buying in the same manner
  • 10. When I buy product differently, I’m often aware that others think I’m peculiar, but I don’t care
• c. Avoidance of similarity
  • 1. When products or brands I like become extremely popular, I lose interest in them
  • 2. I avoid products or brands that have already been accepted and purchased by the average consumer
  • 3. When a product I own becomes popular among the general population, I begin using it less
  • 4. I often try to avoid products or brands that I know are bought by the general population
  • 5. As a rule, I dislike products or brands that are customarily purchased by everyone
  • 6. I give up buying products I’ve purchased once they become popular among the general public
  • 7. The more commonplace a product or brand is among the general population, the less interested I am in buying it
  • 8. Products don’t seem to hold much value for me when they are purchased regularly by everyone
  • 9. When the products I own becomes too commonplace, I usually quit wearing it

Customers’ trust

According to Hong and Cho (2011) that combined from many previous studies (Flavian, et al., 2006; Mayer, et al., 1995; McKnight & Chervany, 2002; and Gefen, 2000) the potential questionnaires for customer’s trust as follows:

1. I think that this MNC has the necessary abilities to carry out its work
2. I think that this MNC has sufficient experience in the marketing of the products and services that it offers
3. I think that this MNC has the necessary resources to carry out its activities successfully
4. I think that this MNC knows its users well enough to offer them products and services adapted to their needs
5. I think that the advice and recommendations about the product given by MNC are made in search of mutual benefit
6. I think that this MNC is concerned with the present and future interests of its users
7. I think that this MNC would not do anything intentional that would prejudice the user
8. I think that the design and commercial offer of this MNC take into account the desires and needs of its users
9. I think that this MNC is receptive to the needs of its users
10. I think that this MNC usually fulfills the commitments it assumes
11. I think that the information offered by this site is sincere and honest
12. I think I can have confidence in the promises that this MNC makes about the products
13. The MNC does not make false statements
14. The MNC is characterized by the frankness and clarity of the services that it offers to the consumer
15. Even if not monitored, I’d trust the intermediary to do the job right
16. I trust the intermediary
17. I believe that the intermediary is trustworthy
18. Even if not monitored, I’d trust the community of sellers to do the job right
19. I trust the community of sellers
20. I believe that the community of sellers is trustworthy

Customers’ ethnocentrism

According to Neuliep and McCroskey (1997), the potential questionnaires for customer’s trust as follows:

1. Other countries should model themselves after my country
2. People in my country have the best lifestyle in the world.
3. People in my country could learn a lot from people from other countries
4. My country is a poor example of how to run a country
5. Most people would be happier if they lived like those people in my country
6. Most other countries are backward in comparison wit-It my country
7. My country is a bad role model for other countries
8. Lifestyles in other countries are just a valid as in my country
9. Life in my country is much better than most other places
10. My country should be the role model of the world.
11. Countries really should not use my country as a role model
12. A lot of other countries are primitive compared to my country
13. I enjoy learning about the customs and values of other countries
14. Although different, most countries have equally valid value systems
15. My country would be better if it were more like other countries

Purchase intention towards foreign products

According to Hong and Cho (2011) that adapted previous studies from Jarvenpaa, et al. (2000), Yoon (2002), and Hoyer and Maclinnis (2008), the potential questionnaires for customer’s trust as follows:

1. I would return to buy foreign products in this MNC
2. I would consider purchasing from this MNC in the next three months
3. I would consider purchasing from this MNC in the next year
4. For this purchase, I will buy from this MNC

Social media

This study adapted the result from Michaelidou’s, et al. (2011) research on Social Media marketing that explains the reasons for using social media. The questionnaire will be as follows:

1. I attract with the foreign product through this social media
2. Social media cultivate my relationship with other customers
3. Social media increase my awareness of foreign products
4. Social media communicates the foreign products
5. I can receive feedback from others through social media
6. I can interact with suppliers of the foreign product through social media

3.3. Data Analysis Procedures

Descriptive statistic analysis

To better understand the characteristics of each variable, descriptive statistical analysis was used to illustrate the means and standard deviation of each research variable and to provide information about the characteristics of respondents.

Reliability analysis

To purify the measurement scales and to identify the dimensionality of each research constructs used in this study, principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation was applied to condense the collected data into factors. Based on the results of factor analysis, item-to-total correlation and internal consistency analysis (Cronbach’s alpha) were applied to confirm the reliability of each research factor.

Hypothesis testing

· Structural Equation Model (SEM)

In order to determine the overall fitness of the research model, SEM was used in this study. The Amos 5.0 package software was used to analyze the relationships within the entire research model to explore the relationships among variables in this model. According to Jöreskog and Sorbom (1993), the following criteria were adopted to justify the goodness of fit of the research model: Chi-square/d.f. < 2, Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) > 0.9, Adjusted Good of Fit Index > 0.9, and Root Mean square Residual (RMR) < 0.05. This study adopted SEM to analyze the interrelationships among elements of the entire research model.

