Race is the distinctive group that humans categorize themselves into based on physical characteristics such as the color of the skin, hair texture, or size of the lips. On the other hand, ethnicity is a broader classification that is more cultural-based and may or may not include race. As an example, in the US, people may fall into racial categories such as black or white, while under the white umbrella term, some may be of Irish, Italian or Jewish ethnicity (Spencer, 2014).
These terms are sometimes confusing and may be used interchangeably; this is because they are not based on science and maybe primarily based on observations. Moreover, definitions evolve over time as people continue to interact and intermarry. As an example, in America, the immigration of Somali people into the country has created a conundrum for race classification as they look black and can be racially categorized as black, but the eye test also says they are different. What about Pacific Islanders such as Fijians who could pass as black but whose genetic composition is completely different from that of Africans.
Racial profiling occurs when racial stereotypes inform policing decisions. The criminal justice system in America is an imperfect system with a complicated history, such as roots in slavery (Robinson, 2017). Police are employed from the general population whose biases will reflect in the system. There is also data that shows poor people getting harsher sentences than rich people (Robinson, 2017). Racism has also created a wealth gap in the country where people of color are poorer than their white counterparts, which creates a double tragedy for minorities in dealing with the criminal justice system.
Sentencing disparity is a pattern that emerges from sentencing data that shows a correlation between race and length of prison sentences. The phenomenon occurs because the criminal justice system is susceptible to the biases that affect the general public. Two groups that are negatively affected by this phenomenon are African Americans and Hispanic Americans (Hetey & Eberhardt, 2018). The data shows that African Americans and Hispanics are likely to receive longer sentencing for the same crime than whites.
Race and ethnicity have remained among the most integral discussions in American society since time immemorial. While these concepts depict a correlation between minority groups and the poignant salient aspect of racial conflicts, the penal code is at the forefront of the disproportionate promotion of inequalities in crime prevention. Furthermore, unfair treatment has become synonymous with the minority groups who see themselves as misjudged by a supposedly impartial criminal justice system. Besides, Walker et al. (2018) expound on how correctional programs, victimization, and unconscious bias by the police have become commonplace among the racial and ethnic minorities in the U.S. This paper explores structure in society, income inequality, and wealth concerning race and ethnicity. Also, it proposes ways of addressing these issues in place of crime prevention.
Social Structure, Income Inequality, and Wealth Distribution
Although social structure entails unalterable collective circumstances of individuals, it forms a basis from which issues facing various groups of people are tackled. Also, it is a concept with unreal objectivity whose meaning depends on personal thoughts on the classification of race. In unraveling the mystery of defining race, García (2020) argues that it is an emotional topic that encompasses a variety of emotions such as discomfort, anger, fear, defensiveness, and insecurity (p. 205). Further, he asserts that physical appearance, especially in America, is socially constructed as it forms the basis for one’s origin. Therefore, groups of people define themselves or have specific labels assigned to them by others. Also, he sees race as a category of people whose biological traits are considered important based on shared traits and common ancestry (García, 2020). Besides, ethnicity is portrayed through people’s differences resulting from cultural customs such as religion, language, traditions, and food that are learned. Similarly, it refers to the attachment of a person to a specific group based on their ancestral origin.
While family, law, religion, class, and economy are the main characteristics of a social structure at the micro-level, stratification of class, institutions, and patterned relations among large groups forms the macro phase. As a result, research has shown that race and origin determine the economic status of an individual, and minority groups are segregated based on the aforementioned factors (American Psychological Association, 2017). Therefore, ethnicity forms the basis of a grouping and is linked to the inherent pre-determined conditions for specific people. Also, at the community level, social echelons involve the distribution of people within the local neighborhoods, the composition, and the pattern of their interactions (Walker et al., 2018). Therefore, it shows the interlink between these concepts, and as such, it forms the basis for understanding group dynamics and their formations.
Income inequality is the gap between the rich and the poor in terms of money earned or revenue. This is the disparity of earnings distribution among groups, individuals, social classes, populations, or countries (Amadeo, 2021). Some of the sources include investment earnings, real estate sales, wages, and rent. By 2015 in the U.S., 1% of Americans controlled more than 50% of the country’s wealth, while ten percent of the richest accounted for 88% of all wealth as the bottom 50% of Americans controlled one percent (Walker et al., 2018). Further, it varies due to social factors, including gender identity, age, ethnicity, or race which lead to differences between the poor and the rich; the upper, middle, and lower working classes. Conversely, income and poverty statistics for 2019 released by the U.S. Census Bureau indicate that twenty percent of the top American population represented 51.9% of the country’s earned revenues for the year. Furthermore, they took $254,449 as household income. However, the top 5%, which consists of the richest people, received 23% of the total U.S. income with an average income of $451,122 (Amadeo, 2021). This shows how wealth distribution is disproportionately distributed in America.
