The U.S is known all over the world as a country whose citizens are drawn from different races. Immigration has led to many ethnic groups in the U.S. The race and ethnic relations have been affected in a great way by the increasing number of ethnic groups migrating to the U.S. Studying ethnic and race relations in the U.S helps a great deal in understanding those ethnic groups that have resulted from immigration.
Two groups of people with biological differences are said to belong to different races. Racial differences can be external or internal. The external appearance is what is normally used to distinguish one race from another. The U.S has four main racial categories that include whites, blacks, Indians and Asians. This paper will highlight the various racial and ethnicity issues in the U.S.
There are other categories of people in the U.S that are not considered as races. These groups include the Hispanic, Asian Indians, Arab Americans and Bi-racial people. It is not easy to define race by phenotype (external features) because of the phenotypic variations that exist within a particular race. Different phenotypes have continued to emerge as a result of racial intermixture. Phenotypic variations within races appear to be greater than those that exist between different races.
The differences in appearance within a particular race make it difficult to distinguish one race from another based on physical appearance. The people who claim to differentiate one race from another based on physical appearance only do that through cultural perception. The use of genotype (genetics and heredity) is another way of classifying people by race. It is also a great challenge to classify races using genotype because many ordinary people do not understand the difference between phenotypic and genotypic elements.
Experts such as physical anthropologists and biologists have not been able to find significant genetic differences between different races because human genetic variation is very small. Genetic studies show that the genetic variation within a particular race supersedes the variation between two different races.
Genetic differences between races can not be used to determine the innate abilities of people within a particular race. A particular race can appear to do certain things better than other races but this is not linked to genetics. The fact that race can not be classified using both external and internal features has left many people wondering why it is so significant in the human history.
This controversy leads to a conclusion that race is a social construction and not a biological reality. The social perceptions and beliefs that people have on human physical differences lead to the racial issues being experienced. The social perception on the issue of races is culturally relative and has been changing with time.
An ethnic group is composed of people with a common culture and racial descent. Ethnicity can either be innate or situational depending on social circumstances. An ethnic group that is numerically smaller is normally referred to as a minority group. Ethnic minorities are usually discriminated by the majority groups that are dominant. Ethnic minorities face both personal and institutional discrimination.
Institutions can treat a particular ethnic group negatively or individuals can face personal discrimination in the course their interactions. The socio-economic status and power are the two elements used to create the ethnic hierarchy in the U.S. The U.S has got both immigrant and indigenous ethnic minorities. Immigrant ethnic minorities in the U.S face a lot of discrimination due to the historical legacy of immigration.
Introduction: The Search for Ethnicity Definition and the Associated Issues
The problem of ethnic and national belonging is not new; in fact the process of ethnicity definition is only a part of one’s search for one’s self, though an admittedly large one. The search for one’s ethnic identity is, however, often results in questioning the very phenomenon of ethnicity. Indeed, the definition of ethnicity is extremely hard to conjure, since an ethnic group bears a range of unique characteristics that pertain to different aspects of people’s lives, including not only cultural, but also economic and political ones. In her study What is ethnicity and does it matter?, Kachan Chandra attempts at defining the phenomenon, and she does so very successfully by introducing the religious influence onto the process of ethnicity shaping into the definition of the subject matter; however, the lack of attention to the political and economical components of the definition make the study somewhat incomplete.
Thesis Statement
Because of the number of aspects that the concept of ethnicity embraces, starting from the cultural one to the geographical religious and political aspects, defining ethnicity becomes rather difficult. Judging by the complexity of the concept of ethnicity, its definition must be not only based on national identity of a person, but also meet such requirements as being the imagined community, being a section of the population rather than the whole and inclusion of siblings and the qualifying attributes. However, even with the aforementioned requirements met, because of the need to consider other factors that define one’s ethnic identity, the study conducted by Chandra is limited to the analysis of cultural factors and does not consider such important elements as political and economic aspects.
Ethnic Identity Definition in the XXI Century and How It Matters
In the globalized world of the XXI century, the question of ethnic heritage and belonging to a particular ethnicity seems to have become the major issue on the global agenda. Because of globalization and its effects, including acculturation, culture clash and cultures fusion, the safety of a number of ethnicities is in jeopardy. Immigration is another source of concern for researchers of ethnicity and the methods of its retention in every single member of a particular society. Also resulting in a possible acculturation, it has reached incredible rates in 2013 and is most likely to become the phenomenon of an even grander scale in the future.
Finally, the effects of modern media on people’s ethnic identity seems to have become much stronger and may possibly lead to people defying their ethnic heritage for the sake of crossing cultural barriers in their communication. A further research of the issue will help not only evaluate the scale of the problem, but also mark the key avenues to be used for addressing the problem in the future.
Research Limitations: As Far as the Study Can Stretch
Naturally, the research has its limitations, and Chandra knows it well, seeing how she provides particular cases to prove her point. Like any qualitative research, the given study tends to use generalizations, which affects a fair description of the situation concerning ethnicity definition problems. First and foremost, evidence to be used in the research must be mentioned as the key limitation. Indeed, it is practically impossible to embrace every single case of ethnic identity evolution; the same is applicable to listing all existing ethnic identities, since there are too many of them. Thus, Chandra’s research, though clearly very insightful, is still restricted by the amount of facts that could be incorporated into the paper.
Another obvious obstacle in Chandra’s way of denoting the phenomenon of ethnicity with greater precision, the number of factors that affect shaping one’s ethnicity should also be listed. While Chandra does a huge overview of the key factors in shaping one’s ethnic identity, she still could not have possibly taken all of them into account, especially in the light of the technological breakthrough of the XXI century and the effect of new media on the evolution of culture within a particular society. Therefore, the effects of media on shaping and changing ethnic identity can also be viewed as a major limitation to the study.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Study: Attempting to Embrace the Unknown
The many faces of culture: religious issues and their effect on shaping ethnicity
An attempt – and a rather successful attempt, at that – to incorporate religious beliefs into the research is definitely one of the key strengths of Chandra’s research. Another obvious factor in defining ethnicity, religious beliefs might seem, understandably enough, the issue that allows for a more precise definition of the phenomenon in question. Indeed, according to the works of a number of researcher, religion is often associated with a particular ethnic group: “ethnicisation of religion is coupled with a shift toward a “symbolic religiosity,” where religion comes to the foreground not as a fixed set of socially binding norms, behavioural rules, and rituals, but rather as a contributor to ethno-cultural identity building” (Eid, 2003, 33).
However, when it comes to drawing parallels between religion and ethnicity, one must keep in mind that in a number of ethnic groups, their members choose different religions; more to the point, some ethnicities are literally split apart by religions conflicts and similar issues. The situation regarding the Nigerian religious conflict can be considered the prime example of religion being the block on the way of members of a particular ethnic group to reach compromise.
Because of the lack of understanding between the Muslim Nigerian “settlers” and the Yoruba (religiously mixed population), as well as Igbo (Christians), “Jos Muslims often accuse the local administration of facilitating the process for Christians, but not for them” (Campbell & Harwood, 2013, July 10). The given situation begs the question whether people that have the same national identity yet do not share the same religious ideas and engage in unceasing conflicts because of the latter, can be considered the members of the same ethnic group. For example, Chandra mentions the “split between Bengali Muslims and others, resulted in the creation of the separate state of Bangladesh for Bengali Muslims” (Chandra, 2006, 405), which resulted in the emergence of other ethnic groups within Pakistan, such as “Punjabis, Sindhis, Pathans, and Baluchs” (Chandra, 2006, 405).
Nevertheless, Chandra’ definition of religion as an attribute of a certain ethnicity seems quite legitimate and is worth defining as one of the key research strengths. Moreover, the existence of such notion as “ethnic religion” also shows that Chandra’s statement regarding religious beliefs being one of the factors that define one’s ethnicity is absolutely correct: “A tightly controlled and highly scripted version of ethnic religion is accepted and even promoted as a vital part of the identity of China as a multi-ethnic state” (DuBois, 2010, 352).
Therefore, religion seems to be both the block in the process of defining ethnicity or one’s ethnic belonging, and a marker of one’s ethnicity and, hence, a major positive aspect in ethnicity definition provided by Chandra. Finally, busting the myth of common ancestry (Chandra, 2006, 404) is one more reason to give Chandra credit for her study.
Economical and Political Aspects: What Must Be Kept in Mind
Unfortunately, the study also has several downsides to it, the key one being the author’s decision to disregard the effect of the political and economic aspects of a specific nation to shape their ethnic identity. The given omission would have been understandable as long as the author had considered the problem of ethnicity outside of the context of a particular example. However, Chandra does provide a specific situation, describing the problem of acculturation and the search of ethnic identity of a young West Indian immigrant into the realm of New York.
By defining Helen’s ethnic identity as “Black,” the researcher plants her work into a particular political setting, since both a political and an economic situation of the Black people in the New York suburbs differs from the ones of the Black community in other states, such as South Africa, for example (Wilson, 2011). Thus, an obvious disregard of the political and economic factors and their role in defining ethnicity are clearly a major problem with Chandra’s paper.
Concerning cultural fusion: acculturation and the associated issues
Sadly enough, Chandra’s research also has its problems, her ignoring the phenomenon of acculturation being the key one. With the advent of the XXI century and the integration of the concept of globalization into people’s everyday life, not to mention the economic and business aspects of people’s existence, it has become obvious that breaking the boundaries between different nations presupposes that there should be impressive cultural fusion.
