The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic in the United States resulted in numerous aggregated recorded cases. Gold et al. (2020) prepared the report to show the race, ethnicity, and age trends in Persons Who Died from COVID-19. An examination of 114,411 COVID-19–related fatalities recorded to the National Vital Statistics System between May and August 2020 revealed that “51.3% of decedents were non-Hispanic White, 24.2% were Hispanic or Latino (Hispanic), and 18.7% were non-Hispanic Black” (Gold et al. (2020), p. 1520). Additionally, the percentage of Hispanic decedents grew significantly from May to August. The study used in the article is quantitative because it is solely based on the death’s numbers comparison.
For my lab, I chose a bar graph; it depicts categorical data in the form of rectangular bars with heights, in my case, or lengths proportionate to the values they indicate. The data displayed in the graph shows monthly deaths as a fraction of total COVID-19–related deaths by race/ethnicity. The total number of numbers utilized for analysis is 114,411. The timeframe includes May, June, July, and August 2020. It is a clustered bar chart; each categorical group has two or more bars that are color-coded to reflect a specific grouping, such as White, Hispanic or Latino, Black, Asian, AI/AN, and NHPI, NH multiracial, or unknown. Categorical data is data that has been divided into discrete groups, such as months of the year, as shown in the graph. Categories display along the horizontal axis, and the height of the bar equates to the score of each class. The distribution shapes are skewed right, with minimal data sets found to the right of the graph toward the greater numeric values. The explanatory variables are months, and the response variables are races/ethnicities.
The graph concludes that from May to August, the proportion of White decedents declined from 56.9 percent to 51.5 percent, while Black decedents dropped from 20.3 percent to 17.4 percent. Nonetheless, the number of Hispanic decedents climbed from 16.3 percent to 26.4 percent. Essentially, Hispanics were the only racial and ethnic group whose total mortality rate increased. The majority of COVID-19–related fatalities (51.3 percent) occurred among White people, whereas Black and Hispanic people were overrepresented.
The data could be displayed with two other presentation options: table and dot plot. The authors chose a graph over a table because the information is included in the values’ shape (patterns and trends). Thus, the bar graph aids in displaying correlations between complete sets of values, whereas the table may confuse the reader due to the number of data inserted. Dot plots are one of the most manageable statistical representations and are appropriate for small to medium data sets; another advantage is that numerical information is maintained. Bar graphs categorize data, allowing researchers to easily compare numbers within each group, whereas a dot plot displays each numerical piece of data above the horizontal axis. Hence, a bar graph will better reflect the gathered data in this scenario. To conclude, the bar graph was the best option since it provides proportions of many categories, clarifies patterns better than tables, and allows for a visual assessment of rationality. The authors’ choice is understandable, given that the main goal was to evaluate race, ethnicity, and age trends in persons who died from COVID-19 in May, June, July, and August 2020.
Reference
Gold, J., Rossen, L. M., Ahmad, F. B., Sutton, P., Li, Z., Salvatore, P. P., Coyle, J. P., DeCuir, J., Baack, B. N., Durant, T. M., Dominguez, K. L., Henley, S. J., Annor, F. B., Fuld, J., Dee, D. L., Bhattarai, A., & Jackson, B. R. (2020). Race, ethnicity, and age trends in persons who died from COVID-19 – United States, 2020. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69(42), 1517–1521.
Pain is a severe warning sign when there is a change or injury in the body. The study of this aspect is of particular interest because it relates to a broader concept. It can be helpful in the medical practice of nursing. This aspect especially concerns the ethnic background and culture of individuals, which are critical in the process of perception and dealing with pain. Therefore, gaining an understanding of the differences in the transference and response to pain is essential for nurses to provide the most effective care and treatment.
The first step is to gain an understanding of what constitutes a phenomenon under study. Thus, from a biological point of view, there are several types of pain. However, this phenomenon needs to be viewed from a slightly different perspective. Hence, pain can be psychological, physical, and emotional in nature, each of which is caused by a variety of factors. After an injury, individuals produce an inevitable response to the sensation experienced. This may be feelings of anger, sadness, or anxiety. Therefore, the way in which patients feel depends on the process of medical care and the further process of getting rid of it. Adjustment of the psychological and emotional state of individuals becomes the central part of nurses’ work, which makes it necessary to study this sphere of knowledge.
The emotional and psychological state of patients during the experience of pain has a significant influence. Thus, upbringing, culture, and traditions have a particular impact on how patients respond to pain and how seriously and responsibly the treatment process is conducted. Thus, studies have noted that depending on race and ethnicity, individuals respond differently to pain (Krupić et al., 2019). Ethnic background is shaped by cultural traits, treatment traditions, and disease transfer of different races. Thus, sensitivity to pain may differ among Caucasians, African Americans, and Native people. Awareness and training of medical personnel on this topic are critical to the success of helping individuals.
Pain perception and pain responses are highly correlated with ethnicity and culture. The way in which this phenomenon is treated in the community in which the patient is located is reflected in the way the individual will communicate his or her feelings to hospital staff. For example, studies show that African Americans tend to exaggerate their feelings of pain and tolerate treatment more severely than whites (Ng et al., 2019). This is due to the fact that they have much lower pain tolerance, which shapes subsequent emotional and psychological responses.
Therefore, how medical professionals manage their activities in providing care plays a unique role. D’Arcy (2009) pointed out that “it is an emotional component that may trigger behaviors that play an important role in how a patient’s pain is perceived by others” (p. 5). A proper and healthy perception of each patient’s characteristics is essential. In addition, health care providers have a responsibility to understand that often people may either exaggerate or downplay their feelings, depending on how pain has been treated in their family and inner circle. This will help medical professionals form an appropriate treatment and care plan.
In addition to patients’ perceptions of pain, nurses’ own culture, personal biases, values and beliefs have a significant impact on the outcomes of care. This is supported by the fact that they can alter the interpretation of patients’ pain experiences. For example, if medical professionals, who have a high pain threshold and can contain their emotions of discomfort, work with patients, they will broadcast this behavior to them. As a result, the pain of other individuals will seem exaggerated or insignificant to that doctor or nurse, so they may decide to give less pain medication.