On the one hand, the poor bottom population took home 3.1% of the total national income, while, on the other hand, their household average revenue consisted of $15,286 (Amadeo, 2021). In addition, studies carried out in 2014 by U.S. Census Bureau on revenue revealed disparities among the groups. The Asian-Americans had an average family income of $ 74,297, non-Hispanic whites had $60,256, while Hispanics averaged $42,491, with the last group consisting of African-Americans with $35,398 (Walker et al., 2018). Consequently, class and economic segregation of minority groups who are the least earners lead to their inability to afford basic human needs.
Further, these groups have no health insurance, pension plans, or sick days from the companies or employers. This leads to continuous working without early retirement except on medical grounds due to Inequality which not only increases the cost of living but also their vulnerability and susceptibility to sickness. For instance, in 2014, over 15.5% of patients sought Emergency Response (E.R.) since they were not insured or had any medical scheme (Amadeo, 2021). In another study carried out in 2016 on the total wealth divide across the U.S., homeownership was dominated by White families. It was found that 72% lived in their houses as compared to 44% of blacks. From 1983 to 2016, the growth of Latino families’ residential ownership increased by 40%, but also were those of the white population by a 45% difference (Inequality.org, 2020). Furthermore, since the Middle and Lower-classes cannot afford the property, they can move to better neighborhoods leaving the poor groups who continue to deteriorate in wealth creation (Walker et al., 2018). This leads to youths who are not schooled, and due to the surrounding, such kids end up in crime.
Inherited Wealth and How it Promotes Inequality
The concept of inherited wealth has led to various continuous debates on how it perpetuates Inequality among different races in the United States. While highlighting assistance, Walker et al. (2018) assert that it forms an important financial uplift, especially from family or friends during an emergency. He argues that people whose friends and keen have savings are advantaged as they can survive a financial crisis. Besides, due to wealth and income disparities among different groups in America, such help during a crisis is dependent on the racial or ethnic group of an individual. For instance, it has been indicated that 15.9% of African-American families are likely to help each other during a problem as compared to 6.5% of whites and 0.4% of Hispanic families (Walker et al., 2018). He further argues that inheritance has perpetuated the disparities of wealth among generations as it is transferred from one to the other. For instance, blacks have the second-lowest amount for family help of $ 278 while whites receive $589, Hispanics at $383, and $208 for original inhabitants and immigrants, respectively (Walker et al., 2018). This shows the disparities between the races, especially the ethnic minorities.
It has been argued that the media in the U.S. distorts the real picture as it focuses on the few filthy rich children who inherit businesses, fortunes, and trust funds. While analyzing the gap between African-Americans and whites, Walker et al. (2018) point out that Thomas Shapiro had pointed out how inheritance was a transmitter of Inequality. He expounds that Shapiro found out that 25% of whites had a family or relative inheritance with an average of $144,652 as compared to 5% of the African-Americans with only $41,985. Also, the U.S. Federal Reserve estimates that kids in the upper cadre receive $20,000 as compared to those in minorities who get $200 from parents. This can help the rich student to buy property, as indicated in the study, which found that 46% of whites bought houses with family help as compared to 16% of the blacks (Walker et al., 2018). This perpetuates the Inequality for ethnic minorities, even in housing where the property in a rich neighborhood is likely to increase its value as those in poor areas decreases.
Socioeconomic Inequality and Its Effects on the Prevalence of Crime
There are many instances and scenarios which amplify the assertion that social and economic disparities have a direct link to the prevalence of crime. As such, factors such as disproportional crime rates, race and class, criminal justice administration disparity, and neutral race policies form the background in which crime is perpetuated among the aforementioned groups. Walker et al. (2018) expound on the aspect of inability by minorities due to their economic status and how it affects them in daily life. For example, the lack of a cellphone impacts an individual in the justice system negatively and can lead to incarceration. The author explains that before a trial, a suspect from a middle- or upper-class neighborhood can stay in touch with the court through a telephone and is likely to afford bail and be released. On the contrary, his poor counterpart will remain in jail and be sentenced. Also, being convicted has devastating effects on individuals since they are likely not to be employed as a result of their criminal records (Walker et al., 2018). This exacerbates the disparity, which in turn promotes criminology among the groups.