Whether the given phenomenon is going to result in the assimilation of the inferior cultures by the superior ones, or the formation of specific Diasporas, which will help cultural minorities retain the key features of their culture, the fact that people’s cultural identity is going to shape cannot be denied. Since, according to Chandra, key cultural features of a particular group of people are also to be identified as the markers of a person’s ethnicity, it is reasonable to suggest that in the globalized environment, the phenomenon of ethnicity is going to shrivel. In fact, Chandra also recognizes the fact that cultural features are not necessarily attributed to the concept of ethnicity: “a common culture, common history, common territory, and common language, which are only sometimes associated with the identities that we think of as ethnic” (Chandra, 2006, 398) seem to define people’s ethnicity in specific cases rather than be the markers of ethnic identity.
The aforementioned example is often related to the problem of acculturation and the process of cultural fusion. The recent data shows that in 2013, the international migration data stock reached 231.5 million people, with the sped of migrant stock increasing by 100% compared to the previous decade (OECD, 2013, 1). Although it is too early to question the possibility of ethnic identity existence at the beginning of the XXI century, the effects of acculturation as the key downside to the definition of ethnic identity provided by Chandra should be brought up.
True, a number of immigrants belong to specific Diasporas created for the people of their nationality in the foreign country. However, it should be noted that immigrants, though admittedly creating very strong cultural ties to their ethnic community, still have to live in the realm of the foreign state most of the time and, therefore, accept the behavioral patterns and cultural elements of the foreigners, which may easily interfere the process of defining their ethnic identity. There is no secret that, when forced to choose between acculturation and being ostracized within the foreign community, most people will pick the former option.
However, the instances when a person can accept both cultures and switch from one to another when entering the corresponding environment show that acculturation does not presuppose loss of ethnic identity. In fact, the acculturation results may “represent preferences and behaviors that represent half-and-half of each culture” (Berry, 2005, 706). The given example shows that, though the definition of ethnicity includes cultural factors as well, it definitely could have shed some light onto the issue of acculturation and comment on the retention of ethnic identity by immigrants. As a result, Chandra’s negligence of the immigration issue and the following loss of ethnic identity as a result of acculturation is definitely one of the key problems with the case study. Even though Chandra mentions Waters’ study of West Indian immigrants in New York briefly, she still leaves a huge chunk of the process of the process of shaping or losing ethnicity out of her research.
Conclusion: Solutions and Suggestions
The definition of ethnicity provided by Kachan Chandra is, therefore, limited to outlining the key anthropological and cultural characteristics of a particular ethnicity, as well as defining the territorial belonging, while such important factors as religion, as well as the changes done to people’s culture by the effects of globalization or due to the acculturation process in a different state are left out of the scene. While the elements included into the definition that Kachan Chandra offers are crucial to nailing down the essence of ethnic identity, it is still necessary to admit that, in the XXI century, the concept of ethnicity is shaped by a number of external factors, including economic and political ones. Although the latter two are quite hard to incorporate into the definition, they are still crucial to exploring the nature of ethnicity, which means that Chandra’s study lacks a proper economical and political insight into the phenomenon in question.
Reference List
Berry, J. W. (2005). Acculturation: Living successfully in two cultures. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 25(6), 697–712. Web.
Chandra, K. (2006). What is ethnicity and does it matter? Annual Review of Political Science, 9, 397–424. Web.
DuBois, T. D. (2010). Eligion and the Chinese state: Three crises and a solution. Australian Journal of International Affairs 64(3), 344–358. Web.
Eid, P. (2003). The interplay between ethnicity, religion, and gender among second-generation Christian and Muslim Arabs in Montreal. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 35, 30–55. Web.
Africana studies is a very important interdisciplinary field because it analyzes the culture of Africans descents, living amongst us. This subject has challenged western ideology, which has biased cultural and social content. In addition, it illustrates the experiences of black people and their effect in the society. The studies also address issues related to family structure, history, and social and economic pressures. Thus it helps in eradicating stereotypes and racial discrimination. In the 1960s, black people felt that their legitimate voice in academia had been misinterpreted and marginalized. In addition, the fact that Africans’ experiences and historical contributions to the United States were missing in curricula fuelled the need for representation. These concerns raised in the past are no longer valid. This is because African studies have introduced African traditional disciplines and experiences into the curriculum.
Black history month is a yearly celebration in the United States, which recognizes the role of blacks in shaping the country’s history. This festive season idea was created by the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History and the historian Carter Woodson in 1926 (King, p. 1307). The second week of February was proclaimed to be the Negro History Week. The blacks marked this period by celebrating their achievements. The African need for importance and recognition led to the formation of the black history month, which is still celebrated in this era. American history has been given more attention in the institution of learning. Since the information learned in schools about the Africans-Americans is limited, the blacks are feeling that their presence has not been appreciated. Fortuantely the introduction of Africana studies has made Americans be cognizant of the African-American counterpart’s existence. Additionally, insights from the African past before slavery has generates a stronger sense of identity to the black community.
The introduction of African American studies in some schools has not changed the perspectives of most blacks regarding representation. The majority of the black students are not satisfied with the content of the subject. This is because they still have a feeling that their diasporic experiences have been ignored in popular culture and academia. African studies help in forming better a society since it fosters respect between different cultures. In addition, lessons learned counteracts the effects of white racism in society.counteractreasons, the study is highly commendable for every person who endeavors to interact fruitfully with people of Africa origin.
Part Two
This course emphasizes one importance of Africa and the African-American people to the United States. American history portrayed the Africa continent as being poor and uncivilized. However, this course has revealed the truth, which changed my perception. Currently, Africa plays a crucial role in the world, it has countries with very fast-growing economies and vibrant innovative individuals. The continent has interesting unmatched eco-diversity, different cultures, and languages. Apart from learning their history, this subject also provides ideas on how one can appreciate the continent and utilize the knowledge received to gain prosperity and new experiences.
The significance of the African continent in dailyaily lives of the Americans had been underestimated. Problems affecting the region have huge impacts on the everyday activities of people. Mineral resources used in the world are mostly imported from Africa. For instance, the coltan component which is used in making phones are found in Africa. This information is only taught in African studies, which also empowers students to be informed, global citizens. Presently, African-Americans are forming more and more communities in America. They are enriching the current culture by bringing in their beliefs. African Studies increases our understanding of the immigrants within our neighborhood. Thus, it is important that knowledge, which promotes peaceful coexistence in our homes.
The knowledge obtained from African studies increases our understanding of American and world history concerning the present occurrences. For example, the fact that the relationship between the Africans and the Americans predates the U.S independence is revealed in it. Africans played a vital role in the Industrial Revolution of America. This is because the enslaved people provided cheap labor. In addition, the profits obtained in the trans-Atlantic slave trade played a significant role in the growth of the American continent (Falola, p. 7). The awareness of Africans role in the establishment of economic foundations develops natives with respect for other people. Consequently, undertaking this course helps in the reduction of racism among the students and in society.
Conclusion
In my opinion, this course is worth taking and it is exciting too. The class enables one to appreciate and recognize the African-American minority group in our midst. The concepts learned in African studies deters us from believing the academic language of racism learned in other disciplines. The American system is unfair and the White-Americans have been benefiting from the systemic racism. This study enables an individual to be conscious of the prejudices directed to the minority group in the state. It also assists the students to realize their preconceptions that need change.
References
Falola, Toyin. Africanizing knowledge: African studies across the disciplines. Routledge, 2017:7
King, LaGarrett Jarriel. “Teaching black history as a racial literacy project.” Race Ethnicity and Education 19.6 (2016): 1303-1318.
A growing body of literature has pointed out that race, ethnicity and gender are characterized by strong social dimensions which greatly implicate on the health of individuals. It has been discovered that the underlying mechanisms within these ethnicities have profound influence not just on the access to primary, secondary and tertiary health care but also policies and general practices that affect the groups.
Practices and beliefs by the ethnicities could be attributed to some of the greatest variability in diseases. Dindyal and Dindyal (2004) define an ethnicity as “a social group, which shares certain distinctive features, such as language, culture, physical appearance, religion, values and customs” (p. 1).
In the United Kingdom, the whole population is made up of 92% whites. This includes other whites who are significant but non British like the Irish. Asians and Asian Britons account for 4% of Britain population while blacks and black Britons account for a further 2%. Britons of mixed descent account for 1.5% of the whole population.
Although the percentages might look negligible, the total population represented by them could be extremely large. Considering that the government has, as its objective, the idea of ensuring that there is equity in health care access and provision, it is necessary that the underlying social mechanisms are understood in order to avoid some retrogressive practices that would lead to inequality. In order to come up with proper policies, it is important to ascertain whether ethnicity plays a role in inequality of health care access.
Review of the Literature
The Parliament Office of Science and Technology (2003) clearly argues that there is a great disparity of health and health care between ethnicities. In their report, it was identified that South Asians living in the United Kingdom had a 50% chance of suffering from heart attack and angina. On the other hand, men from the Caribbean origin in the United Kingdom run the highest risk of 50% of dying from stroke.
In their report, it was ascertained that blacks and minorities had comparatively small chances of dying from cancer as compared to the white majority. According to the report, immigrant women from Asia in the United Kingdom ran a comparatively lower risk of suffering from breast cancer as compared women born and brought up in the United Kingdom. The trend in lower cases of cancer in minority groups as compared to white Britons was attributed to less smoking.
The highest deaths that resulted from lung cancer were established to be from Scots and the Irish who are also found out to be great smokers. The lifestyle of women in the United Kingdom was also attributed to women’s death from breast cancer. Immigrant women had less chances of suffering from breast cancer because they take some time to adapt to Britain lifestyle. This was consistent with Wells and Evans (2003) and Ku and Waidmann (2003) findings.
Adamson (2009) argues that socio economic factors contribute to inequality of health and health care. He argues that the lower the position on the economic ladder an individual is, the higher the chances of poor health. Unfortunately, most of the ethnic minorities tend to have the lowest incomes in the United Kingdom.