This case makes it necessary to train healthcare personnel to manage their beliefs, prejudices, and opinions in the delivery of healthcare services. For example, it is essential to educate them that they should treat all members of different ethnic groups alone and not judge their feelings based on their own backgrounds. Moreover, it is essential to spread awareness of the unique characteristics that people have when confronted with pain. It is essential to emphasize that “nurses should be aware of how personal beliefs and perceptions make objective assessment and treatment of patients’ pain difficult” (Callister, 2003, p. 209). A sober attitude toward the patient’s emotional and psychological state will assist in determining the correct treatment plan and subsequent recommendations. In addition, when individuals see a calm medical professional in front of them, they may find it easier to contain their emotions and worries. They gain a sense of calm and trust, which are critical during the delivery of health care services.
The next aspect to be considered in the framework of the work under study is the prescription of treatment according to the ethnic characteristics of patients. Thus, variations in the assessment of pain when caring for the ethnic group play a significant role in this process. This community for the study becomes the African American group. The interest of its study is that it is often held up to prejudice about the perception and transfer of pain. As mentioned earlier, black people experience more pain than other people. On the other hand, research showed that “the cultural effect of the strong female’s role in African American culture tended to cause the female cancer patients to be less interested in complaining of pain and finding pain relief” (D’Arcy, 2009, p. 6). This may be due to the fact that, due to the strong stereotypes about this group, people prefer not to show their real feelings and feelings about pain.
Aspects that are important to consider are not only emotions but also verbal and nonverbal components. Research stated that “each culture has its own language of distress when experiencing pain” (Callister, 2003, p. 2017). First of all, it is worth emphasizing that the expression of pain in most people is similar, and it is impossible to say with certainty that any ethnic group is strikingly different from another. All people are characterized by such verbal characteristics as swearing, shouting, moaning, or pleading for help. Nevertheless, some people, because of their cultural and ethnic backgrounds, prefer to contain their emotions and not use words, as is often the case among African Americans.
However, such behavior is observed in those representatives who want to show that pain is tolerable and restrained for them. On the other hand, people can actively verbalize their feelings, openly expressing the symptoms they are experiencing. The same can be applied to non-verbal reactions such as twisting, crying, showing aggression, or stroking the site of the injury. All of these reactions are directly related to how people were raised in the family and immediate environment.
Various pain assessment tools are used in medical practice to determine the severity of pain. There are many methods for determining the level of discomfort in individuals, most of which are aimed at those who are able to self-report their sensations. Furthermore, among all methods, this paper highlights the Iowa Pain Thermometer. This approach is based on verbal description, looking at seven levels of pain (Mandysova & Herr, 2019). In this method, patients are asked to assess their own condition based on the scale. Often, it is marked with numbers to define pain from the lowest to the highest. As a tool for determining the pain experience of individuals, it is considered the most successful because it is more sensitive to change and has a reduced possibility of failing the assessment.
Therefore, there may be some variations of nursing interventions in the management of pain when caring for the ethnic group of African Americans. Traditional methods can be used to treat this community with alternative methods. This choice is based on the fact that patients may have different backgrounds, which will be reflected in their behavior. Thus, when cases of vivid and complicated reactions arise, it is worth engaging alternative methods that will work to reassure patients. In the absence of any uncommon reactions, more traditional approaches may be implemented.
In conclusion, pain is a phenomenon that can be characterized not only from a biological point of view but also from an emotional and psychological point of view. In particular, the ethnic and cultural background forms the formation of perception and response to pain. It determines how patients respond verbally and nonverbally to feelings of discomfort. Thus, nurses and other healthcare providers should form their practices and treatment based on their knowledge of pain perception.
Krupić, F., Čustović, S., Jašarević, M., Šadić, S., Fazlić, M., Grbic, K., & Samuelsson, K. (2019). Ethnic differences in the perception of pain: a systematic review of qualitative and quantitative research. Medicinski Glasnik, 16(1).
Mandysova, P., & Herr, K. (2019). The translation and linguistic validation of the Revised Iowa Pain Thermometer into Czech for a clinical study involving Czech stroke patients. Kontakt, 21(1).
Gender, racial, and ethnic inequalities among college students cannot be ignored in regard to student engagement due to a number of long-term implications. Mixed races, multiple cultures, and gender prejudice demonstrated during the first years of education in college can stay sustainable over the next several years or even decades (Howard-Hamilton, Marbley, & Booner, 2011). As soon as the community is spoiled by an idea of possible inequality or preferences are given to a certain group of people, the outcomes and further development of this issue are hard to predict.
On the one hand, the lack of student engagement among the specific student population may increase the level of self-esteem and pride among other groups of students. They just admire the fact that certain priorities can be given just because of the color of skin or gender without even focusing on personal knowledge and skills. On the other hand, minority students can easily decrease their potential and fail to use the opportunities they actually have.
The role of such characteristics as race, gender, and ethnicity determine student engagement and achievement. Student backgrounds influence social engagement and labor market earnings (Hu & Wolniak, 2013). As soon as a student is deprived of one opportunity because of the color of skin or gender, he or she can hardly pay attention to other opportunities believing that demographic characteristics play a crucial role. The result of such neglect and prejudice is the inability to deal with poverty, inequalities, and prejudice in society. The question of racial inequality in American society can never be closed, and it is one of the main long-term implications of limited student engagement that cannot be ignored today.
References
Howard-Hamilton, M. F., Marbley, A. F., & Booner, F. A. (Eds.). (2011). Diverse millennial students in college: Implications for faculty and student affairs. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing.
Hu, S., & Wolniak, G. C. (2013). College student engagement and early career earning: Differences by gender, race/ethnicity, and academic preparation. The Review of Higher Education, 36(2), 211-233.
Today globalization is seen to be affecting the nature of debate on educational inequalities that for a long time has been viewed in the perspectives of race, ethnicity and gender especially with regard to global economy. Despite consistent and more recent efforts and strategies to address the issue of eliminating discrimination that is perceived on the grounds of race, ethnicity and gender, profound evidence in our society shows that discrimination on grounds of race, ethnicity and gender continues to persist in our modern society.
Education presents an opportunity for human to succeed in life and according to Moses (2002, p.1), education holds the promise evoked by these three words; hope, possibility and just. But the author at the same time regrets to the problem where students of color, poor and working class students, and female students of all kinds have suffered from what he refers to as dysfunctional educational system of USA which is failing these students and hence does not fulfill its purpose (Moses, 2002, p.1).