· ANOVA

ANOVA was used to discuss the interaction effects of the clusters of customers’ need for uniqueness, trust, and ethnocentrism, with social media as the moderating variable on purchase intention towards foreign products.

4. Contribution

The contribution of this study is it integrates the customers’ need for uniqueness, reliance, and ethnocentrism to their buy intention toward overseas products that moderated by social media. Besides, for managerial implications, it gives a concept that social media can be used for business to make more benefits, especially in this globalization stage. Furthermore, in order to put together this study simply to be understood, firstly it will define about the description of each construct, secondly disclose the hypotheses, and lastly goes to the methodology that will be used to test the hypotheses.

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Ethnocentrism alludes to the wide conviction within the social predominance of one’s ethnicity and, more regularly, abnormally tall respect for one’s possess racial, social, social gather. This procedure of utilizing one’s possess community as identical to all other social orders is named ethnocentrism (Samovar et AL, and Dom Nwachukwu). Numerous scholastics have characterized ethnocentrism (Cushner & Brislin, 1996; Kottak) as ‘making judgments’ subordinate on the levels of one’s social bunches by using those parameters to assess certain demeanors and values of individuals who may come from diverse societies. Bennett, who portrays ethnocentrism as ‘considering the perspective of one’s possess society is crucial to all truths.’ Bennett recommends that individuals favor utilizing their claim translation to decipher others ‘ behavior which the thought of ‘widespread truth’ is by and large based on one’s own views. Ethnocentrism isn’t as it were a propensity to see the universe from the point of see of one’s possess individuals, but it is additionally an affinity to see the world from the viewpoint of one’s possess people.

The central inquiry about the address on the reasoning includes the suspicion that ethnocentrism requires rejecting out-groups in any of its ways reliably. Samovar contends that ‘each culture, whether deliberately or unwittingly, tends to commend its verifiable, logical, financial and aesthetic accomplishments, frequently overlooking the accomplishments of other societies. Ethnocentrism is in this way conferred through instruction in all social orders.’ The issue, in spite of the fact that, is that ethnocentrism too sets benchmarks for great and awful whereas fair imbalances ought to be famous.

In like manner, the central subjects in ethnocentrism were ‘the translation’ (Gudykunst; Kottak;Gish), ‘the mindset’ (Gish et al., 2007), ‘the conclusion (Cushner, 2003),’ the conviction ‘(Harris & Jonson, 2007), and’ the definition and judgment ‘(Edgar & Sedgwick) of one’s possess social values, hones and behaviors in differentiate with others ‘ social foundation. In other terms, the distinction between in-group and out-group is one of the central concepts in inter-cultural intuitive. Numerous elucidations of ethnocentrism emphasize its negative perspectives for socially diverse bunches.

Sculpin discusses the different perspectives of ethnocentrism (Cited in Kushner)

Ethnocentrism may be a common conviction that has regularly been centered on ethnocentric convictions of other social orders. Ethnocentrism is the marvel of characterizing a distinctive society by the values and benchmarks of one’s claim culture. When individuals learn the elemental values, philosophies, and standards of their society, they proceed to see they possess culture as prevalent and see other social orders as less favorable. Pioneers of a community can be so committed to their possess social conventions that they cannot dream of any other way of life. A few social conventions are regularly considered interesting or unconventional, maybe indeed awful, insane and corrupt.

Ethnocentrism is characterized as a widespread social wonder (Cushner, 1996: 273-78; Kottak, 1996:69) that contributes to social cohesion, a sense of meaning and personality between individuals who share a social convention.

In addition, concurring to Harris et al, ‘a certain degree of ethnocentrism is common for individuals who are raised in a single culture; their values and behaviors show up to be debilitated and prevalent to all others.’ The positive capacities of ethnocentrism for the in-group are reasonable. Tall morals, group cohesion, devotion, unobtrusiveness, and devotion are frequently related inside the community with a sense of predominance. For Jandt, ‘it’s difficult to induce freed of all ethnocentrism,’ but tending to ethnocentrism includes ‘mindful and proceeding endeavors.’

Stephan (Gudykunst, 2003) contends that ethnocentrism is lower in nations with a solid conviction in break even with openings for others than in nations with a sense of social prevalence, regard for convention. The concept has two components: (a) an assertion of the in-group position and social predominance, and (b) a condemnation of all out-group societies. Novinger’s concept of ethnocentrism was likely related to the complex mental advancement of a caring or prevailing character. Agreeing to the student’s reply, the issue related to ethnocentrism may be a wonder called ethnophaulic, utilizing the title calling and insuperable of the out-group part. The result of all usually more noteworthy social partition between financial, social, and ethnic bunches and less shared understanding.