This means that ethnic minorities are likely to suffer and die from diseases that they would easily control (Kuo 2001). In a study carried out on the immediacy of need for health care concerning chest pain and vignettes, it was found out that black respondents were very likely to seek for immediate health care seeking to get assistance for vignettes. On the other hand, the British whites were the most unlikely to seek for this help.
The result seemed consistent in several cases. This position is echoed by Lorant and Bhopal (2011) and Zimmermann, Wendy and Fix (1998) who also argue that socio economic disadvantage could lead to inability to get regular visits by the doctor. Furthermore, it would lead to inability to use the clinics regularly and the inability to purchase proper prescribed drugs. This therefore indicated that there is a clear disparity within ethnic groups. This assertion is also echoed by Fiscella, Franks, Doescher and Saver (2002)
Health insurance plays an important role in ensuring access to primary, secondary and tertiary health care. Inability or unwillingness to get insured would therefore lead to disparities in health and health care. Ku and Waidmann (2003) and Mai, Cummings McIntyre (2004) argue that most of the ethnic minorities account for the highest percentages of uninsured people in several countries. As argued above, socio economic factors contribute to inequality of health.
This is where insurance comes to question. With poverty and lack of money, it is clear that raising money for the expensive insurance could be a problem for most of the ethnic minorities. This also explains why less white Britons would die from diseases that are curable. They have enough money to seek for care from good providers. Similarly, Adamson (2003) and American Academy of Pediatrics (2000) support the same findings.
Discrimination and stereotyping are also factors that lead to inequality in health and healthcare. According to Lorant and Bhopal (2011), acts of discrimination and stereotyping could subject a group of people to a low social economic status. This can also be as a result of strongly held values that tend to demean and prejudice certain ethnicities.
Dealing with a case using a block approach as opposed to individuals leads to poor health for minorities. For instance, just believing that cancer is a disease for the Irish and Scots might lead to misdiagnosis. Every individual needs to be examined as an individual (Collins, Hall and Neuhaus 1999; Ku and Matani. 2001).
Power, Davis, Plant and Kjellstrom (2009) in their report on deprivation and ill health highlight a clear fact that people living in deprived environments are most likely to have poor health. Given that several studies have pointed out the fact that minority ethnicities tend to rank lowest on the economic ladder, it then suffices to argue that they account for the highest population living in dejected and overpopulated regions in the cities in the Britain.
Considering the arguments by Power et al (2009), “Living in deprived urban areas increases the risk of poor health outcomes even after controlling for individual characteristics” (p. 20), it suffices to argue that even when other factors are controlled, dilapidated housing and overcrowding in their own rights are able to lead to poor health. For instance, their study pointed out to the fact that men living in poverty stricken neighborhoods had a 6.8% lower life expectancy as compared to the average in the United Kingdom.
On the other hand, women from similar environs had 5% lower life expectance as compared to the overall rate of Britain. In contrast, men from high economy areas stand a high likelihood of living 4% more than the national average. Women in similar regions live run a likelihood of living 3% more than the average national life expectancy rate (Shaw, Smith & Dorling 2005; Popkin and Cove 2007).
Propositions
Given the purpose of this study, it is necessary to answer certain questions in order to ensure that one attains the objective. In order to succeed, one would have to understand several factors. Is there a clear relationship between ethnicities and health?
This question is necessary because consistent differences between ethnicities will ascertain whether there are significant effects of ethnicity on health and health outcomes of an individual. My proposition here is that ethnicity has certain social dimensions that affect greatly the health of individuals in Great Britain.
Given that there are substantial differences in health and health care between ethnicities, it is necessary to identify the underlying mechanisms and dimensions that lead to these differences. In this line, one question arises, what exactly are the social mechanisms within the minorities that lead to the identified disparity? This is a necessary question because by understanding the social dimensions, the causes of the differences will clearly be established. My proposition here is that factors like socio economic status, geographical location, deprivation of all kinds, ability to get an insurance and discrimination and stereotyping among others are factors that greatly contribute to differences in health and health outcomes.
There are some factors that would act to disadvantage some ethnicities. Their effects are hence great and could alter the results of a study. This leads to the question, if all the other factors are removed, can ethnicity as a single factor still exhibit similar results?
These factors that expect to be put constant here are education, government policies, et cetera. The proposition here is that even when other factors like education and some government policies are constant, some typical ethnicity social dimensions would still lead to disparities in health and health outcomes.
Finally, it is important to understand the role of government policies in health outcomes of individuals. This leads to the question, have government policies played any role in pushing the minorities further into misery as pertains to health? While this might not be a characteristic of health disparity from the ethnicities themselves, the effect on them is great. The hypothesis on this question is that certain government policies could assist to bridge the disparity or widen it further.
Expected Outcomes
As its hypothesis, this paper seeks to argue that ethnicities have varying levels of health and health care. Due to their characteristic outfit, certain ethnicities tend to have better health as compared to others. Whites in the United Kingdom tend to fair better in health issues as compared to ethnic minorities like the blacks and Asians.
The disparity is as a result of the ethnic group’s level on the economic status ladder, discrimination caused by stereotyping, natural habits of the ethnicity i.e. smoking and excessive drinking, geographical regions of settlement of these ethnicities, nationality status i.e. native or immigrant et cetera. There are some factors that can be removed from the equation. However, some factors are typical of most of the ethnicities. For instance, language as a barrier to communication cannot be removed from the equation.
It is clear that most immigrants are forced to struggle against the hurdles of communication in order to attain health. This means that removing other factors but maintaining the real characteristics of an ethnicity could still lead to the same results. Finally, it is clear that certain government policies push ethnicities further into poor health. For instance, failure of the government to address the issue of insurance and medical cover can lead to problems to minority ethnicities.
Research Design
The methodology of this research will entail the use of several ethnic groups as independent variables. There will be the whites of United Kingdom descent, the blacks from Britain, the Asians from Britain and the immigrants. In order to understand whether there is a relationship between ethnicities and health, different ethnicities will be analyzed based on a given area of health.
For instance, routine check ups would be the point of comparison. As a result, the ethnicities will be the variables to be manipulated. This will be labeled t1= whites, t2= Asians of British descent t3= blacks of UK descent and t4= immigrants. Other variables will include government policies. The non-constant variables will be tested under certain government policies and also after removal of those policies to see whether the results remain constant.
Indicators of health will be the number of times that a respondent has had to be hospitalized due to any serious illness. This will be a good start in determining disparities in health and health care. To determine this, the respondents will have to respond to the question, how many times have you visited the doctor as a result of serious illness in the last twelve months? The responses will be coded 0 = less than five times, 1 = >5<10, 2 = >10.
Another indicator of good health will be availability of health insurance. The measures of health insurance will be 1) having a private insurance, 2) depending on government programs and 3) having none at all. To identify whether a respondent has an insurance cover or not the responses will be coded as 0 = yes and 1 = No. For those who will have one, they will have to respond on the type of insurance that they have. The responses will be coded using 0 = private and 1 = government program.
To get data from this sample, the study will employ the use of interviews and questionnaires. Respondents will be asked to respond to a set of questions that would aim towards ensuring that the research purpose is arrived at. The interviews will be carried out from the respondents’ offices. In addition, some will be carried out on the phone and through emails.
In data analysis, the Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) will be used. This system of data analysis is favorable for this study because it involves more than two dependent variables that are to be assessed against the various dependent variables.
This data analysis system is best fit for studies that are aimed at ascertaining whether alterations in the independent variables have significant changes to the dependent variables. It is also the most advisable method if the study intends to identify the relationship between the dependent variables and also the relationship among the independent variables.
Limitations
Like any other research, this one is also bound to have its limitations. The main limitation of this study will be ascertaining whether the identified factors and mechanisms within the ethnic groups were really the main causes of the disparity in health outcomes. For instance, a study carried earlier in Europe to identify whether socio economic status among minority ethnicities had effects on their health.
However, it was not clear because the effect of socio economic status was found to have no effect on inequality of health in Spain. In addition, different ethnic groups under similar socio economic status tend to exhibit differences in the level of disparity. Therefore, it will be difficult to separate ethnicity and some factors like socio economic status. The relationship between the three will be tricky to separate and analyze.
Significance of the Study
It is clear that every country in the world has been trying hard to ensure equality in health and health care. This is also a goal of the United Nations. By understanding the social mechanisms within an ethnicity and how these affect the health of an individual, it will be easy for the policy makers to come up with practical and functional policies that will assist the governments attain their goal of equal health for their citizens.
In this case, the United Kingdom will have the opportunity to develop good policies that will assist them ensure that every citizen in Britain has access to proper health.
References
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Wells, Nancy and Gary Evans. 2003. Nearby Nature; A buffer of life stress among Rural Children. Environment and Behaviour 35(3): 311-330.
Zimmermann, Wendy. and Michael Fix. 1998. Declining Immigrant Applications for Medi-Cal and Welfare Benefits in Los Angeles County. Los Angeles: Urban Institute.
This research focuses on the experiences and participation of different ethnic groups in sports and sports packs. The researcher used fifty participants selected randomly from the park.
They consisted of males and females from different ethnic groups. The age group was 16 years and above. The research utilized both observation and interviews for data collection. The researcher captured some of the activities in the park using photograph and designed appropriate questionnaires for the interview.
The study findings seem to support the previous studies conducted in the related field. Minorities’ participation in the parks is on the increase. We can conclude that the issues of racism, socioeconomic status, cultural barriers, and low levels of income among different ethnic groups are on the decline. Consequently, they are embracing sports and park activities.