Kennedy Howe (1997) observes that efforts towards equality of educational opportunity have largely failed especially when issues of race, ethnicity and gender are scrutinized; “rather than nurturing hope, education causes despair to the mostly to the colored people, ethnic minority and largely female” (Moses, 2002, p.1).
Furthermore, the author appears to disagree with the words of a Law professor at the University of Texas at Austin who asserted that students of color are unable to compete with white students at selective universities because within the cultures, education success is not held in high regard and academic failure is not looked upon by disgrace (Moses, 2002, p.1).
The author evaluates the comments of the law professor and note that such opinions held in institutions of higher learning shows how the education system and institutions have become dysfunctional. Therefore this research paper will explore the issue of education inequality in American institutions in the perspectives of race, ethnicity and gender.
Global perspective on Race, Ethnicity and Gender
Race, ethnicity and gender have been seen to continue to act as limiting factors that put barrier to access to quality education for all, equity and access in the world. At the same time, the above factors continue to represent major barometers in social stratification and differential access to schooling in both the developed and third world countries (Zajda, 2009).
For some time now, there has been a concerted effort to address ways of eliminating discrimination of race, ethnicity and gender; and analyzing statistics from many countries around the world it is evident that the three issues still persist. Today, in many societies of the world, individual’s skin color still dictates how equality is conducted and perceived and as a result social stratification continue to affect the educational impacts of many individuals divided a long reams of race (Zajda, 2009).
In the American society, race continues to be a significant aspect in academic achievement. Racializations in education and their impacts on minority groups have greatly been studied. At this juncture, minority groups have been disfavored by the American educational system and this has resulted into these minority groups experiencing unequal opportunities as far as education opportunities are concerned.
Travis Gosa and Karl Alexander (2007) note that race still matters in USA schooling and afterwards success (cited in Zajda, 2009). Their observation is that race has profoundly and greatly affected both working class and middle class of African Americans.
America’s Educational Inequality
Most books and other literature works have written greatly about the history of America’s education history whereby the immense literatures show that as late as 1960s, many African-American, Latinos, and Native Americans students received their education in totally segregated schools that operated on funds less than those of serving whites; while at the same time, they were largely prevented from accessing higher education opportunities (Darling-Hammond, 2010).
By 1970, there were some legal advances that saw narrowing down of these inequalities as segregation became outlawed in most institutions and as a result there were visible evidence that the gap between minority and white students narrowed greatly. For instance, “the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), the scores of African-American students climbed 54 points between 1976 and 1994, while those of white students remained stable” (Darling-Hammond, 2010).
Despite these remarkable developments, educational experiences for minority students continue to be largely separate and unequal, whereby statistics shows that 75 per cent of minority students still attend schools that are greatly dominated by minority students. At the same time most of these minority schools are located in central cities and continue to receive fewer funds as compared to those of white students located in suburban districts (Darling-Hammond, 2010).
Recent studies and findings on school funds from major cities of Alabama, New Jersey, New York, Texas and Louisiana found that schools serving colored students were understaffed, had unqualified teachers and curriculum offered was ‘irrelevant’ to the needs of the students in these schools (Darling-Hammond, 2010). In other words schools serving minority students have fewer resources when compared to those serving white students and this contributed to poor results by the students from minority groups.
Jonathan Kozol (1991) making comparison on inequalities between public schools that serves minority in urban setting and also public schools that serves the white in suburban whereby he noted that much funds and resources were being spend on white students even with little needs while at the same time in minority schools like MacKenzie High School in Detroit, courses in word processing were being taught without word processors because the school had no enough resources to acquire the equipment (cited in Darling-Hammond, 2010).
On the other hand in the white’s suburban schools, students were much privileging “from computer hookup to Dow Jones to stock transactions and science laboratories” (Darling-Hammond, 2010). More interesting is the fact that at Paterson Schools in New Jersey did not have the capacity to employ competent teachers with sufficient skills to teach foreign languages (Darling-Hammond, 2010).
Ethnicity and education inequality
For the last four decades many scholars have dedicated their resources and energies in examining the relationship between ethnicity and academic performance.
For example, Rabiner et al. (2004) studied that while a large portion of children from different ethnic backgrounds constitute a significant and increasing percentage of the American public school population that accounted for almost 40 per cent of national enrolment in 2000, what was evident was the fact that for the past thirty years fewer minority students have been considered proficient in reading while at the same time statistics shows further that minority students scored less on standardized tests as compared to whites (Zajda, 2009).
Hedwig (2007) observes that, inequality in “educational opportunities and outcomes between African American and White children in the United States have been a national concern since the Brown v. the Board of Education (1954) decision.”
Studies to investigate school ethnic composition in relation to academic performance done in the past have largely utilized standardized tests scores and grade point average (GPA) at the elementary and secondary levels and the studies have indicated that for instance, being an African American at the individual level has a negative effect on academic performance (Hedwig, 2007). On the other hand, when education conditions of Latinos as an ethnic group are studied and analyzed the statistics are alarming.
For example, in 2003, statistics showed that 48 per cent of Latinos had in a way attained at least high school education and when compared with White student ratio that had completed high school education, Latinos were seen to be lagging behind (Rodriguez and Massey, 2008). The historical development of Latino education system in USA has on various occasions been described as “subjugation, colonization and segregation mechanisms used to track down Latino students” (Rodriguez and Massey, 2008).
What is evident from numerous literature is that Latinos for a long time have struggled to preserve their cultural roots and heritage in a largely ‘Americanized’ education system. Further the schooling of Latinos is always described under bilingual education perspective and when the statistics of white educated youth employed are revealed there is a tendency for skewness where more white educated as compared to Latinos educated and with the same education credentials are employed.
Gender and academic inequality
Gender inequality has remained another persistent issue in social stratification and division of power. Many writers have noted that gender inequality reflects society’s existing patriarchy (Zajda, 2009).
Further the issue of gender in many literatures has been tied to the issues of race, ethnicity, power, status and class and what is seen in the American society and other global societies is the tendency to encourage and motivate women to develop skills that are basically useful and essential in low paying jobs, for instance clerical works that in turn leads to lower income and status (Zajda, 2009).
Furthermore the issue of women experiencing inequality especially in jobs emanates from the fact that most women cannot work fulltime and overtime and therefore have limited opportunities as far as career development and education are concerned.