Generally, ethnocentrism has been portrayed as a person’s mental state of mind with both positive and negative results (McCroskey & Neuliep). Ethnocentrism, on the one side, serves as a setting to’ patriotism and readiness to give up for one central group’ (Neuliep & McCroskey, 1997) and makes a difference to construct and protect one’s social character (Starosta & Chen, 2004). On the other hand, ethnocentrism leads to errors (Neuliep & McCroskey, 1997) and lower levels of intercultural capacity to connected in spite of ethnocentrism (Acknowledgment of Ethnocentrism and Ethnocentrism).

When people talk about COO, they always can’t get rid of the word – Ethnocentrism. This situation has affected in developed and developing countries. And it can affect the Product Countries Image and product evaluation. Indeed, according to the empirical studies, it seems that CET has a negative effect to the PCI.

The term ethnocentrism, as originally introduced by William Graham Sumner in 1906 (in Shimp & Sharma, 1987), refers to “the propensity of people to view their own social group as the center of the universe, to interpret others from their own perspective, and to reject those persons who they believe to be culturally different. ”

Shimp and Sharma (1987, p. 280) first defined consumer ethnocentrism as the “appropriateness, indeed morality, of purchasing foreign-made products.” They (Shimp and Sharma, 1987) applied ethnocentrism to the study of consumer behavior and introduced an economic form of ethnocentrism which is Consumer Ethnocentrism or Ethnocentricity. And (Vida & Dmitrovic, 2001) has claimed that:“ Consumer ethnocentric tendencies can be rated on a continuum from highly ethnocentric to non-ethnocentric ” to be clear, for a high ethnocentric consumer, purchasing foreign products will be considered immoral and unpatriotic which will hurt the domestic economy and causes job losses, while for a highly non-ethnocentric consumers, they may evaluate foreign products based on their attributes or even see them as better because they are not produced in their own country (polycentric consumer).

Besides, empirical studies have observed some inconsistent findings with regards to the effect of consumer ethnocentrism on the evaluation of foreign products (Teck-Yong Eng a,⁎, Sena Ozdemir b, Grant Michelson, 2016). Some studies report that consumer ethnocentrism influences consumers’ evaluation of foreign products negatively (Sharma et al., 1995; Zarkada-Fraser & Fraser, 2002), while others observed that ethnocentric consumers may also hold positive evaluations of imported foreign products (Javalgi, Khare, Gross, & Scherer, 2005).

Such contradictory findings may be explained by several reasons: firstly, when domestic products do not meet consumer demand, even ethnocentric people are forced to consume foreign products (Herche, 1992). Secondly, ordinary purchases may not have an impact on the domestic economy, and thus those ethnocentric consumers may not to resist the foreign products (Herche, 1992; Javalgi et al., 2005). Thirdly, Price has become a primary concern for many consumers. Fourthly, the negative effect of consumer ethnocentrism on the purchase of imported products may diminish when consumers hold certain psychological characteristics (Guo, 2013). Last but not the least, under the development of globalization and integration of economy, more and more multinational companies have built their facilities around the world with global brand names, consumers can’t draw a clear distinction between local products and foreign products (Batra et al., 2000; Papadopoulos, 1993). As a result, to reduce the identification of brands with a particular COO might diminish consumers’ ethnocentric sentiments against them (Batra et al., 2000).

According to all these situations, the influence that CET may have on the product evaluation could be differently presented in countries with different development status nowadays.

In developing countries, there is some evidence that the level of CET in such countries will vary depending on the extent to which such consumers have been affected by globalization (Reardon, Miller, Vida, & Kim, 2005; Strizhakova et al., 2008; Wang & Chen, 2004), “consumers in developing countries, do not necessarily have the same degree of attachment toward domestic products” (Batra, Venkatram, Alden, Steenkamp, & Ramachander, 2000; Li et al., 1997; Ueltschy, 1998). For example, Wang and Chen (2004) show that ethnocentric consumers in developing countries may positively evaluate the quality of imports to some extent if they are perceived with a country which is highly industrialized or economically developed. “Consumers in developing countries will prefer foreign products because of their good quality and novelty but this benign effect will lessen as an economy becomes more developed” (Shankarmahesh, 2006), thus suggesting that developing countries in the earlier stages of economic development will have lower CET.

However, with the development of globalization, we consider that, the purchasing behavior of consumers in developed countries have changed as well. They do not insist to consider this “tendency” as a morality, they gradually tempt to or have to accept foreign products, in large part because of the integration of global economy.

Within culture there are two ways to look at other culture something called ethnocentrism and other cultural relativism. Ethnocentrism refers to judging another ethnic cultural group or individuals by the values and standards of one’s own culture. William Graham Sumner first encountered this term in his book entitled Folkways. Ethnocentric individuals judge other groups concerned with their language, customs, behaviour and religion. These four things are the basement of judging a group of people or individuals in this current world. Usually it is a natural proclivity of human psychology to present a particular ethnicity’s cultural identity to others though it has so many negative connotations along with some positivity.