Literature Review
Sports and sports parks have been crucial in bridging the gap that exists due to differences in race and ethnicity in society. For instance, the racial relationships among whites and blacks have been full of hate and prejudice.
However, the differences have declined significantly over the past decades as people share sports and sports facilities. Sport has enhanced a sense of unity in societies. Experiences and research show that racism and prejudice still exist in society. However, majorities are gaining recognition of others’ moral values beyond the differences.
Improving ease of access and opportunities for majorities in society has formed the main objectives of most sports bodies around the globe. Sports have been responsible for promoting most countries’ pride. However, some studies reveal that there are sections of the population that still have minimum contact with sports and sports venues or parks.
Likewise, their levels of participation have remained low. Studies by Long and other researchers indicate “young people take part in a lot more sport than older people that women generally are less likely to participate in sport than men and that people from lower socio-economic backgrounds are less likely to participate than their counterparts in the middle and upper socio-economic groups” (Long et al, 2009).
Currently, communities are engaging several methods to enhance participation in sports both for competitions and physical health. The UK sports machinery aim to remit and lead in the provision of world-class sporting activities and venues.
Bodies responsible for sports promotions have demonstrated their concern for the majority who miss benefits of sports. Most sporting events and activities aim at recruiting and exploiting individual talents and also encourage all sections of the society to experience all benefits we can derive from sports.
Attempts to include minorities in sports and presumed advantages of sport have led to the concept of the Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) strategy. The BME strategy may lead to challenges or accommodations when defining minority groups. Some researchers consider communities that form a part of ethnic populations.
There are also ‘White’ minorities in the population. However, most scholars focus mainly on the Blacks, Asians, and Latinos. What we take as appropriate definitions of terms may differ depending on the environment. Some studies may combine race, ethnicity, nationality, or religion to mean one idea or combine them. However, BME term is a collective term in the sporting environment.
Ethnic compositions vary significantly across different states. There are common barriers that limit involvement of ethnic minorities in sports and physical recreation activities. According to Rowe and Champion, the main barriers to involvement in sports include “material constraints, concerns about racial discrimination, and access to culturally appropriate sport and physical recreation opportunities” (Rowe and Champion, 2000).
Socioeconomic status also affect in participation in sports among the BME communities due to high levels of economic difficulties due to long-term unemployment, poor health, low level of income, and poor living status. These factors act as barriers to inclusion, and participation in sports (Brown, 2000).
Most studies conducted through BME communities have shown negative effects of racism on participation in sports. Most scholars have looked at racial and ethnic barriers have considered the identities and ethnic differences, and relations through sport. These studies have concluded that racism mediate experiences of BME communities in sports.
There is also lack of cultural awareness and understanding of the BME communities’ needs in sporting activities and physical recreation. In addition, most BME communities lack input in the development and the provision of culturally appropriate facilities and services have also been sources of barriers to minority involvement in sports (Andreasen, 1995).
Further studies have also confirmed low of involvement in sports among the BME communities. Gender disparity is also a factor that influences participation in sporting events among the BME communities. There are few women from the BME communities participating in different sports.
Low participation by the community in sporting events also affect other factors related to sports such as volunteering, spectators’ activities, and administration. Some communities still experience underrepresentation in most sports (Carroll, 1993). The minority communities also experience underrepresentation in terms of official representation in sports organizations.
These facts have the whites take control and dominate the institution of sports. Consequently, any sports cultures have created conditions that may prevent any minority race to take part in sports and other sporting events (Rai and Finch, 1997).
Past studies have also identified existence and damaging effects of racism in sports participation among the BME communities. The cultures developed have been to blame sports hooliganism based of fans and unrealistic expectations of the BME communities.
However, a critical look at this justification indicates that sports management authorities need to have realistic views of the racism situation in sports and how they can help eradicate racism’s negative impacts on BME communities. In sports, attempts to control racism in sports have achieved low progress.
This is because there are different levels of commitment and dynamic practices. This leads to confusion with regard to what can work in controlling negative impacts of racism of sports. Still, in most cases, sports management bodies tend to deny existence of racism in sports. The compositions of sports have led some scholars to believe that there is a solution in addressing white dominance in sports aspects.
Ethnicities alone do not define participation in sports among the BME communities. Long and fellow researchers conclude “it is the way ethnicities intersect with gender, class, income, disability, age, religion and other factors that shape sporting opportunities” (Long et al, 2009).
In addition, the media also contribute to low levels of BME communities’ participation in sports through portrayals and racial stereotypes we observe in majorities who form parts of sporting organizations. Any form of stereotype restricts individuals’ attempts to fulfill their participation (Gallop and Dolan, 1981).
This review has identified limitations in participation in sporting activities among the BME communities that hinder their involvement and frustrate their efforts. It also shows the need for building BME community’s capacity to enable them contribute positively in sporting activities.
Short-term strategies in developing sporting activities also limit participation of BME communities. This means we must widely consult with the BME communities in ensuring that every participant has appropriate services and facilities for sporting in venues.
This study shall strive to identify sporting participation in the sports park among the various ethnic communities. It will also identify the best practices that aim at providing inclusion in participation, in the parks. In order to avoid reinvention of the best practices, this study must stress the importance of disseminating the findings to relevant stakeholders.
Methodology
Site Location
This sporting park has its history in the past. The park occupies sections of historic homes and commercial storefronts along the busy streets of the city. The city continues to grow with the both existing and new communities, diverse industrial setting, and modern shopping complex.
The site location for this study is sports recreational park. The park consists of various sporting activities and a wide park for participants. These activities include gymnasium, playgrounds, recreation centers, senior centers, softball, kid centers, martial arts, and provide online classes in other sports. The park aims at creating an ideal community through people, parks, and programs.
Access
The park has no restrictions because it is a public park opened to members of the community. The park has influenced this project because of the nature and facilities provided, ease of access, location around the community, and composition of the participants.
Participants
The participants in the park consist of all community members. This is because the park has wide varieties of facilities for community members. Participants include children, young adults, parents, and senior citizens. The park also admits members from all different ethnic backgrounds.
The participants consist of fifty persons randomly chosen in the park. Random sampling was appropriate because the researcher wanted to ensure inclusion of different ethnic groups in the data collected. The research would present different findings and approaches to the study in a different park because of the nature of this park, location, participants, and facilities.
Procedure
The researcher used observation method to collect data regarding activities of the park. This was the best method to collect data as people freely interact in their natural settings. The observation included participants involved in different sports, activities, and social activities.
The best time to carry out the study was between four and six in the afternoon. This is the time when the majority frequented the park. The researcher recorded all activities of interest in the park (see appendix).
The researcher also engaged participants in interviews to gather their opinions about participation in the park. The researcher asked questions related to participation of different ethnic communities in the park and how the park facilities, charges or membership, interaction with others affected their participation.
Scholars suggest the use of random sampling technique to allow for equal opportunity of selecting a representative sample from the participants. This random sampling allows the researcher to arrive at a valid generalization. The researcher must ensure that he or she collects effective data and establish different views of sport park participants and their experiences. This process must involve senior citizens, children, young adults, parents and management consisting of different sexes.
This interview happened on Wednesday of 02/05/2012 between 4 pm and 6 pm. The researcher explained to the participants the need of the research and its primary purpose as studies only.
The researcher must design the interview instruments he must use to conduct interviews among the participants. The researcher plans to collect primary data from the park participants from different ethnic groups. The survey questionnaires must reflect the study purpose and objectives.
The interview questionnaire provides a room for respondents to account their experiences in the park, sports they prefer, what factors hinder their participation, and other valuable information for the study.
Likewise, the researcher must design questionnaire instruments that are easy to gather responses, analyze, less expensive, and do not consume time of the participants. This instrument can be closed-ended questionnaire to allow respondents choose from short set of answers, such as true or false, or yes or no, among others.
Some of the interview questions the researcher asked include the following.
What are the overall levels of participation in sports among different ethnic groups in the park and how do you rate it to the total number of participants?
Can you mention which sports or recreational sports do different ethnic groups prefer and how the park caters for them?
Would like to see the number of the participants from different ethnic groups increase?
May you identify factors that inhibit participation of the ethnic minorities in the sports provided by the park?
What are the negative experiences of different ethnic groups in the park during their participation in sporting activities?
Data Analysis
Most scholars agree that a well-applied sample must have the similar characteristics as the entire population of study. Qualitative research applies the systematic collection, ordering, description, and interpretation of textual data arrived at through observation or documentation of interview findings (Creswell, 2008).
This is a qualitative research. Thus, the researcher should recognize all the trends of the qualitative data gathered due to the use of the closed interview instruments.
At the same time, the researcher must take care of any data that may appear in the form of quantities. He must change such forms of data into their descriptive nature during analysis and interpretation of results. The researcher must do this because the qualitative technique relies on descriptions, analysis, narration, and interpretation of data to provide insight to the issue under investigation.
The researcher must carry out an analysis of the data after collection. However, he must clean, sort, and remove any unnecessary responses to enable data that only concern the research objectives go for analysis. The researcher may involve the use of certain quantitative statistics analysis such as average, standard deviations, frequency, and mode.
However, the researcher must convert these analyses into qualitative responses to reflect the analysis method of the research. This will enable the research to reflect descriptive nature of experiences and different levels of participation in the park among different ethnic groups (Patton, 2002).
The basic and first step of data analysis must ensure that the researcher carries out data cleaning and organization. The researcher then codes the data and generates themes of the study based on the frequencies of the interview responses. The researcher will use a simple Excel program to generate themes out of the collected data using a quantitative approach of mean, frequencies, and mode for the purpose of comparison among different ethnic groups and gender.