Global statistics shows that one in three women are illiterate as compared to men whose statistics indicate one in every five men is illiterate (Zajda, 2009). Historical women education inequality shows that from 1950s to1960s, the percentage of women receiving some kind of college education stood at 43 per cent which dropped to23 per cent during the period of depression and later rising to 30per cent where it remained for relatively long time without being interrupted (Jacobs, 1996).
In 1970 President Nixon’s Task Force on Women’s Rights and Responsibilities identified that sex discrimination in education was linked to denial of employment opportunities.
The commission in its findings for the period it conducted interviews established that there was widespread of sex discrimination at all levels of education systems in 1972, the country through Nixon’s government banned all forms of sex discrimination in educational system. Attempts to eliminate gender identity as a factor in teaching and learning and to share all aspects of education still receive opposition especially from those who believe that the federal government should not attempt to interfere with the schools.
Recommendations
Unequal access to education opportunities is a form of racial discrimination since it ruins the future prospects of many young people especially the minority groups, With regards to race and education opportunities in USA what is evident from the past policies that have been designed to address the issue of race as hindering many minority groups is the fact that numerous education policies tend to dwell on minority where public policy on minority primary and secondary education discourage integration and largely promotes isolation and inequity. What is needed is a sustainable educational plan in form of policy that will address race issue in the current education system.
Therefore the following recommendations should be studied: Designing and establishing Racial Equity Plans at the school, district, state and national levels that include quantifiable goals; schools need to move a way from the procedural ways of applying suspensions and expulsions that sometimes ignites racial discrimination; develop plans that guarantee the equitable distribution of resources that take into account the critical role of quality public education as one remedy for past discrimination; At the post secondary level affirmative actions need to be instituted that guarantee or facilitate increased number of minority completing graduate and college school.
With regard to gender identity and access to educational opportunities key policy recommendations are made that will ensure female access to education is increased as economic prospects have been attached advancement in education. First the number of women teachers should be increased as this will act as motivation to female students in many institutions to pursue further educational opportunities.
Current statistics indicate that women administrators in key educational institutions are still low as compare to male administrators. Second, there should be establishment of Female Development Act that will largely outline and elaborates affirmative actions that should be realized in educational systems. Third, the Gender Discrimination Prevention Act should be empowered with some legal powers to investigate and even institute law suits to those who violates or discriminate on gender basis.
Conclusion
Race, ethnicity and gender identity are three issues that continue to bewilder the American and global community. Notably is the fact that these issues have affected and defined how access to educational opportunities is perceived.
The major casualties in all this circumstance of events have been the minority groups of the society whereby their access to educational opportunities has been limited by their color, ethnic or sex. The resultant effects have been deterioration in their general welfare state as they thrive and get submerged in poverty incidences.
What is needed is adequate policy framework that addresses these issues. The policy framework currently needed should appear to give different alternatives as compared to the existing alternatives that in essence have continued to perpetuate these issues further.
The policy framework need to address highlight how race, ethnicity and gender identity can be well addressed within the key existing institutions of law, economic, politics and even culture. It should not be forgotten that any form or kind of the above mentioned discrimination will greatly affect the lives of the victims involved and hence concerted efforts will be necessary to avert such harmful consequences especially on the part of minority groups.
This research has therefore tried to identify and suggest key policy strategies that can be spearheaded in order to minimize the cases of racial, ethnic or gender discrimination specifically in the country’s education systems. The recommendations are not adequate or exhaustive and future efforts to identify and formulate other policy strategies are welcome.
References
Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). Unequal Opportunity: Race and Education. Web.
Hedwig, L. (2007). Effects of School Racial and Ethnic Composition on Academic Achievement during Adolescence. The Journal of Negro Education. Web.
Education is considered one of the most important and exciting processes in everyone’s life. Unfortunately, many children have to deal with some problems during education, and this time of their lives becomes one of the worst ones. The problems are usually connected with ethnic differences because many adolescents do not accept someone being different (Geven et al. 1480). The purpose of this paper is to view ethnic differences and difficulties in education from sociological and historical perspectives.
It is hard to disagree that there is a lack of equality in the sphere of education. Usually, students that belong to ethnic minority groups feel discriminated by their classmates and even teachers. This inequality is manifested not only in teaching and evaluation but also in some other situations. For example, researchers note that “ethnic minority adolescents receive not only less formal mental health services than their ethnic majority peers but also less school-based mental health services” (Verhulp et al. 160). It seems that there should be some reasons for this problem and ways of solving it.
From the historical perspective, it is obvious that students’ difficulties because of their differences are the consequences of the bad attitude toward ethnic minority people that was in the past. For many people, it is still hard to accept those who look and act not as they do, and the same was hundreds of years ago. From the sociological perspective, it is possible to note that many ethnic minority children and teenagers grow up in poverty, see a lot of violence, and think that this is the only possible way of living.
Entering the school community, some ethnic minority children act differently and scare others. According to Geven et al., “especially for ethnic minority students, the proportion of ethnic minorities in school tends to have a detrimental effect on cognitive school outcomes and thereby calls for the ethnic integration of schools” (1473). In other words, schools should be changed in order to accept all the students and not to divide them by their ethnicity.
To draw a conclusion, one may say that there is no doubt about the presence of ethnic differences and problems in education. All students, regardless of their ethnicity, have the right to good education and fair treatment. Probably, one of the best solutions to this problem is to integrate the schools so that they are free of inequality and are appropriate places for ethnic minority students.
Works Cited
Geven, Sara, et al. “The Ethnic Composition of Schools and Students’ Problem Behaviour in Four European Countries: The Role of Friends.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, vol. 42, no. 9, 2016, pp. 1473-1495.
Verhulp, Esmée E., et al. “Ethnic Differences in Teacher–Student Relationship Quality and Associations With Teachers’ Informal Help for Adolescents’ Internalizing Problems.” Springer, vol. 27, no. 2, 2019, pp. 160-181.
There are so many groups of people, who differ by their race, ethnicity, gender, and age. Each of these groups has its own preferences, interests, and ways of comprehension of this world. In this essay, we will talk about one of the ethnic groups that the general population has rather strong opinions about and about its peculiarities from a neutral point of view. We will talk about African Americans, who should be differentiated not as a racial group, but as a pure ethnic group.