According to William Graham Sumner- views of the things in which ones own group is the center of everything and all other are scaled and rated with reference to it.

Now if we elaborate this definition given by William G Sumner we can find two different groups.

• In group
• Out group

When a particular ethnic group or individual observe or judge another group of people there always work ethnocentrism. Here the first group who judge other is called in group on the other side who are being judged called out group. In first group the leading one who are always subjective cause they put themselves in the center of everything that means giving the most priority to their own people. Here subjectivism works very much among these people or group. The second thing is the out groups are scaled and rated with some pre-conceptual things like in groups Language, culture, behaviour, practices and religions. So an ethnocentric person can’t imagine that there are anything other than his culture to pursue.

According to Horton & Hunt- Every culture considers itself superior to other culture is called ethnocentrism.

From this second definition we get some crucial things to discuss which affects an individual or community to be ethnocentric. These are given below

• The superior complexity( of self)
• The inferiority( highly alienated or most inferior form)
• Irrational thoughts

Here in the superior complexity of an ethnic group or individual rides the world of power because they think themselves or their culture is the best and other cultural people or groups are inferior to them. The so called superior group always thought some irrational things that other culture are backward and not up to the mark.

Psychoanalysis of the superior complexity

According to psychoanalyst Alfred Adler contemporary of Sigmund Freud, here individual psychology works. Individual psychology is a psycho-dynamic theory of the superior complexity, inferiority and courage. In Alfred’s individual psychology there are four types of people ruling is one of them this kind of people are highly energetic and always try to lead and hovers other by their superiority. When we call some one ethnocentric they are the ruling type of people cause somehow they think themselves as a superior being and their culture also. This ethnocentric thought often conducted by white, wealthy, western men and focused on people of colour, foreign indigenous population and lower economic class whom they call inferior being in terms of personality and culture.

Examples of Ethnocentrism

EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM

It is one of the biggest example of ethnocentrism. After colonization Europeans started to control over Africa and the Asia. They thought themselves as superior cause they have modern technology. On the contrary African’s and the Asians are primitive because they depend on hunting and farming. So the Europeans wanted to civilize those primitive colony and develop them with modern technology. It’s totally an ethnocentric idea. They always wanted to rule over those colonies. We can get a better idea of imperialism if we read the poem of British poet Rudyard Kipling ‘’The white man’s burden’’

Nazi Germany

Another suitable example of ethnocentrism is Nazi Germany. Adolf Hitler thought that Aryan race is the most superior race cause they they have power and jews are inferior so they doesn’t deserve to live in the world. This egocentric thought of Hitler had given birth of bloody world war 2. Here Hitler thought his community the most powerful and others are inferior. This is absolutely ethnocentrism.

Tribal cultures are backward and barbaric

We often think that tribals are very peculiar and their cultural values too because they are primitive. Their food habits, dresses and religion is peculiar. But they have some uniqueness in their cultures and values.

The mandate of heaven

It’s a confucias philosophy of Chinese. They believe that they had divine power and heaven has the mandate to choose the ruler by virtue. This ethnocentric thought gives themselves courage to heavy rule over the citizens and conquer the world.

The concept of our country was built from 1940’s “Lahore Resolution” according to this we are divided. This Lahore resolution & Division is the big example of ethnocentrism for us. Muhammad Ali Jinnah proposed Lahore resolution theory towards Indian government mentioned that Indian Muslims are not being treated like Indian Hindus they didn’t get their basic rights like others so they need to get that for this partition is needed between India and Pakistan. This proposition was an ethnocentric idea.

Advantages and Disadvantages of ethnocentrism

Positive effects

• It increases social solidarity
• Cooperation becomes stronger among the people of an ettnic community.
• An individual do all the things for the betterment of one’s own group members by creating sense of belonging among them.
• It promotes patriotism
• Enhance cast

Negative effects

• It hinders cultural assimilation
• Creates tight boundaries among various social groups
• Prejudice to each other creates conflicts and tension among groups
• It limits an individual in a social group
• Unity and integration become weaker in society

Studies have also linked the concept of ethnic identity with ethnocentrism and prejudice. While ethnocentrism is defined as a feeling of hostility towards out-groups, prejudice is a feeling of hostility toward a specific out-group (Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levinson, & Sanford, 1950). The term ethnocentrism was first popularised by Sumner (1906), which argued that there is a positive correlation between in-group belonging and out-group hostility.

Previous anthropological, psychological and behavioural research has investigated inter-group conflicts and inter-group prejudices and tracked their origins up to ancestral times (Schaller & Neuberg, 2008). In fact, emotions, behaviours as well as cognitive reactions can lead to creating prejudices against out-groups, which makes the latter a threat (Neuberg & Cottrell, 2006). With regard to understanding human behaviour, studying primates, the closest species to humans, can shed a light on numerous factors.