The researcher may present results in the form of tables, percentages, and frequencies with clear, descriptive interpretation of all charts. The researcher can also give personal or individual respondent accounts of the research, review previous works on the same subject, and do comparisons with other research findings. The researcher may also raise pertinent questions depending on the research findings. The researcher must have standard of validating the outcome.
The researcher must also ensure the validity and reliability of the outcome and know whether he can conclude a suitable generalization from data collected. The researcher must establish whether or not the results measure the target content and predict the result. Likewise, the researcher must also identify chances of consistency and eliminate any possible errors.
Results Analysis
The researcher has based he findings on a random sampling technique of gathering data among 50 participants of 16 years and over in the park. This study cut across all ethnic groups. The researcher conducted the study at the park on Wednesday of 02/05/2012 between 4 pm and 6 pm. He identified respondents on their way to the park and during their participation in various activities. The researcher used observations and survey questionnaires to collect data from respondents and later carried out analyses.
The Overall Levels of Participation in Sports Among Different Ethnic Groups in the Park
The overall participation of different ethnic groups in the park varies significantly. The BME communities are the least participants in sporting activities available in the park. BME community participation was at 32 percent against dominant race at 68 percent. Men’s participation among all the ethnic groups is high at 55 percent while females at 45 percent. Most women only participate in such activities for health purposes.
Black men frequented the park more than other BME communities. In fact, the number of Black men participating in physical activities and sports has gone up. However, the study indicates that the sports park has various facilities of interest to Black men, such as basketball courts, gymnastics, walking, and other facilities for bodybuilding. Men of all ethnic groups frequented the park than women.
Black women also have more interest in sports than other women of different ethnic groups. However, other women also participate in the sporting activities of the park but at low rates.
There is a wide gap that exists between men and women with regard to utilization of the park and participation in sports. Men dominate participation in sports and use of the park among the population as a whole.
Sports or Recreational Sports do Different Ethnic Groups Prefer
Most ethnic groups do not prefer walking as a sport in the park. In fact, walking is the least preferred sport among the young generation of all ethnic groups. However, the elderly populations take long walks in the park regularly compared to other generations. However, the park management is encouraging the community to engage in walking as a way of reducing cases of obesity, diabetes, and heart diseases common among the aging populations.
Most ethnic groups prefer keeping fit through yoga or aerobics. This is a popular activity among women of all ethnic groups. Keeping fit is the main activity that drives women to the park. They doubled it with walking to boost their fitness status.
Swimming is not popular among adults of all ethnic groups, more so in among the Blacks. However, children seem to enjoy swimming in the park. It comes after walking. This study indicates that ethnic minorities do not prefer swimming as a form of sport. Participation in swimming is even lower among women from strict cultural backgrounds.
Men from all ethnic groups preferred participating in football. However, White men dominate these groups followed by their Black counterparts. A closer look at the level of Asian participation at the park shows that they do not prefer football. In general, there are instances where the researcher observed high levels of participation in different sports among various ethnic groups in the park. These areas include the following.
Men
Black men preferred weight training in the park. They dominated all ethnic groups visiting the park. Majorities included the BME communities of Black Africans and other Latinos. These groups also tended to dominate running and jogging in the park. The researcher observed that majorities of those who dominated this sport were mainly men from different ethnic groups.
In the areas of martial arts or self-defense which the park offers and provides classes, most men from all ethnic groups frequented the park for training. Martial arts training cut across all ethnic groups on average levels.
Most Asian men preferred badminton. The Blacks from different ethnic groups dominated basketball. They dominate even the White majority who dominate most sporting activities in the park.
Women
Women from different ethnic backgrounds preferred jogging and running. However, whites and black women dominate participation in running and jogging around the park. There are also few women who engaged in weight lifting purposeful for reducing body fat, keeping fit, and preventing possible cases of health risks.
Women also participated in martial arts for self-defense. This was common among Asian women. Black women also dominated basketball field just like their male counterparts. Other sports that are of interests to majorities include gymnastics, athletics, cricket, and some indoor games. However, participation remained low in such sports across all ethnic groups.
The Number of Participants From Different Ethnic Groups Increase
Most participants responded that they would like to see participation in sports and related activities increase among all ethnic groups in the park. There were also participants who want to try sporting activities they are not currently involved. This was common among main ethnic groups who visited the park often, particularly young participants.
Factors that Inhibit Participation of Ethnic Minorities in the Sports Provided by the Park
Most participants said that socioeconomic background and family responsibilities were hindrances to their frequent visits at the parks. This response was common among female participants. Other participants mentioned their works and jobs as main inhibiting factors with regard to sports participations. There were few cases of racism as a factor hindering participation in sports in the park.
Negative Experiences of Different Ethnic Groups in the Park
Few participants also mentioned cases of negative experiences in the park as a result of different ethnic orientations. Men dominated women with regard to experiencing negative instances of racism in the park.
Discussion and Conclusion
This study attempts to provide insight in how different ethnic groups utilize the park. It shows the most popular sports, level of participation, and ethnic groups that dominate given sports. Earlier studies have indicated that the BME communities have low participation in sports and related activities. However, this study shows that these ethnic groups have noticed the importance sports and public facilities that provide such recreational services. Consequently, they are gradually embracing sports as part of their everyday lives.
Ethnic minorities have experienced some forms of exclusion in sporting activities and management. For a long time, members of the BME communities have experienced exclusion from sport due to their socioeconomic, poor health, living conditions, and low level of income. However, this trend is changing as most of them are now in employment and can afford recreational facilities and leisure time. Thus, factors of material constraints will no longer be sources of concern for participating in sports and visiting sports parks.
Ethnic groups’ involvement and experiences in the sport park show that negative consequences of racism in public parks have declined. Few participants indicated that they had experienced racism. This shows that sports and parks can act as methods of bridging the racial and ethnical differences in the community.
Thus, organizers of public sports events and builders of recreational facilities should consider the ethnic compositions of the community before engaging in such projects. In addition, input of the minorities are essential for creating an inclusive sports park.
Some ethnic minorities may not participate in sports and sporting activities due cultural differences and misrepresentations. This explains why consultation is crucial when creating awareness for sports and physical recreation. Thus, sports parks should provide cultural suitable facilities to ensure that participation is inclusive. This can assist in eliminating sports participation barriers.
Sports park management encourages the community to engage in simple sports such as walking, jogging, and athletics for health purposes. This is necessary because walking and jogging are not popular sports among the majorities who visit the park. Walking and jogging can reduce incidences of stroke, heart disease, and diabetes.
This study shows a complex use of sports among different ethnic groups and gender. We have noticed how different gender and ethnic groups take part in various sports. Certain sports are only popular with a given ethnic group. This leads to their underrepresentation. On the other hand, some sports have high levels of representation among different ethnic groups. This enhances the national outlook among various ethnic groups.
There are relatively high levels of different participants from different ethnic groups who acknowledged that if they get a chance they would take part in different sports they have never tried before. This means that the park may not be offering access and provisions of adequate facilities for different ethnic groups in the community.
Further, we may argue that it is the lack of cultural expose that limits participation in such sports. We can also notice that majorities may engage in certain sports due to cultural orientations and personal choices. In these cases, provisions, access, or affordability are the issues.
The fact that few individuals said they had experienced negative forms interactions in the park does not mean the park is free of discrimination. Further, these experiences may vary from individual to individual. This should be of concern to policymakers and management of the park. The groups must look at appropriate ways of handling negative forms of discrimination in the park even if they are not related to racism.
References
Andreasen, A. (1995). Marketing social change: Changing behavior to promote health, social development and the environment. San Francisco: Jossey-Bas.
Brown, U. (2000). Race, ethnicity and poverty. Glasgow: Scottish Poverty Information Unit.
Carroll, B. (1993). Factors influencing ethnic minority groups’ participation in sport. Physical Education Review, 16(1), 55-66.
Creswell, J. W. (2008). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Gallop, D. and Dolan, J. (1981). Perspectives on the participation in sporting recreation amongst minority group youngsters. Physical Education Review, 4(1), 61-64.
Long et al (2009). Systematic review of the literature on black and minority ethnic communities in sport and physical recreation. Leeds: Carnegie Research Insitute.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Rai, D. and Finch, H. (1997). Physical activity ‘from our point of view: Qualitative research among South Asian and black communities. London: Health Education Authority.
Rowe, N. and Champion, R. (2000). Sports participation and ethnicity in England: National survey 1999/2000: headline findings. London: Sport England.
The contemporary trends in immigration have significantly changed the population ratio of Asian Americans, as well as their attitude to this ethnicity group. Racial issues precisely concern Chinese, Indian, Japanese, and Filipino immigrants who had to undergo the pressure on the part of the white population in the United States.
The first waves of immigrants from Asian countries started in the sixteenth century, when Filipinos moved to the territory of the United States. Further movements date back to the nineteenth century, when Chinese and Japanese people migrated in the pursuit of better life. The history demonstrates that the immigration process was a challenge for ethnic groups due to the racist principles according to which all minorities were treated.
The first Chinese communities arrived in the United States had to apply for low-paid jobs because of the discriminative policy. Currently, the racist trends in perceiving ethnic communities have transformed in more favorable trends of full acceptance and equal participation of Asian American in societal activities.
Despite the positive changes, some immigrants are less encouraged to assimilate in American society in case it would mean abandoning Asian cultural heritage and joining the mainstream. More importantly, the minority groups are reluctant to acknowledge the American values and norms because it never provides Asian immigrants with superior status in society.
Asian Americans are often considered to be so-called forgotten minority, which creates the starting point for discussing many political, cultural, and economic obstacles for Asian Americans. Although this ethnic group is the fastest-growing population, its strength and political potential cannot be fulfilled.