Any ethnic group is considered to be a socially organized group of people that identifies itself by means of some common heritage (Edelman & Mandle, 32). African Americans are those citizens of the United States of America with origins, connected to black population of Africa.
The point is that lots of people prefer to identify African Americans as a racial group. In fact, it is a bit wrong. It is a good example of an ethnic group that even has its cultural content (Ellis, 143). Of course, being an African American is not easy; the history and the way to freedom on this ethnic group are rather sad and prejudiced. The ways, White American treated to these people, and the steps, White Americans took to enslave black people, will be always under a hot consideration.
However, nowadays, there are so many great African Americans, who did a lot in order to develop America, helped it to take the leading positions, and be one of the most powerful countries in the world. Martin Luther King Jr., Condoleezza Rice, Barack Obama, Muhammad Ali, Michael Jordon, and Michael Jackson – all these people are one of the brightest representatives of this ethnic group. Each of them did something useful for his/her country in order to be remembered, be respected, and recognized.
It is necessary to admit that people of color tried to participate in numerous spheres simultaneously in order to achieve good results and use them to achieve better ones. And these great achievements are dated long time ago. Even before the birth of Christ, African Americans were mentioned as one of the best practitioners in the field of medicine (Sluby, 3).
The point is that this ethnical group has lots of own points of view within each sphere of life, which differ from any other group. For example, health. African Americans are regarded as an ethnic group that has much more chances to be affected with HIV or AIDS.
During the times of the Civil Rights war, African American got many benefits from the economical perspective; this is why this ethnic group cannot be called the poorest one. For example, Oprah Winfrey, the media personality, producer, critic, and actress is considered to be of the richest African American people in the world.
Among numerous ethnical groups all over the world, African Americans distinguish by their desire to protect people of the same group, to prove own points of view by means of words and actions at the same time, and to demonstrate that the times when someone could control them has already passed.
It is not very difficult to find some common themes with the representatives of this ethnic group, as they are always eager to listen and present personal vision of the situation. To my mind, it is high time to forget about the prejudice and pride that was demonstrated to this ethnic group by the representatives of other groups and think how to improve this world together, without fear and wars.
Works Cited
Edelman, Carole and Mandle, Carol, L. Health Promotion throughout the Lifespan. Elsevier Health Sciences, 2005.
Ellis, Donald, G. Crafting Society: Ethnicity, Class, and Communication Theory. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999.
Sluby, Patricia, C. The Inventive Spirit of African Americans: Patented Ingenuity. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004.
The United States is a host to many varied cultures and is considered the world’s super power with developments that are envied all over the globe. The country’s democracy has undergone various changes over the years. It has also made several steps towards peace, and equity, among other principles of its foundation. However, this was not achieved in a day; in fact, it took several decades of civil wars and conflicts, among other problems to realize the American dream.
The country boasts of varied culture that arises from immigration. Every year, it receives people from other countries as immigrants. This has improved its credibility in the world. Some of the ethnicities that live in the United States include, Native Americans, African Americans, Chicanos, Asian Americans, among others. These ethnicities did not find it easy settling in the country.
They went through various obstacles such as discrimination, among others. This led to conflicts that spurred acts of atrocities. The strategies employed to fight against racial discrimination included political participation, armed resistance, legal system, and economic participation, among others. This paper will therefore explore each of these ethnicities, their most effective along with the least effective strategies employed in fighting against racial discrimination, as well as the evidence (Baugh 133-146).
Native Americans
These were indigenous people found in North America by the European colonialists. They lived in areas such as Alaska, Hawaii, among others parts. The community was composed of various tribes, ethnic groups and States. In most cases, these communities are referred to as Indians or American Indians.
The largest of these tribes included Apache, Iroquois, Navajo, Sioux, Cherokee, among others. In the last 500 years, the community encountered discrimination and wars with European populations. These were mainly because they had encroached on their Native lands and also tried to displace them. In the process, most were killed; some assimilated, and others removed. In the 19th century, the communities were granted citizenship after several treaties and wars.
During United States’ fight, for independence against British, Native Americans sided with the latter hoping that they would help them avoid land seizure. This later backfired as the British handed over their land to Europeans. They also sided with Southern States during the civil war. George Washington later helped in restoring them as citizens with rights to vote even though they were not given the opportunity to govern themselves (Colin 34).
African American
These are black Americans who were largely from the African continent during slavery. They were also known as American Negroes. It is quite important to note that this term is usually employed when refereeing to people with African ancestry (sub Saharan Africa). The majority of these communities were descendants of victims and survivors of slavery era.
They faced several problems as they fought for freedom, these included slavery, racial segregation, reconstruction and civil rights movement, among others. This community forms the second largest racial community in United States, only second to Whites. They formed part of the American military conflicts during civil wars. In addition, the community has been active in politics ranging from Martin Luther to Rice and the country’s current president Obama, among others (Baugh 133-146).
Chicanos
These are United States citizens of Mexican descent. This term was used widely during Mexican movements and was aimed at fighting against racism in the 1960s. The community is said to have lived in the United States as early as 1848, even though they are sometimes considered as the latest of immigrants, to arrive.
This is mainly because some of them crossed over and joined with indigenous American Mexicans. The war against mainstream whites between 1846 and1848 in New Mexico among other parts, left many casualties on Mexicans and attributed to their bitterness towards federal government. Their movement was also formed to help fight for affirmative action, immigration rights, globalization, among other issues (Toro 1).
Asian Americans
These are American citizens with origins from peoples of Asia. They were first referred to as Orientals and this displeased them as they considered it a colonialist term. In this regard, they adopted the term Asian Americans, as a way of identification. They benefited from elimination of the Hart-Celler Act, which had restricted them from moving into the United States.
This development led to increased influx from Asia. Asian Americans are now estimated to have the highest attainment of education in United States. Moreover, they also form some of the best-paid employees in the country. Their fight against racial discrimination was also difficult as they fought against acts instituted to exclude them. These included among others, Asian as well as Chinese exclusion acts (History World International 1).
Areas in which they have been most effective when fighting against racial discrimination
These communities faced several challenges in their quest for equality and citizenship as well as acceptance in the American society by mainstream whites. This was achieved through many ways that included political participation, armed resistance, legal system, and economic participation, among others.
Native Americans
Native Americans fought for their rights to own ancestral land in the United States. However, this failed as they lost the battle to retain that land. In this regard, the most effective way of fighting against racial discrimination was through political participation.