In terms of sex differences, studies found that males demonstrate more hostile behaviours towards out-groups than females (Carpenter, 1974; Cheney, 1986; Wilson & Wrangham, 2003). This is especially observed among primates, notably male chimpanzees, who patrol in their territorial boundaries. They tend to particularly show hostile behaviour when they encounter other patrolling male chimpanzees from out-groups (Goodall, 1986; Wilson & Wrangham, 2003). Hostile behaviour among male chimpanzees is higher than female chimpanzees, most likely because patrolling and raiding were primarily exclusive to males (Chagnon, 1988). However, in terms of reproduction, female chimpanzees can seek out mating opportunities in other groups if possibilities are limited within their own group. This increases tolerance and acceptance potential among female chimpanzees towards other groups (Goodall, 1986; Wilson & Wrangham, 2003).

Prejudices and stereotypes vis-à-vis other groups are flexible variables coming from evolutionary roots. Human beings are likely to see out-groups as a threat. However, this tendency depends on to which extend the individuals see themselves exposed to a potential threat. The more an individual feels that he is vulnerable to a potential threat, the more he is likely to fear the out-group, and therefore, hold prejudices and potentially demonstrates aggressive behaviour towards it. However, if an individual does not feel vulnerable vis-à-vis a given out-group, he would not hold prejudices against it and would be more tolerant (Schaller, Park, & Faulkner, 2003; Schaller, Park, & Kenrick, 2007).

The same principle also implies such effect in sex differences. Men are more likely to feel vulnerable and sensitive towards out-group threats because of prejudices and stereotypes, and may express a cautious, or even an aggressive behaviour if they feel like being in an advantageous situation. Therefore, men can be more sensitive to out-group cues and hold prejudices against them than females (Schaller & Neuberg, 2008).

One can also investigate in which situations lower levels of ethnocentrism can be observed. Previous studies repeatedly found an association between high levels of education and lower levels of ethnocentrism (Bobo & Licari, 1989; Case, Greely & Fuchs, 1989; Hello, Scheepers & Sleegers, 2006; Nie, Junn & Stehlik-Barry, 1996), and other studies found that education is an important independent variable of ethnocentrism (Hello, Scheepers & Sleegers, 2006; Nie, Junn & Stehlik-Barry, 1996). It is argued that education is a major factor that influences the individual’s value pattern, and therefore, lowers the levels of ethnocentrism. More specifically, it is during adolescence and early adulthood that individuals interact with others in educational institutions and learn how to release their ethnocentrism and be more tolerant towards dissimilar groups (Hello, 2003).

One of the major theories suggesting a high correlation between high levels of education and low levels of ethnocentrism is the socialisation theory (Bobo & Licari, 1989) and the intergroup contact theory (Coenders & Scheepers, 2003). The socialisation theory argues that education is linked to the individual’s cognitive sophistication, which is also related to a negative association with ethnocentrism, while the intergroup contact theory asserts that highly educated individuals tend to have a larger network of personal contacts, thus leading to lower levels of ethnocentrism.

Sociologist William Graham Sumner (1906) coined the term ethnocentrism to refer to the tendency to assume that one’s own culture and way of life represent the norm or are superior to all others. (Richard T. Schaefer – Sociology_ A Brief Introduction-McGraw-Hill Humanities Social Sciences Languages (2012)) Ethnocentrism is a major factor in the divisions among members of different ethnicities, races, and religious groups. One’s ethnic group is superior to another. Ethnocentric individuals believe they are better than other individuals for reasons based solely on their heritage.

Clearly, this practice relates to problems of both racism and preconception. It is accentuated by two other phenomena, which are also probable : (i) we have a tendency toward naive realism which limits our capacity to appreciate the extent to subjective (Robinson, Keltner, Ward, & Ross, 1995); and (ii) we have a tendency toward false consensus, which is to think that other humans agree with our positions more than is true, and disagree with our position less than is true (Kruger & Clement, 1994).as an example we can analyze the different country of our world, the united states of America always has the propaganda that they are the best and the greatest nation in the world, while china consider itself empire of the center, it is also seen in our society, the people one region in our country thinks that there culture practice, way of life, education is better than other existing regions, ethnocentrism is the term of domination and it can create conflict between people, so there is no collaboration or confrontation in ethnocentrism, it seems it best to analyze it with the conflict theory of great Karl Marx, as he said burjoas always tries to dominant the worker class, the ethnocentrism states the same way of thinking in society, the realistic sociologist of new era assumes that ethnocentrism happens due to ‘real or perceived conflict’ between groups. This also happens when a dominant group may see a new group as a threat to their kind, sociologist discovered that they are more comfortable in inner circle and response the outer circle with negativity.