Similarly, the gap between the rich and poor in the U.S. is ever-increasing resulting in classes and neighborhoods based on economic status. While there has been an increase in middle-class African-Americans and Hispanics for the last 40 years, the poor among these groups have multiplied. In addition, the decline of wealth among the poor has a drastic impact, especially the increase in the crime rate. Consequently, as they continue staying in the same environment, the children are exposed to peer influence in the neighborhoods, thus ending up in jail or correctional facilities. According to the National Survey on crime, growing up in such surroundings means that kids are likely to become perpetrators of property and violent offenses (Walker et al., 2018). As a result, the families will incur expenses, and this will affect their medical insurance remittance and lead to loss of jobs and working days, among other negative consequences.
Conclusion
In conclusion, there are various remedies to the challenges resulting from socioeconomic disparities. First, a society can prevent criminal activities through the pooling of resources by members and organizing friendship networks, participating in neighborhood groups while resisting and controlling street activities by teenagers. Secondly, through the use of effective community and problem-oriented policing programs to reinforce the established mechanisms and positive organizations in the area. This will enable the people to develop resources that are beneficial to the whole society. Thirdly, the rehabilitation of victims and minors who commit a crime, it can lead to their reformation into law-abiding citizens. Consequently, the implementation of the aforementioned measures will eradicate crime in the neighborhood.
García, J. D. (2020). Race and ethnicity. In N. Brown, T. McIlwrath & L. T. Gonzalez (2nd ed.), Perspectives: An open introduction to cultural anthropology (pp.204-228). Simple Book Publishing.
Although people are subject to suffering and discrimination based on differences in race and ethnicity, these concepts have colossal differences. It was precisely based on racial strife that the countries waged wars all the time and sought to subjugate the peoples, showing the ambitions of hegemons. Race is a set of phenotypic traits (eye shape, skin, and hair color), which later turn into a precise stereotype setting and serve as a judgment marker. Ethnicity is a set of cultural, religious, every day, and linguistic norms and habits, which includes the intangible gods of each people. The boundaries of an ethnic group, unlike a race, are blurred, and it is harder to fix them. Ethnos is a set of norms that can be passed down from different people to their relatives (generational continuity); that is, they are subject to continuity in space and time. Racial traits are not transmitted in any way except genetically, which makes them the object of scientific study. The transition from one ethnic group to another is a historical difference, not a conceptual one, and many examples exist.
Racial signs have often shifted in history towards ethnic ones, forcing people to perceive minorities exclusively the wrong way. Scholars believe that “Jefferson was the first American to speculate and write publicly about the character of the “Negro,” whom he knew only in the role of slaves on his plantations page” (Smedley and Smedley, 2005: 21). He transferred the topic of race into the context of public discussion and condemnation without sufficient grounds for this. Knowing about the Negroid race only that its representatives worked on his plantations, Thomas Jefferson considered this significant to start building hostile and dismissive mythology around these people. New research postulates: “Racialized science, with its emphasis on identifying immutable differences between racial groups, can be expected only to maintain and reinforce existing racial inequality” (Smedley and Smedley, 2005: 24). These differences are indisputable, but society needs to emphasize similarities more, as this can make people relate.
Reference
Smedley, Audrey and Brian Smedley. 2005. “Race as biology is fiction, racism as a social problem is real: Anthropological and historical perspectives on the social construction of race”. American Psychologist, 60:16–26.
The African-American community continues to face disparities and unfair treatment years after abolishing Jim Crow laws and the Brown vs. Board of Education decision, which ended segregation and racism on a policy level. From a societal perspective, institutional racism and stereotypes affect the perception of this ethnicity. For example, college professors have lower expectations of African-Americans students’ academic achievements. Moreover, the media’s portrayal of African-Americans is usually negative, contributing to the stereotype of them being lazy or not hard working. The education system disparities are a pressing problem because, without access to educational resources, the African-Americans will be unable to find proper jobs and achieve economic welfare. Hence, this research aims to study faculty members’ perceptions towards African-Americans to contribute to the comprehension of the racial biases that hinder education opportunities for this community. This research utilizes both interviews and a Likert scale survey to determine the perceptions towards the African-Americans among the faculty. Through this project, the researcher determined that African-Americans still experience bias and adverse perceptions of their ethnicity, which obstructs their studies and academic success. Future research should focus on formulating ways for educating professors about these biases and White privilege, for example, through social media.