African Americans
African Americans have had a long history of civil rights activists, conflicts as well as politics. In this regard, the most effective way of fighting against racial discrimination was through political participation.
Chicanos
The Chicanos fought to govern themselves but lost to the federal government. In this regard, the most effective way of fighting against racial discrimination was through political participation.
Asian Americans
Most Asian communities immigrated for jobs in the 19th century. This helped empower them economically. In this regard, the most effective way of fighting against racial discrimination was through economic participation.
Areas in which they have been least effective when fighting against racial discrimination
These communities used various means to fight against racial discrimination, some of which caused many casualties and was least effective. These were:
Native Americans
Native Americans had their own culture, which was anti-western. Therefore, in their quest for recognition, they fought against mainstream whites and lost. This was therefore the least effective method of fighting against racial discrimination.
African Americans
African American used several means to fight for freedom and racial discrimination. The least effective way of fighting against racial discrimination was through legal system.
Chicanos
Chicanos believed that they had the right to govern themselves; the least effective way of fighting against racial discrimination was through armed resistance.
Asian Americans
Asian Americans came as laborers at the coast. The least effective way of fighting against racial discrimination was through the legal system.
Evidence
Throughout the history of fight against racial discrimination, various occurrences ranging from conflicts to political participation proved to be either the least or most effective way of fighting racism. These were as follows:
Native Americans
These were the indigenous people found in North America by the European colonialists. They suffered from racial discrimination in the 1700s when slavery was a racial caste. This led to various wars in response to this, as they tried to protect their land and culture. Infightings also led to their downfall as some groups were assimilated.
This proves why use of armed resistance was the least effective. On the other hand, their ways of governing was widely adopted by United States Presidents like Benjamin Franklin, among others. In addition, wider political participation allowed them to reduce racial discrimination through George Washington. Political participation was therefore the most effective (Colin 34).
African Americans
These black Americans were largely from the African continent during slavery. They faced several problems as they fought for freedom, these included slavery, racial segregation, reconstruction and civil rights movement, among others. Like Native Americans, the law was against freedom to African Americans who were racial castes.
The least effective method was through legal system since their position as slaves was in law until reconstruction period and civil right s movements. The most effective way was through political participation, which has enabled them to improve in leadership (Baugh 133-146).
Chicanos
This community lived in the United States as early as 1848, even though they are sometimes considered as the latest immigrants. This is mainly because some of them crossed over and joined with indigenous American Mexicans.
Their least effective method of fighting racism was through armed resistance as they were excluded and displaced from their land. This was also witnessed in Texas. On the other hand, their most effective method was through political participation in the Chicano movement that kept pushing for equality since 1960s (Toro 1).
Asian Americans
The Asian community benefited from the elimination of Hart-Celler Act, which had restricted immigrations from Asia. This led to more influx of Asians. Currently they are estimated to have the highest attainment of education in United States.
Their attempts to mitigate racism through legal system were least effective as the acts defended Asian and Chinese exclusion (Wong 25). The most effective method of mitigating racial discrimination was through economic participation, which made them superior in education and pay (History World International 1).
Conclusion
United States is a home to various cultures of the world. This is due to influx of different communities, which started over 500 years ago. Among the communities that live in United States include, Native Americans, African Americans, Chicanos, Asian Americans, among others. These communities did not find it easy settling in the country. They went through various racial subjections in the hands of mainstream whites. This led to several conflicts that caused high numbers of casualties.
The strategies employed in fighting against racial discrimination included political participation, armed resistance, legal system, and economic participation, among others. Most of these communities realized their dreams through political and economic participation, while those that opted for armed resistance lost in many occasions as was seen in Native Americans and Chicanos, as well as African Americans (Toro 1).
Works Cited
Baugh, John. “The Politicization of Changing Terms of Self Reference among American Slave Descendants”. American Speech. Vol. 66, No. 2, 1991, pp. 133-146.
Colin, Calloway. “Native Americans First View Whites from the Shore”. American Heritage. Spring 2009.
History World International. “ASIAN AMERICANS”. World History center. 19.07.2011. Web.
Toro, Luis. “Chicanos as a Racialized Minority”. The University of Dayton School of Law. 31.12.2010. Web.
Wong, Sau-ling. “Asian America.Net: Essays in Ethnicity.” Nationalism and Cyberspace. Routledge University Press.
Recent analysis of international affairs paints the picture that the world is embroiled in age-old ethnic conflicts. Proponents of this notion contend that people from different ethnic groups harbor deep hatred for one another, and are only restrained by modern civilizations.
They predict that, in the future, either the modern states will break up into smaller ethnic groupings or great civilizations will rise against each other (Gurr 43). However, the general agreement is that modern regional conflicts can be attributed to cultural differences and affective ties of tribal groupings.
This notion does not foresee a situation where diverse people can coexist. In fact, most ethnic conflicts do not result from ethnic diversity; rather, these conflicts are often fueled by the struggle for power and scarce resources such as land. This implies that in talking about ethnic conflicts, the assumption that ethnic identities are age-old and unchanging may be misleading.
In other words, contrary to this assumption, ethnicity or race is a creation of contemporary politics that denies some people opportunities and gives others access to resources and power (Gurr 44). Cultural or religious differences have not, by themselves, resulted in ethnic conflict. Moreover, in modern times, culturally different people have learned one another’s cultural behaviors and have even intermarried, hence blurring contrasts between ethnic groupings.
Contemporary Situation of Ethnic Conflicts
In modern times, there is a common notion that ethnicity is age-old and often presents itself as ethnocentricism particularly in governance. In Eastern Europe, the current conflicts portray various ethnic groups as having strong nationalistic tendencies, which can only be suppressed by an autocratic government.
In contrast, in the Western world, the American ‘melting pot’ suggests ethnicities are fast disintegrating while Eastern ethnicities must be suppressed by the autocratic leadership (Gurr 118). In former Yugoslavia, the Bosnians, Croats, and Serbs are different ethnic groupings, which, historically clashed from time to time over resources. However, due to intermarriages, the differences between these currently warring communities are actually so small.
The Bosnians, Croats, and Serbs all speak Italian language and have coexisted in peace for a long time. Although these ethnic groups profess different religions-Serbs being mainly Orthodox, Croats being Roman Catholic and Bosnians being predominantly Muslim-still, each ethnic group comprises of considerable numbers of each religion. This, coupled with high rates of intermarriages, has blurred the differences between these groups.