Although the causes of ethnocentric beliefs and actions can have varying roots of reason and context, the effects of ethnocentrism had both negative and positive effects in society. The most dangerous effect of ethnocentrism can lead a humble society to accept the situation like genocide, slavery, apartheid, and many violent conflicts. And the historical events like holocaust, crusades the trail of tears are the living example of it. These events were started by ethnocentric believes and gradually became conflicting and reason of hatred ,a result of the hatred turns into a mass destruction and killing for nothing but a thought of cultural superiority, from early age of history to today ethnocentric believes lies in the deep part of our society, and some time it creates many harmful situation, the historical event claim that it tore apart the brotherhood between societies across the world, and the silent characteristics of ethnocentrism should be vanquished for the betterment of society.

Consumer ethnocentrism (Shimp and Sharma, 1987) refers to the tendency on how customers or individuals perceive foreign-made products and domestically produced products, whereby some are highly ethnocentric and others are non-ethnocentric . Ethnocentric individuals believe that buying products from abroad results into adeverse economic effects such as decline in economic activities, decline in domestic employment rates and some view it as being unpatriotic.

Non-ethnocentric consumers tend to prefer foreign-made products to domestic products due to their external features believing that foreign-made products are of high quality compared to domestically produced products, products are evaluated on their merits irrespective of their country of origin, or possibly even viewed more positively simply because they are foreign.

The ethnocentric view the domestic market to be of much significance than foreign markets thus contribute their felings of identity and belonging. Determinants of consumer ethnocentrism may vary from country to country and culture to culture. Previous reseachers identified Tanzanian individuals as non-ethnocentric thus being more interested with foreign-made products than domestic products.

Statement Of The Problem.

Despite the efforts of Tanzania to improve the industrial sector and produce higher quality products in order to reduce importation of goods and services from abroad, most of individuals continue to purchase more goods from outside the country. Therefore, the question comes, what factors influence individuals to prefer foreign-made products than domestic products. The study intends to find why individuals are most interested with the products from abroad.

Research Objectives Of The Study.

· General objective

The main objective of the study is to identify the reasons that causes an individual to buy product from outside the country even if that product is available in domestic market.

· Specific objectives

1. To obtain necessary information that will help to increase demand of individuals for domestically produced products.
2. To find out on how the government can make improvements on industrial sectors so as to produce domestic products that match the quality of foreign products.
3. To examine the the effect of excessive importation (resulting from being highly non-ethnocentric) to the economy.
4. To impart a positive perception of individuals towards domestic products.
5. To obtain information that influences policy formulation to support domestic product production.

Justification For The Study.

• To create favourable balance of payments by reducing importation of products, this can be possible through producing domestic products of high quality.
• To increase employment opportunities to the society. More jobs will be created if more individuals purchase domestic products as more labour will be hired in facilitating the production process.
• To reduce excessive dependence on developed countries. If more individuals purchase local products importation of foreign products will decline thus reduce dependency.

Scope And Delimitation Of The Study.

Scope Of The Study.

The coverage of this study is the University of Dar es Salaam. It will focus on the University of Dar es Salaam students, because it comprises of individuals from various regions of Tanzania thus will provide a diverse and wide range of information obtained.

Delimination Of The Study.

The study will focus on the University of Dar es Salaam students. The selection of the coverage is due to time and financial constraints that prevent the research from covering a wider range.

Literature Review.

Theoretical Literature Review.

· Relative deprivation theory.

According to Crosby (1976), individuals feel deprived when they are treated or compensated unjustly compared to some standard of reference. Hence, deprivation is associated with dissatisfaction due to lack of justice and fairness.

An individual in a group, which is deprived of socio-economic benefits available to another group, will imitate the lifestyle and strive to acquire objects, goods and services of the other group.

· Reference group theory.

It follows from Merton and Rossi (1962) that individuals aspire to emulate members of reference groups because they want to reduce the socio-economic difference with them. This explains why poorer individuals in a society imitate the lifestyle of their wealthier fellow citizens. This also explains why individuals in poorer economies copy the way of life in wealthier societies for example by acquiring their imports.

· Psychological reactance theory.

The theory of psychological reactance forms the basis for consumer ethnocentric tendencies (Shimp 1984, Shimp and Sharma 1987). The reactance results from perceived threats to socio-economic circumstances of consumers. Individuals are forced to choose between national and foreign products, a consumer may experience reactance and may opt for national items if he feels that foreign alternatives represent a threat to personal prosperity or the welfare of her in-group (Shimp and Sharma 1987). In the terminology of psychological reactance theory, imports reduce or eliminate freedom to have socio-economic stability.

· Dual Processing Theory.