Background
The premise of addressing the inequality and treatment disparities that the African-Americans face is the United States Constitution that guarantees equal rights to all. However, the media’s portrayal of the African-Americans contributes to them being perceived as lazy and to other negative perceptions and the persistence of systematic racism. Cole (2020) defines systemic racism as a negative attitude and bias towards representatives of a certain race embedded in social structures, institutions, and public services. Moreover, Cole (2020) argues that systemic racism is not merely a concept. It is the reality in the United States, embedded into the social structures. Joe Feagin is a social psychologist who developed the idea of system racism. According to Brondolo et al. (2008), racism results in both the daily negative affect and lifestyle impact and education is the mitigating factor that limits the adverse effect of racist perceptions.
The negative stereotypes about African-Americans have existed for decades, and they continue to impact society’s view of this group. Green (1999) argues that the formation of stereotypes is a normal part of human behavior, and these are cognitive structures that contain specific knowledge and expectations. The issue with stereotypes is that they are usually implicit and create a distorted view of reality. For example, racial stereotypes imply that one sees all race representatives as people who have the same characteristics. According to Green (1999), “images of the Sambo, Jim Crow, the Savage, Mammy, Aunt Jemimah, Sapphire, and Jezebelle may not be as powerful today, yet they are still alive” (para. 10).
Another proof of racism existing to this day is its manifestation online. Haughton (2016) studied digital discrimination using the scoring of discussion board posts for students of different races and found that instructors expect less from students of color. Hence, posts that were signed with the name DeShawn received a consistently higher score than the identical posts with a traditional name for a white American. The lower expectations in education facilities regarding African-Americans students are alarming since this bias may hinder well-achieving students and put barriers for African-Americans who want to get an education. Similar findings and biases are reported by Hubbart and Stage (2016), who found a significant difference in population diversity among elite higher education institutions and regular colleges. Elite universities have a heterogeneous population of students, with a lesser number of minorities. Moreover, this research found a bias towards African-American students even in the institutions that have the majority of Hispanic students. Hence, the prejudice against African-American students is present even in institutions that should educate them.
Research Problem
The scholars do not have a clear understanding of factors that impact African-Americans’ perception in education institutions. Future research can benefit from this study because it will create a framework for improving the policies that help mitigate the barriers that African-American students have and help them.
Purpose Statement
The purpose is to examine the attitudes of faculty members towards African-American students and create a theoretical model. Hence, the goal is to determine whether their faculty indeed have a different perspective of African-Americans than other students and aid further research that can help create a framework for fighting racial stereotypes and creating cultural competence on campus.
Research Questions
The following research questions are the basis of this study and are integrated into the interview and surveys:
Do perceptions about African American dressing, and way of speaking (white, Ebonics), television influence, age, gender, education, ethnicity, where they were raised, type of tv programs, the number of hours spent on tv per week significantly explain the attitudes towards African Americans?
Conceptual or Theoretical Framework
The critical race theory (CRT) is the basis of this study because it explains the effect that racism and slavery have had on African-Americans and the disproportionate amount of social issues they face compared to the White community. For example, Tate (1997) refers to the inferiority paradigm, under which the African Americans are perceived as lesser in terms of their skills and abilities. These stereotypes were formed throughout history and continue to impact this community. CRT is the basis for this study, which implies that race serves as the basis of discrimination and a difference in the way people of color are treated on the institutional level. Considering this, CRT is linked with the ideas of systemic racism since both imply that African-Americans face consistent discrimination at the institutional level, and this trend has been present for years.
Research Design
The Phenomenon of interest is based on the CRT. The African-Americans continue to face disparities to this day, for example, in education settings where the faculty members treat this population differently compared to others. This research has a qualitative design. Hence the author selected interviews as the most appropriate method for examining a phenomenon. The interviews are structured, which allows comparing the answers of different responders on the same matter. Additionally, the Likert scale is used for surveying the participants.
Role of the Researcher
Since this study implied studying the attitudes towards African-Americans among the University faculty, the recruited participants are either the members of faculty or students. Hence, the researcher is familiar with these individuals. However, to manage potential bias, all answers will be recorded, and coding will be applied to analyze the answers. Additionally, The Responding Desirability Scale (RD16) and Cultural Sensitivity Toward Teaching African American Students (CLAAS) will be used to account for bias as these are tools developed and tested by other researchers.