Therefore, it is clear that the cause of the current Balkan wars is not fueled by ancient religious and ethnic differences, but rather by the contemporary politics, which rally individuals around nationalistic ideologies. In this regard, ‘ethnicity’ is packaged as ‘nationalism’ in the pretext of gaining access to resources, land, and power.
The Serb and Croat leaders advocated for a right to self-rule in nation states. Serbs on their part wanted to expand outwards and include other ethnic groups (Horowitz 77). Croats on the other hand held a different nationalistic ideology, which promised to keep out non-Croats. In this view, different nationalistic ideologies are factors that fuelled the massacre of Serbs during the Second World War and in the 1990s.
The Effect of Colonialism
The origin of ethnic conflict in Eastern Europe is different from that of Africa. African violence is not fueled by conflicting ideologies, but rather by ancient warfare between tribes that was propagated by the colonial powers (Horowitz 51).
Ethnic conflict in Africa can be defined by four factors, namely; membership ties in a group, prejudice towards non-members, fear, and expectations about resource allocation. Ethnicities produce affection for in-group members, where the members prefer their “own” and exclude or discriminate against non-members (Gurr 87). Often, discrimination arises because of these strong in-group ties and loyalty.
Usually, people have a positive social relationship with in-group members. A close relationship exists between the positive feelings between co-ethnics and the prejudice or fear for ethnic strangers. According to Horowitz, “contemporary politics breed fear and prejudice, which ultimately determine political behavior,” (91).
In contemporary politics, politicians often use fear and prejudice against ‘out groups’ when seeking support from members of their race or tribe. In the United States, whites predominantly hold a social aversion to participation of blacks in mainstream politics. This stems from learned racist practices in the south. Past voting trends in the US, white voting behavior reflect an aversion towards blacks.
In the African case, ethnic conflict, in the political perspective, is a product of the struggle over power and resources. True, in earlier decades, Africans identified themselves with their ethnic identity, or lineage. However, as people migrate to far places seeking for employment and trade opportunities; ethnic or racial identity has become less important (American Anthropological Association Par. 8).
Now, the conflict is rarely caused by ethnic differences but a struggle for scarce resources such as land, water and pastoral land. The colonial system determined that each person belonged to a particular ethnic identity within the colony. This meant that each had to belong or show loyalty to a particular African group.
This was not restricted to Africa: in India, the British Empire promoted the Hindu nationalism where people identified themselves as either Hindu or Sikh. This later transformed to distinct ‘ethnic groups’ after independence. Other cases include the Maronites in Lebanon, Moluccans in Dutch and Karens in Burma where colonial states created groupings, which they christened as either ethnic or religious groups.
Nevertheless, in modern times, the need for political autonomy, resources, jobs, and better livelihoods has become the new frontier for ethnic conflicts. Thus, age-old tribal loyalties have become less significant as people strive to attain better socioeconomic status.
Ethnic Diversity and Conflict
It is often assumed that ethnic diversity is the cause of ethnic conflict and political instability. To the contrary, ethnic diversity has less to do with tribal or racial conflicts. In ethnically diverse countries such as Indonesia and Pakistan, less inter-ethnic conflicts have been experienced compared to countries such as Somalia, Yugoslavia, and Rwanda that are relatively less ethnically diverse (Glenny 78).
This indicates that ethnic diversity does not breed ethnic conflicts, but rather relationships of people relative to power that cause local conflicts. A good example is Indonesia. Indonesia is known for its suppression of political activism in East Timor (Glenny 85). This cannot be classified as an ethnic conflict, as the country has over three hundred ethnic groupings with distinct language and religion. In fact, the recent ethnic conflict has much to do with the struggle for control of local resources, specifically oil and gas resources.
Ethnic diversity can sometimes affect national integration in most nation states. However, some countries often succeed in fostering national integration while others fail. It all depends on the social cohesion policies implemented.
In countries such as Rwanda and Burundi, where one ethnic group has been dominating over the others, avoiding ethnic conflicts requires concerted efforts to enhance national healing and reconciliation (Horowitz 86). Often systems where one or two major groups polarize regional politics are less stable compared to systems where smaller groups have an equal chance to participate in national politics.
An example is Malaysia where politicians established an all-inclusive political coalition that strengthened ties between diverse ethnic groupings, i.e. the Chinese communities and Malay people. In contrast, in Sri Lanka, the Sinhalese people formed a government, which, however, split into two ethnic factions, Tamils and Sinhalese, resulted in ethnic conflict.
Political systems can also be modified to accommodate diverse ethnic groups and prevent ethnic tensions. In Nigeria, for instance, after the Biafra war in 1965 a new political system that curved the country into 19 states comprising of the major ethnic groups, Hausa, Igbo, and Yoruba, was implemented (Horowitz 119).
The states comprised of multiethnic coalitions, which helped to foster cohesion and avoid ethnic tensions. However, competing political interests resulted to excessive fragmentations, and subsequently the recurrence of ethnic tensions. It is apparent that negative stereotypes, prejudice, and fear of members of other groups are effects of contemporary political choices made by leaders.
Conclusion
Contemporary ethnic conflicts are not based on ancient cultural or religious differences. In fact, studies have established that ethnic diversity does not necessarily lead to ethnic conflict. The competition for resources causes ethnic tension and violence. In addition, political choices made by the leaders often cause intergroup tensions. Hence, leaders who develop perverse nationalistic ideologies cultivate hatred, which eventually breeds ethnic violence.
Works Cited
American Anthropological Association (AAA). “Statement on ‘Race’”. 1998. Web.
Glenny, Misha. The Fall of Yugoslavia. New York: Penguin, 1992. Print.
Gurr, Ted. Ethnic Conflict in World Politics. Boulder, Colo: Westview, 1994. Print.
Horowitz, Donald. Ethnic Groups in conflict. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999. Print.
Ethnicity is one of the most controversial phenomena in the mass media. It is highlighted in most cases owing to the fact that it has a direct effect on people’s lives. This issue is portrayed in a number of reality shows, one of them is Jersey shore. This is a reality show revolving around the lives of eight roommates who are having a summer holiday in New Jersey, that is, along the Jersey shore.