Such a perspective is explained by the permanently shaped stereotypes about the Asian community as a model minority, which creates challenges preventing the group from taking part in U.S. elections and political life.
Asian Americans are also regarded as the emerging minorities because most of the representatives prefer maintaining strong bonds with their original culture to assimilating with the U.S. population for advancing their living standards. Nevertheless, the possibility of treating Asians equality with the white community is premised on the acceptance of the U.S. nation as the one that recognizes cultural diversity.
There is also a counterargument rejecting the flexibility of the U.S citizens. In spite of the controversies, the Asian American movement has been delineated from the mainstream society, as well as from the traditional Asian community due to their excellent adaptability skills.
Therefore, it is logical to assert that Asian American community possesses a completely different image that is distinguished from other minority groups due to their diligence, strong family values, and discipline. The emerged stereotypes testify to the positive influence of racial diversity.
In conclusion, the U.S. history of Asian American movement introduces similar tendencies in perceiving and accepting the new ethnic groups arriving in the United States. In this respect, the nineteenth century was marked by unequal treatment of the newcomers due to the challenges they face while seeking for well-paid jobs.
Stereotypic thinking prevented the dominant society from recognizing ethnic minorities and, as a result, racial discrimination resulted in cultural, political, and social barriers for the minority groups.
In the course of time, the image of Asian American community has changed dramatically because it has separated both from the Asian people and from the U.S. population. The new ethnic identity has been shaped, and its new image differs from other minority groups by discipline, strong values, and commitment to traditions.
The demographic pattern in the world is made up of people with different characteristics. People are identified and differentiated from one another based on a number of variables. Such variables include, among others, race, age, social background, and nationality. The most common variable through which persons are identified is ethnicity. There are different ethnic groups in contemporary world. In fact, it is not strange to find one country with a number of different ethnic groups into which the citizens are organized. In the opinion of Chandra (2006), understanding people’s ethnicity is beneficial in many ways. For example, one is able to explain the various behavioral patterns exhibited by an individual based on their ethnic background.
The reason is that different ethnic groups are associated with different cultures and behavioral patterns. However, one should be careful not to generalize behavior patterns based on ethnicity. Such generalizations may lead to, among others, biases.
By defining ethnicity, and in extension, ethnic identities, one can improve on the existing theories touching on the subject matter. What this means is that there are different theories that try to explain ethnicity. For a person to understand the various theories explaining this concept, they need information on what ethnicity and ethnic identity is all about. Chandra (2006) suggests that once a definition of ethnicity is in place, several concepts about the phenomenon can be developed and explained.
In this essay, the author appreciates that there are a number of problems associated with the definition of ethnicity. To this end, the author examines some of the definitions of ethnicity that scholars have put forward. The author will conduct a comparative analysis of the definitions with a focus on the problems associated with each. The author will rely on the writings of Chandra (2006) to illustrate the points of departure from a common definition of ethnicity. In addition, the author examines certain aspects associated with ethnicity that make its definition a challenge to both students and scholars.
To this end, Brubaker (2009) sheds some light on the need to create a distinction between race, nationalism, and ethnicity. The distinction will come in handy when highlighting the problems associated with the definition. In addition, the author will examine ethnic conflict as an element of ethnicity in contemporary society. Eller (1999) suggests that different ethnic groups elicit discussions on the topic of ethnicity as a whole.
Ethnicity: A Brief Background
As already indicated above, an understanding of ethnic groups allows for a proper definition of the concept ‘ethnicity’. Eller (1999) provides a working definition of the concept ‘ethnicity’. The scholar views the concept as the manner in which different ethnic groups differ from each other owing to the use of their respective cultural aspects. A deeper understanding of the subject matter is provided by Burgess (as cited in Eller, 2009). Burgess states,
“……ethnicity is the character, quality or condition of an ethnic group membership. (The membership is) based on an identity with and/or a consciousness of group belonging that is differentiated from others by symbolic markers . (It) is rooted in bonds (created by) shared past and perceived ethnic interests” (Eller, 1999, p. 8).
From the aforementioned definition of ethnicity, it follows that there are various variables related to the subject matter. The various variables need to be addressed before one embarks on the journey to the definition. Chandra (2006) points out that one of the main problems associated with the definition of this phenomenon is the understanding of the different concepts about ethnicity. It is important to note that one should fully understand the paradigm of ethnic groups. Another challenge that faces the definition of ethnicity is the distinction between the same, race, and nationalism. In this essay, the author examines some of these problems in a bid to define ethnicity from the different perspectives proposed by different scholars.
Concepts of Ethnicity
Ethnicity is an important subject in the social sciences. Many scholars and students have dedicated their time to studies aimed at understanding this phenomenon and explaining the different concepts related to it. As a subject in social sciences, ethnicity has various components and concepts that allow for a deeper understanding of the same. According to Chandra (2006), one cannot define ethnicity, or ethnic identities for that matter, without understanding the meaning of ‘identity’. To this end, the scholar suggests that in any society, the members are entitled to belong to a number of groups or categories. Identity is viewed as the social category to which members of a given society are entitled to belong.
Just like any other social phenomenon, ethnicity is a complicated subject. Chandra (2006) cites ethnic diversity, ethnic political parties, ethnic conflicts, and ethnic voting patterns as some of the main concepts behind the subject matter. A comprehensive definition of ethnicity ought to take into account all these components. Taking into consideration all the components ensures the definition is understood properly. The concepts mentioned above are as a result of various factors. Religion, skin color, place of birth, and the language is spoken by an individual are important factors in determining the different concepts of ethnicity (Chandra, 2006).
Defining Ethnic Groups
In the opinion of Chandra (2006), ethnic identities are understood from the context of one’s descent. To this end, the scholar argues that a comprehensive definition of ethnic identity must take into consideration the various ethnic groups in a society. Consequently, ethnic identity implies that an individual is entitled to belong to a particular ethnic group. What this means is that in a given society, individuals identify with one or more of the various ethnic groups. If one is born to parents from two different ethnic groups, they may identify with those two groups. Understanding what an ethnic group is all about enables a scholar or a student in this field to define ethnicity. The reason is that an ethnic group is an important element of ethnicity (Eller, 1999).
Eller (1999) approaches the problems associated with the definition of ethnicity from an anthropological perspective. The scholar tries to understand the nature of conflict by viewing it in the context of ethnicity. To this end, Eller (1999) defines an ethnic group as an avenue through which people identify with a given social category in society. In such cases, people find common ground with regards to their social behavior and sentiments (Eller, 1999).
However, it is important to point out that a given society has other social collectibles apart from ethnic groups. Brubaker (2009) conceptualizes the problems associated with the definition of ethnicity from a political science perspective. In their writings, the scholar makes reference to such factors as a tribe, nation, race, and class. Brubaker (2009) identifies the factors mentioned above as some of the social collectibles in a given society. The existence of these factors implies that there is more than one way to define an ethnic group. Such an argument is made by Webber (as cited in Eller, 1999). Webber defines an ethnic group as follows:
“…one of those human groups that entertain a subjective belief in their common descent because of similarities of physical type or of customs or both, or because of memories of colonization and migration. (As a result), it does not matter whether or not an objective blood relationship exists” (Eller, 2009, p. 12).
Criteria used in Identifying Ethnic Groups
Overview
In the discourse above, the author of this essay has looked at the various definitions of an ethnic group. An analysis of the different definitions reveals that ethnicity is basically an explanation of what an ethnic group is all about. Chandra (2006) emphasizes that ethnic groups are the foundation of ethnicity in society and in the academic field. As a result, there is need to identify the different ethnic groups in the society. A number of criteria are used to isolate such groups. One of them is the biological criterion. Another is the cultural criterion. In their anthropological perspective of ethnicity and related definitions, Eller (1999) argues that the aforementioned criteria are best suited for the identification of ethnic groups. The criteria are discussed below:
Biological criteria
Eller (1999) suggests that this criterion is important in identifying ethnic groups in society. The criterion is effective in identifying persons indigenous to an area. To this end, individuals who were born and raised in a given location are identified as belonging to a given ethnic group. In this criterion, ethnic identities are based on genealogy and not migration. To a certain extent, DNA tests are conducted to ascertain whether one is indeed a member of a given ethnic group or not.
Cultural criterion
Researchers who are keen on identifying a person’s ethnic identity may make use of this criterion. It is preferred over the biological criterion given above for a number of reasons. For example, the criterion does not abuse the privacy of groups and individuals (Eller, 2009). In using this identification criterion, researchers rely on the uniqueness of a people’s culture
Race, Nationalism, and Problems in Defining Ethnicity
As aforementioned, defining ethnicity is usually hindered when one is unable to distinguish between it on the one hand and race and nationalism on the other hand. According to Brubaker (2009), there is a thin line separating ethnicity, race, and nationalism. However, the three subjects have their own unique meanings. The differences between the three help in defining ethnicity. As such, one can argue that some problems in defining ethnicity can be addressed by distinguishing between the three. Brubaker (2009) suggests that nationalism connotes unity of a particular group of people. Such individuals are bound together by patriotism to their country. In such cases, people pledge allegiance to a given country even though they may not be natives.
Race, on the other hand, is based on the structural similarities between given groups of individuals (Brubaker, 2009). To this end, persons with similar structural features are considered to belong to a particular race. Such features include, among others, skin color, shape, and color of the eye, and hair color. In the context of ethnicity, it is erroneous to rely on people’s race in determining their ethnicity. An example of such erroneous determination is noticed among the Whites or Caucasians members of a given society. Eller (1999) argues that such individuals may have similar physical characteristics. However, they may possess different linguistic and cultural behaviors. As such, it is fallacious to define the ethnicity of a given group of persons based on race and nationalism.