Dual processing theory also proposes a negative impact of consumer ethnocentric tendencies on purchasing intentions towards foreign products. According to this theory, consumer ethnocentrism is a general tendency indicating reluctance to purchase imports. It may result in unwillingness to buy specific foreign items. It was shown that consumer ethnocentric tendencies lead to favourable attitudes towards specific domestic products and brands. It was also found that consumer ethnocentric tendencies determine negative attitudes towards specific imported items. For instance, consumer ethnocentrism determined negative attitudes towards imported products and brands in Shimp and Sharma (1987), Netemeyer, Durvasula and Lichtenstein (1991), Bawa (2004), Klein, Ettenson and Krishnan (2006) and Kwak, Jaju and Larsen (2006).

Empirical Literature Review.

• Country of origin. Studies on the effects of country of origin in Africa aiming at studying the differential perceptions of consumers on imported products versus local products. Studies done in Nigeria by Agbonifoh and Elimimian (1999) and Okechuku and Onyemah (1999) indicated that goods from the economically more developed nations were perceived more positively by citizens of transitional economies, than those from the economically less developed countries. Ferguson et al. (2008) analysed the country of origin effects in service evaluation in five West African nations. They discovered that situational individual attributes, such as enthusiasm and capability to process information, may possibly influence use of country-of-origin factor in evaluating a service.
• In addition, personal attributes, like ethnocentrism and cultural background, may as well influence consumer perception of foreign against locally provided services. Mitgwe and Chikweche (2008) and Saffu and Walker (2006) noted that consumer nationalistic stance did shape the consumer preference towards locally made products. Generally, the available empirical evidence, although not comprehensive does suggest that consumers in economically developing countries will perceive the products from economically developed nations to be superior than those from their own respective nations.
• Social status, certain consumers might prefer to buy foreign brands as this might be believed to enhance their self-image as being cosmopolitan, sophisticated, and modern. Therefore, perceived prestige associated with foreign brands provides intangible value to consumers, and consumers tend to reciprocate this value by enhancing their brand loyalty as well as transferring its good image to others through positive word-of-mouth. Foreign brands are likely to have higher prestige because of their relative scarcity and higher price compared with local brands (Batra et al., 2000). This might lead to consumers associating the foreign brands with prestige (Kapferer, 1997).
• Perceived quality and value are important factors influencing consumer perception and purchase behaviour of foreign products. The perceived quality is conceptualised as a purchaser’s evaluation of a brand’s general fineness based on built-in characteristics of a product such as performance and durability as well as extrinsic features such as brand name and service (Kirmani & Baumgartner, 2000). These appraisals of quality or perceptions are based on attitudinal conclusions, and buyers usually depend on the way that specific brand effectively satisfies internal quality standards in their assessment of a brand’s overall distinction with regard to their purchasing knowledge. According to Parasuraman and Grewal (2000), perceived value is a function of a ‘get’ component (the benefits a buyer derives from a seller’s offering) and a ‘give’ component (the buyer’s monetary and non-monetary costs of acquiring the offering.)

Philosophical Position Of This Study.

This study will use the interpretivism philosophy because it focuses on the interpretation of people’s actions specifically their preference of foreign products and the reasons behind such preference.

The study will also look into the influence of environmental, socio-cultural and economic factors that drive the consumer’s perception on foreign and domestic products.

Research Approach.

This study will use an inductive research approach. This is because the study looks into the perception, personal views and opinions of consumers as to why and how they view and ultimately choose to purchase a foreign or local product.

Data Collection Methods.

The study will collect data through the following methods:

1. Open-ended questionnaires. These will allow the respondents to describe their perception towards foreign and local products and it will enable the collection of specific information on consumer purchase attitudes and beliefs.
2. Standardized open-ended interviews.

Identical questions will be asked to all respondents in an open-ended form thus allowing them to contribute as much details as they please and it would also allow for the researcher to ask follow up questions to assess the purchasing behavior of consumers.

Sampling Design.

The sampling technique for this study is non-probability sampling due to the qualitative research approach of the study. The study will employ convenience sampling approach because the individuals of interest are students who have busy and varying schedules. Other factors include time and financial constraints of the research .

Population.

Our study will be conducted in Tanzania and focus on University students in Tanzania.

Sample Population.

The sample for this study are students at the University of Dar es Salaam Business School (UDBS), who will be representative of university students in Tanzania as it is the largest university in Tanzania with the most diverse individuals from all regions in the country that will provide a sample that is highly representative of the population under study.

Sampling Frame.

The sample frame will be obtained at the University of Dar es Salaam Business School, from the dean of UDBS. This will be the listing of all population members of interest from which the sample will be drawn.

Sample Size.

The study will take a sample size of a hundred university students from UDBS. The data will be collected from both female and male UDBS students.

Data Analysis And Interpretation.

Type Of Data.

The nature of data that will be used in this study is primary data. The primary data will be collected through open-ended questionnaires and standardized open-ended interviews.

Data Processing And Data Analysis

The data that will be obtained will be processed by using qualitative data processing software that fits such data.

The data processed will be effectively analyzed to indicate and prove the relationship that exists between the groups of data.