The characters in this show come from different backgrounds, but most of them have Italian blood. Cortese for example, is an Italian American, Poliizzi or “Snooki” is Chilean though brought up by an Italian family while Ortiz-Magro is Puerto Rican – American. From this, the issue of ethnicity clearly emerges especially with the way the public responds to this production.
After being released, Jersey shore was received with a mixture of reactions especially from the Italian and Italian -American communities. This owes to the terms that have been used in the media to describe some of the members. A good example of this is the term Guido which is being used to repeatedly describe some of the players in the house.
This word is slang used in the past to refer to the low and middle class Italian Americans who were mostly stereotyped to be violent, and of thuggish character. Using this term in the show according to the public is demeaning to these concerned communities.
The main issue that develops the theme of ethnicity in Jersey shore is the fact that all the players or a majority of them come from the same ethnic community or a combination thereof. Among the players, those who are not purely Italian are half Italian or related to Italians in one way or another.
The public therefore, tends to relate the events in the show with this particular ethnic community; hence, causing a round of disapproval from the members of the community. The use of the terms Guidos and Guidettes to describe the male and female participants respectively makes this worse, since in real life scenarios, these terms are associated with the harsh and crime related lives of the lower class Italians.
In fact, prior to its release, UNICO had sent out a written request for the show to be cancelled alleging that it played a huge role in encouraging ethnic discriminations (Skrentny, 2008). They were arguing that this show would play a big role in encouraging the stereotype that had already been put across indicating Italians and American- Italians were involved in most of the criminal activities.
Such media representations can be considered to be ethnic stereotypes, first because they do not reflect real life. Most of these shows have a certain extent of stereotypical representation in the sense that they do not reflect the events that happen in real life.
The occurrences therein are stage managed, meaning that the characters are not portraying their true personalities. Owing to the power of the media, however, most people tend to believe what they watch on the television; hence creating a great controversy between a reality and a stereotype.
From this therefore, we can deduce that the ideas brought up in this show are more of misunderstood stereotypes. During production, the idea was not to bring out the characteristics of the Italians and Italian- Americans. However due to the extent to which the issue of ethnicity is considered a problem, the public seems to be analyzing the media along ethnic lines (Cornell and Douglas, 1998).
The mass media have been put on question in many other cases for creating such stereotypes for the Italian and Italian- American communities. They assert that the media has a way of sidelining them and portraying the negative side of their community while laying no emphasis on their good side. There are allegations that many other shows and programs have been produced indicating the negative side of people from the Italian origin.
This is however not true, since for example, taking the case of Jersey Shore, there are casts who have nothing to do with the Italian race. These are however overlooked alongside their roles and generalized in the rest of the members. The main idea behind using this perspective to produce the show was to create a theme that would go hand in hand with the terminologies being adopted. According to the producers, there was no intention of creating any kind of ethnic stereotype.
In one way or another, the show was even trying to bring out the fact that Italians have the same kind of lifestyles with the whites; hence annulling the ethnicity stereotypes. Italians and Italian -American activists, however, are not convinced since they think the show was a way of making them appear to be the bad people in the society. This is however not the case and the contrary could be true in that media personalities have been trying to use the power of the media to eliminate the issue of ethnic stereotypes.
Works Cited
Cornell, Stephen E, and Douglas Hartmann. Ethnicity and Race: Making Identities in a Changing World. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Pine Forge Press, 1998. Print.
Skrentny, John. “Culture and Race/ethnicity: Bolder, Deeper, and Broader.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 619.1 (2008): 59-77. Print. Bottom of Form
America has in the past had immigrations that brought about the various ethnic groups that exist in the vast country. The existence of different ethnic groups here has since impacted on its racial relations. Race may be defined as a biological variance between two groups of people.
The phenotypic racial difference is characterized by physical appearances while the genotypic racial difference is determined by variance in genetic makeup. There are quite a number of racial groups in the USA. They include the whites, blacks, Asians and Indians. Additionally, there are other groups of Americans who are not recognized in any of these racial categories. These are Hispanics, Asian Indians, Arab Americans and Bi-racial persons.
While races can be differentiated on a phenotypic (physical appearance) basis, they cannot be differentiated on a genotypic basis (genetic makeup). This is because people from different races can be identified by their complexion and other physical and cultural perceptions but their genetic makeup remains more or less the same.
This is because of the fact that they belong to the same species. Researches indicate that humans have a tiny genetic variation of about 0.5%; inconsiderate of their physical differences. This difference is too small to give rice to a considerable variation on ability or innate intelligence.
This implies that the difference in genetic composition of humans may only be used to establish human physical appearance as opposed to determining ability. However, this has given rise to a number of debates as to why some racial groups are comparably better at carrying out some activities than others.
Every racial group is characterized by its unique and distinct cultural beliefs and practices. The distinction in cultural beliefs and practices has brought about the perception of some social groups as superior and others inferior. This is a justification of social disparities and exploitation of groups perceived as inferior by their superior counterparts. It is important to note that this is also the cause of racisms that is a menace in America. Racism is a belief of instinctive inferiority of a cluster of races as a result of their biological disparities.
Ethnicity, on the other hand, incorporates race as its component. People of the same ethnic group share universal cultural and racial ancestry. Therefore, the membership of a person in an ethnic group is innate and based on birth and hence cannot be altered. However, there have been arguments that ethnicity can be altered as dictated by social circumstances of an individual or situation.
This is still subject to a lot of debates since ethnicity has always been perceived as the ancestral origin to which someone or a group of people can be traced or identified with. Owing to the fact that some ethnic clusters are smaller in terms of numbers as compared to others, there is bound to be ethnic prejudice. The smaller ethnic groups are discriminated against by the bigger groups because of their inability to be heard.
Ethnic prejudice is the negative perception or beliefs people may have on others. Ethnic discrimination, on the other hand, is the actual manifestation of ethnic prejudice in terms of actions. This is, in most occasions, exhibited through unequal treatment. Ethnic minority may come as a result of indigenous inhabitants of a given geographical location being dominated over by immigrants who may be larger in number.
Additionally, it may come about when a small group of immigrants are dominated over by indigenous inhabitants. In the USA, for instance, the helm of ethical superiority is dominated by the whites and their black counterparts come at the bottom of the hierarchy ladder. Other ethnic clusters are positioned in between.