Conclusion
Ethnicity is an important element of a given society. Understanding this phenomenon enables one to appreciate the behaviors of a particular group of persons. Eller (1999) suggests that conflict is one of the major components of ethnicity. Therefore, there is a need to understand what ethnicity is all about when defining the concept. In this essay, the author illustrated various challenges encountered when defining ethnicity. Some of the problems encountered in defining ethnicity emanate from the various components associated with the subject matter.
In this essay, it was found that a definition of ethnicity must take into account the different components of the phenomenon. Ethnic identity is such an element that needs to be understood in defining ethnicity. The definition must also take into account, ethnic groups. In this essay, ethnic groups were defined from the anthropological approach adopted by Jack Eller. Finally, ethnicity should not be confused with nationalism or race since they are distinct elements. However, Brubaker points out that in certain instances, ethnicity, race, and nationalism blend together to create ethnicity.
References
Brubaker, R. (2009). Ethnicity, race and nationalism, Annual Review of Sociology, 35, 21-42. Web.
Chandra, K. (2006). What is ethnic identity and does it matter?. Annual Review of Political Science, 9, 397-424. Web.
Eller, D. J. (1999). From culture to ethnicity to conflict: An anthropological perspective on international ethnic conflict. Michigan: Michigan University Press. Web.
Look at the person on your right. Now, look at the person on your left. Was that person a White man? More likely than not, your answer would be, no. But, and I have to stress that you think about this question very well, is that person an American? We live in a country where one is not allowed to examine whether (s)he is an American or not by mere skin color. Instead, we are asked to dwell on the history of that person’s American heritage when considering what truly makes him/her an American.
We have had to tackle the issue of racism in this class in every lesson that we have had so far. We have been asked to maintain a non-judgmental stance when coming across readings that tend to raise an issue about skin color and cultural identity. Now, by reading the article “The Cult of Ethnicity, Good and Bad” we are asked to maintain the same open-mindedness as the article begins to highlight the struggles of ethnic groups within our borders and country history.
America is admittedly a melting pot of the best (and the worst) cultures in the world. When one is asked to give an account of what truly makes this nation great, the article readers can truly believe that our culture can be a living, breathing, and continuously evolving land of ethnic colors, traditions, and beliefs. It is this very ability that allows us to enhance the good portions of ethnicity while discarding the bad. We have been a nation of immigrants since before the time of the Mayflower. Thus, giving our cultural heritage a rainbow of ethnic influences. All of these immigrant characteristics, which they were all allowed to express and share freely with the country allowed each ethnic group to embody the greatness that is a true – blue, unquestioningly, a citizen of America.
To quote the author’s words
The US escaped the divisiveness of a multiethnic society by a brilliant solution: The creation of a brand new cultural identity. The point of America was not to preserve old cultures but to forge a new, American culture.
While the Eastern and Western European blocks of the world constantly struggle to maintain peace in their ethnically divided regions, This article proves that we have successfully managed to rely on tolerance, acceptance, and understanding when it came to ethnic diversity and its accompanying practices. Even when the great racial and ethnic divide tends to rear its ugly head, our logical leaders have always managed to appeal to our sense of decency, thus quashing any ideas that a white person man have to protest against any ethnic moves that (s)he may find personally or traditionally offensive. After all, if we were to object to everything another ethnic group did in America, we may as well cordon off our borders and throw out anybody who does not agree with us.
It would seem, that due to the events of 9/11 though, we are very close to doing just that as a nation. Perhaps it is a case of frayed nerves, or maybe we have way too many immigrants in our midst now who lack the guiding hand of a person who would properly guide them into melding with the idealism and traditions of America. Whatever the reason, I agree with the writer when he implies that we are slowly becoming a nation non-tolerant of the growing ethnic group voices in America.
When I turn on the news these days, I see the rising anti-ethnic voice that is turning into a groundswell. This is the kind of news that is ignored by CNN and other big cable news networks but makes the headlines of local news channels because it shows the start of growing unrest within our citizen’s ranks. It is a situation that should not be ignored. Dividing our nation between the Hispanics, Latinos, African Americans, and Whites — these are ethnic classifications that George Washington never envisioned would happen to the country when he drafted his idea for One People.
I can understand that the ethnic classifications were developed as a way of paying respects to the cultural heritage of the immigrants. It allows them to keep a sense of who they once were before they came to America. But, in my honest opinion, the day they took their Oath of Allegiance, they should have chucked that ethnic identity at the door. Nobody is Muslim, Arab. African American, Haitian, or whatever, they simply become Americans with an ethnic history.
Practicing ethnic identity should not be an issue. We do live in a country where freedom of expression is encouraged and admired anyway. What I do not like is the fact that it tends to become political platforms for people who do not seem to realize that by rocking the boat and upsetting the applecart, the only people who get hurt are themselves.
Admittedly, the world looks to us for leadership in all trying times. The countries that are currently divided by ethnic strife, look to us and see how we somehow manage to keep our heads above water and get along with other ethnic groups. But that might not last long anymore. Arthur Shlesinger knew exactly what he was talking about when he wrote that article for Time Magazine, the U.S. has no choice but to continue to find and tread that fine line that allows our multiethnic groups to walk in the same streets without committing mass genocide on each other.
The questions of race and ethnicity have been very popular in the world for decades. The process of globalization has launched a much wider range of interactions between people of different cultures. The interest in traveling rose, huge waves of immigration started all over the world. Most of the countries nowadays have very diverse societies, including multiple ethnical groups and representatives of many cultures.
Even though the question of racism in the modern world is not as big as it used to be, even though the modern society has reached certain progress moving towards complete racial equality, there are still several issues that create a lot of discomfort for the people of different ethnicities.
For our society to develop and for future improvement in this area, modern people need to pay a lot of attention to the children’s education in the field of ethical and racial diversity. Television plays an enormous role in the process of forming people’s opinions; it creates a serious impact on the way we percept the world around, different events, different individuals, and situations. Television has been proved to influence children’s minds immensely.
This is why these days a lot of attention is being paid to what kind of information the children can access on TV, what kind of movies, shows and cartoons they watch and what kind of impact they may create on the children’s ways of thinking and mentality.
Lustig and Koester explore the question of impersonal communication across cultures of the world. One of the most important issues highlighted in their work called “Intercultural Competence” is the question of the way the mass media programs reflect cultures and their members (Lustig & Koester, 2009).
To find out what kind of influences and ideas the mass media may create on the minds of adolescents and children, I have viewed several cartoons made in different countries, but aired in English and explored the attitude towards race and ethnicity in the storylines of these cartoons.
For this work, I have selected three different shows, they are “A. T. O. M.: Alpha Teens on Machines”, “What’s with Andy?” and “Hey, Arnold.” All of these cartoons are relatively not new; they were produced and aired in the mid-nineties – early two thousand.
Their original channels are Jetix, Nickelodeon, Teletoon, and Disney XD. Watching the cartoons, I have noticed that the number of characters representing various ethnicities in them is mainly very small. Among the groups of main characters that appear in every episode, there are only a few people of color. “What’s with Andy” has only one Afro-American character.
The situation is the same in “Hey, Arnold.” As for “A.T.O. M.”, this show has successfully introduced characters of several different ethnicities to the group of main heroes; people of African, Asian and Latin origin are portrayed in the series.
None of the cartoons I have watched for this work feature a person of ethnical minority as the main character. In all of the cartoons, the characters of African, Asian, or Latin origin are secondary. In “What’s with Andy?” an African-American boy, Danny Pickett, is Andy’s best friend, but practically he is only needed to bring out Andy’s personality and provide someone for Andy to discuss his plans with.
In “Hey, Arnold,” the situation is the same, Gerald the African-American boy is Arnold’s best friend. This show also includes characters of Jewish, Japanese, and Hispanic origins. It is noticeable that the creators of “Hey, Arnold” attempted to show the modern society in its diversity, they featured characters coming from different parts of America, different health and psychological conditions, various types of looks and personalities.
Arnold is the kind of character any parent would want their child to be friends with (Hey, Arnold, 2014). “A.T.O.M.” also has heroes of different ethnicities, yet all of the representatives of racial minorities are secondary characters.
The people of color in all of these shows do not tend to act in very distinct stereotypical ways, but there are personality traits that can be counted as prejudices about people of these races.
For example, African-Americans are mostly portrayed as sporty, athletic or muscular guys, Hispanics are seen as early maturing, and emotional people and Asian characters mostly are depicted as smart and good at learning, computer geniuses. All of the ethnical minorities are portrayed positively.
Overall, to my mind, the cartoons I have watched for this paper attempt to reflect the diversity of the society we live in, yet they do unconsciously communicate some of the stereotypes about racial minorities. These stereotypes are mostly positive, yet they might create a generalizing pattern in the minds of the children, who watch many cartoons and will notice the same information being presented to them on the unconscious level.
It is highly important that the creators of cartoons for children try their best to reflect the diversity of the modern world in their shows, because, as Woods explains, we start noticing things when we focus our attention on them (2004). When children watch cartoons, their attention is narrowed down to the story developed in the episode, to the plot and the characters that are used to bring up certain conflicts and explain certain things.
This kind of communication between the children’s minds and the meaning of the cartoons can happen unconsciously; this is why it is so important that the reality of the cartoons is as close to the actual reality of the world children live in. Besides, the child’s self-perception happens partly through the way this child is seen by the people around, especially their peers (Woods, 2004).
Children of various ethnicities watch the same cartoons on television every day, so the ideas and opinions communicated to them in the movies and shows are extremely important, as they form the children’s identities and the way they will be looked at by other children. Cartoons have a lot of power over the forming mindsets of adolescents.