Conceptual Model Of The Study.

Shankarmahesh (2006).

References.

1. Anna V. John, Malcolm P. Brady, (2011) ‘Consumer ethnocentrism and attitudes toward South African consumables in Mozambique’, African Journal of Economic and Management Studies, Vol. 2 Issue: 1, pp.72-93. Available online: https://doi.org/10.1108/20400701111110786
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Abstract

This paper uses the Chinese TV reality show “Where Are We Going, Dad” to discuss how the concept of ethnocentrism affects individuals and societies. The choice of parenting styles, holiday locations, and eating habits in this TV show serve as the basis for evaluating the influence of ethnocentrism. The effects of ethnocentrism noted from the cultural experience include profiling others in a negative light, perceiving others as inferior to us (pride), and contempt of outsiders.

Introduction

Research is consistent that the concept of ethnocentrism has permitted social interactions and cultural group relations in contemporary contexts (Yoo, Jo, & Jung, 2014). Although the concept is known to have subconscious inclinations by virtue of the fact that most people perpetuate it without being consciously aware of its existence, there is widespread consensus that it affects social interactions between people from diverse cultures (Brewer & Yuki, 2007; Markwell & Johnson, 2012). The present paper defines ethnocentrism and uses a Chinese reality TV show to discuss how the concept affects people and communities.

Concept Description

Ethnocentrism has been defined as “the tendency of individuals to see their own cultural group as providing the norms for acceptable behaviors and preferences” (Yoo et al., 2014, p. 91). The concept relates to a subconscious inclination to reject out-groups that are culturally different from our own cultural orientation while blindly tolerating those that are aligned with our cultural values and preferences (Bizumic, Duckitt, Popadic, Dru, & Krauss, 2009).

Effects of Ethnocentrism

Aired on Hunan Satellite TV, the Chinese reality show “Where Are We Going, Dad?” revolves around the issue of how parents should socialize with their children and teach them some useful life skills (Yilin, 2015). The third season of the TV show provides one with a unique cultural experience about life in the Chinese context. For example, one gets to know about the preferred Chinese parenting style, eating habits, and choice of holiday sites.

Closer scrutiny reveals cultural predispositions that are not consistent with Western cultural values. For example, the five fathers in the cast use the authoritarian parenting style to control their children and enjoy camping in rain forests and rural villages. After watching the TV show, I developed a perception that our parenting styles and eating habits are better than the Chinese since we neither expose our children to authoritarian parenting nor eat using sticks.

I used a personal experience of a holiday destination I visited in Africa to reject the Chinese choice of camping since I had already developed a position that it is “cool” to visit animals in game parks than to camp in rain forests and rural villages. These aspects of ethnocentrism led to the profiling of the Chinese culture as inferior to our own way of doing things without necessarily considering the factors that may have led to the Chinese using authoritarian parenting style, eating with sticks, or camping in hostile places.

Based on these observations, it is clear that ethnocentrism makes one develop a negative attitude about other people’s culture and values systems without taking time to understand why they behave in a particular manner. At the broader level, ethnocentrism makes one profile a whole society as inferior merely because of a misalignment between own preferences and the predilection of other cultures. The thought of watching the families’ camp in rain forests triggered a certain superiority complex (pride) because this is not the standard in the American culture.

The last effect is that ethnocentrism affects our social behavior and relationships with others as demonstrated by the negative perceptions of the Chinese culture that were reinforced after watching the show. It is important to note that these perceptions and negative cultural experiences are based on ethnocentrism, rather than an objective analysis of the Chinese culture as depicted in the TV show (Maeder & Yamamoto, 2015).

Conclusion

Drawing from this discussion, it can be concluded that ethnocentrism has the capacity to affect our social relationships and perceptions of others due to the misplaced belief that we are culturally superior to others.

References

Bizumic, B., Duckitt, J., Popadic, D., Dru, V., & Krauss, S. (2009). A cross-cultural investigation into a reconceptualization of ethnocentrism. European Journal of Social Psychology, 39, 871-899. Web.

Brewer, M., & Yuki, M. (2007). Culture and social identity. In S. Kitayama & D. Cohen (Eds.), Handbook of cultural psychology (pp. 307-322). New York: Guilford Press.

Maeder, E.M., & Yamamoto, S. (2015). Culture in the courtroom: Ethnocentrism and juror decision-making. PLoS ONE, 10(9), 1-15. Web.

Markwell, D., & Johnson, O. (2012). Introduction to sociology. Schaumburg, IL: Words of Wisdom, LLC.

Yilin, F. (2015). “Where are we going, Dad”: A multiple case study of Chinese father’s parenting styles in the TV show. Web.

Yoo, J.W., Jo, S., & Jung, J. (2014). The effects of television viewing, cultural proximity, and ethnocentrism on country image. Social Behavior and Personality, 42, 89-96. Web.