Cartoons may participate in the process of making labels and putting them on people, and once we label someone or something, we start to respond to the reality these labels create rather than to the actual way things are. My findings explain the relationship between the information carried by the cartoons and its reflection in the minds of the audience.
The cartoons have the potential to direct children’s attention to certain ways and shape their identities and perceptions. If the children are given wrong ideas about ethnicity and race this may seriously influence the way they feel about themselves or their classmates and friends, lead to conflicts or misunderstandings, and the modern society spends a lot of effort trying to reduce the number of such misperceptions in our world.
One of the most notable aspects of what can be deemed the existential mode of Aboriginal people is that fact that the members of Indigenous communities in Australia tend to regard the notion of kinship crucially important, within the context of how they go about addressing the challenges of life. In its turn, this is being reflected by the well-observed phenomenon that the manner, in which each
Aboriginal tribesman acts towards the tribe’s other members, is dictated by the specifics of how he/she relates to them by blood. This phenomenon, however, can be easily explained, as such that helps the concerned individuals to maintain the systemic balance in Indigenous societies. In this paper, I will explore that validity of the above-stated at length, while outlining the qualitative aspects of the phenomenon in question.
Main Body
As it was mentioned earlier, Aboriginal people are indeed strongly ‘kinship-minded’. The fact that this is indeed being the case can be easily illustrated, in regards to the fact that the mechanical structure of how they relate towards each other, defines their behavioral patterns rather substantially.
After all, it is being well acknowledged by anthropologists that the qualitative aspects of the interrelationships between the members of a particular Aboriginal community, cannot be discussed outside of the most important feature of these people’s social organization – the existence of the systemically complex system of ‘kinship sections’ within the community’s hierarchic structure.
This system is about prescribing Aboriginal people with the highly specified behavioral mode, consistent with what happened to be the particulars of their blood-lineage, which in turn allows us to refer to it as the foremost instrument of the concerned individuals’ social self-identification. To confirm the full soundness of this suggestion, we can well refer to the specifics of how Aboriginal people enter into the marital relationships with each other – the process that is being closely regulated by the lineage-related considerations.
For example, even though an Aboriginal man is allowed to marry its cousins and other women that happened to belong to the same ‘kinship section’ with him, marrying the daughter of his father’s brother or the daughter of his mother’s sister would not be tolerated, as it would be considered incest.
Within the mentioned kinship-system, these women are being seen as the concerned person’s ‘sisters’. He, however, would be allowed to marry the daughter of his mother’s brother or the daughter of his father’s sister. In fact, such a move, on this man’s part, would be considered highly virtuous (Dousset 2008, p. 265).
Another indication that the factor of kinship plays an important role in the life of just about every Aboriginal individual, can be well deemed the sheer ritualization of the social sphere within Aboriginal communities – especially the ones that continue to be closely affiliated with the hunting/gathering activities of its members.
For example, it even today represents a commonplace practice among Koori peoples (NSW) to go about dividing the spoils of the hunt in the manner, closely observant of what happened to the kinship-status of each of the community’s members (Timbery 2011, p. 150).
Whereas, the community’s elders are being traditionally provided with the ‘best cuts’, there appears to be an even more privileged category of people, in this respect – the related (through marriage) individuals that formally belong to another tribe (community), such as those with the status of sons and daughters (fathers and mothers) ‘in law’.
What is especially notable, in this respect, is that the practice in question is highly ritualistic – Koori people indulge in this sort of behavior, without being able to come up with the rational explanation, as to why they do it, in the first place.
What is particularly interesting, in this respect, is that Aboriginal people do not think of the notion of kinship, as such that only defines their attitudes towards the living relatives, but towards the long deceased ones, as well. As Glowczewski noted, “The Ancestral Beings are not just simple mythical ancestors, but they are active principles who participate in the becoming of things” (1999, p. 6). This, of course, suggests that the mentioned notion can be well referred to, as such that remains at the center of Aboriginal people’s cosmological worldviews.
One may wonder about how this contributes to the maintenance of balance in Aboriginal societies? In order to be able to answer this question, we will first need to mention the fact that Aboriginal people closely adhere to the values of the so-called ‘holistic’ (spiritual) existence. As Grant pointed out:
Aboriginal spirituality is defined as at the core of Aboriginal being, their very identity. It gives meaning to all aspects of life, including relationships with one another and the environment. All objects are living and share the same soul and spirit as Aboriginals. There is a kinship with the environment (Grant 1996, p. 9).
This, of course, suggests that, unlike what it happened to be the case with White Australians, Aboriginal people do not subjectualise themselves within the surrounding natural/social environment, while striving to attain the state of ‘oneness’ with it – something that extrapolates these people’s unconscious preoccupation with trying to ‘blend’ with the nature.
There is nothing phenomenological about the mentioned mental trait, on the part of Native Australians. After all, it can be interpreted as the indication that the way, in which Aboriginal people address life-challenges, can be well compared to that of the higher mammals, which also rely on their ability to ‘blend’ with nature, as one of the survival-ensuring mechanisms.
In its turn, this explains the fact that, as it was mentioned earlier, there is the strong element of a ritual to how Aborigines go about constructing their kinship-related attitudes (Shapiro 1988, p. 278).
Just as it happened to be the case with the higher mammals, they do not possess the scientific understanding of how the world turns around. This, of course, leaves these people with only one option, when it comes to addressing the challenges of existence – memorizing the ‘luck-inducing’ behavioral patterns and ritualizing them (Bekoff 2000, p. 863).
The rationale behind this suggestion is quite apparent. In the aftermath of having successfully overcome a particular obstacle by acting in one way or another, one will be naturally inclined to adopt the same behavioral pattern, while trying to overcome a similar (but not the same) obstacle – it is the manner in which people’s unconscious psyche works. This explains the origin of just about any behavioral ritual, practiced by animals and humans.
While keeping this in mind, we can speculate that back at the dawn of times, Aboriginal people must have learned in a hard way that having sex with their closest relatives is counterproductive, because it results in the birth of physically and mentally defective children.
Nevertheless, given the fact that back then the Aboriginal tribes rarely consisted of more than 200-300 individuals (this continues to be the case nowadays, as well), it created the objective prerequisites for the affiliated tribesmen to enter into specifically the ‘cross-cousin’ sexual relations with each other.
Consequentially, it prompted them to ritualize this type of behavior – hence, the phenomenon of Aborigines paying very close attention to the kinship-related issues within their communities. It is not just the part of these people’s cultural uniqueness, but rather something that, for the duration of millennia, was allowing Aborigines to maintain the systemic integrity of their societies.
This continues to be the case today, as well, although in the somewhat different sense. Nowadays, the kinship-mindedness of Aboriginal people helps them to resist the temptation to become thoroughly assimilated within modern Australian society. After all, it does not represent much of a secret that, even though in today’s Australia these people are formally praised, as the continent’s rightful owners, they nevertheless continue to be implicitly discriminated against.
And, as sociologists are well aware of, the best way to deal with the subtle forms of discrimination, on the part of the representatives of racial minorities in the West, is maintaining their own ‘societies within the society,’ while contributing to their growth. In this respect, one’s strongly defined kinship-mindedness will come as an indispensable asset.
The rationale behind this suggestion is quite apparent. By remaining strongly committed to the values of a tribalistic living, which presupposes people’s endowment with the above-mentioned mental trait, Aboriginal Australians are able to ensure the functional resilience of their communities, in the sense of making these communities less vulnerable to the forces of secularisation/consumerism, which define the essence of the socio-cultural realities in the country’s urbanised areas.
After all, it remains a well-established fact that it is exclusively the verbal forms of communication that enact the process of Aboriginal people growing to appreciate their own cultural identity – it is up to the community’s elders to verbally enlighten the representatives of the younger generations of Aborigines about the societal implications of this identity.
However, in order for this form of communication to continue being thoroughly effective, the members of Aboriginal communities must be willing to indulge in the close and personal socialization with each other continuously. The sensation of being deeply kindred with even their most distant relatives, experienced by Aboriginal people, serves as a powerful stimulant, in this respect.
Therefore, it is indeed fully appropriate to suggest that the fact that there are finely tuned kinship-structures in just about every Aboriginal community, does contribute rather substantially to maintaining Indigenous societies well-balanced.
Conclusion
I believe that the earlier deployed line of argumentation, as to what can be considered the discursive significance of the discussed subject matter, is fully consistent with the paper’s initial thesis. Thus, it will be thoroughly logical, on our part, to conclude this paper by reinstating once again that there is indeed an interconnecting link between the notions of kinship and ‘nativeness’ (in the Australian sense of this word). This state of affairs will continue to persist into the future, as the objective laws of history/evolution are predetermining it.
References
Bekoff, M 2000, ‘Animal emotions: exploring passionate natures’, Bioscience, vol. 50, no.10, pp. 861-870.
Dousset, L 2008, ‘The “global” versus the “local”: cognitive processes of kin determination in Aboriginal Australia’, Oceania, vol. 78, no. 3, pp. 260-279.
Glowczewski, B 1999, ‘Dynamic cosmologies and Aboriginal heritage’, Anthropology Today, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 3-9.
Grant, C. 1996, ‘Gospel and culture: an Aboriginal perspective’, in A Pattel-Gray (ed), Martung Upah: Black and White Australians seeking partnership, Harper Collins Publishers, Melbourne, pp. 90-135.
Shapiro, W 1988, ‘Ritual kinship, ritual incorporation and the denial of death’, Man, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 275-297.
Timbery, N 2011, ‘Archives and Indigenous communities can work together: one Koori’s perspective’, Archives & Manuscripts, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 145-178.