Participant Selection
Purposeful sampling is suitable for this research because the focus of the study is the faculty members. This study utilizes the purposeful sampling method, under which the researcher sets specific criteria and selected a sample based on them (Conway, 2020). Moreover, Palinkas et al. (2015) argue that combining several purposeful sampling methods is best. The sample size for this study is 30 individuals, out of whom 10 are faculty members and 20 are students, which allows achieving adequate results saturation.
Due to the pandemic restrictions, the participants were invited by using the University emailing system, and the Vice President of Student Services was contacted first to obtain approval. The potential participants were required to fill out a preliminary questionnaire and the ones who fit the sampling criteria were chosen based on their age, gender, perception of the elements of the African-American culture, position, ethnicity, and personal preferences towards the TV shows. The interviews were conducted using Zoom as face-to-face meetings should be avoided during the pandemic.
Instrumentation
The questions were developed using the evidence from the literature and personal experiences of seeing African-Americans’ portrayal in the media. Other data sources will be media mediums, such as TV shows and journals on racial studies. The interview questions are based on the CRT and systemic racism concepts and aim to determine the stereotypes that persist in the minds of educators. Validity and credibility were established through CSTAAS and RD16 and by thoroughly describing the data collection process and including the transcripts.
Procedures for Data Collection
The data is collected via an interaction between the interviewer and the interviewee. The interviews were conducted and recorded using an online service Zoom, to avoid face-to-face contact. The interviewed individuals were briefed on the purpose of the interview beforehand through an email that contained questions and a consent form. Before the first question, the interviewer informed the participants of the purpose and nature of the study and the ways in which the data will be analyzed and used. To ensure compliance with ethical practices, the participants were briefed about confidentiality and were encouraged to contact the representatives of the University in case they had questions or concerns. No personal data, such as names, occupation, gender, age, or other, was included in the recordings and transcripts.
Data Analysis Plan
The purpose was to explore the attitudes of faculty members towards African American students. The research question:
Do perceptions about African American dressing, and way of speaking (white, Ebonics), television influence, age, gender, education, ethnicity, where they were raised, type of tv programs, the number of hours spent on tv per week significantly explain the attitudes towards African Americans?
The answers of the participants were recorded via Zoom and transcribed. Next, NVIVO software was used for color-coding. Color coding is a good practice for qualitative studies because it helps identify patterns in responses from interviews (Conway, 2020). NVIVO was selected as software because it helps find common themes even with complex research questions (“NVIVO,” n.d.). Hence, the qualitative data collected through interviews for this study were analyzed using color coding and NVIVO software.
Issues of Trustworthiness
With qualitative studies, the issue of trustworthiness can be addressed through adequate methodology and by revealing the nature of the study to the participants, which allows achieving transparency. Credibility was established through triangulation, or comparison of the interview responses with those from a survey (Conway, 2020). An alternative method is member checking or provisioning the answers to the respondents. Transferability was tested describing the broader context of this study, but another method is considering how the results can be applied for the general population. Dependability was established by thoroughly describing the data collection procedures. Alternatively, a researcher can demonstrate dependability by discussing the conceptualization of the study to prove that no mistakes were made in the process. Finally, confirmability is achieved by an audit trail, which is a detailed description of the process (Korstjensa & Moser, 2018). Another confirmability method is reflexivity, where a researcher discusses how their background affected the study.
Introduction
This research builds on the theoretical basis of the CRT and the misconceptions regarding the population of African-Americans. Consequently, the findings help explore the biases and problems that continue to affect the African-American learners, with a prominent example of the faculty members’ attitudes towards this population affecting their access to education and the process in general. In this section, the author will discuss the contributions of this research to CRT and comprehension of racial biases.
Reflection on Social Change
This project aligns with Walden’s mission towards social change. This university declares a vision for educating people who will help address pressing social problems and serves as “a connective hub that promotes, facilitates, and supports collaborative alliances, action research, and projects that lead to purposeful action for sustainable positive social change” (“About us,” n.d., para. 1). This research helps embrace the differences between different ethnicities and address social disparities that are still a reality for the African-Americans, thus aligning with Walden’s mission.
Reflection on Course Learning
This research helped me understand the basic principles of qualitative research. I was able to practice collecting data on a subject of interest and evaluating it to find a research gap. Moreover, the practical assignment helped me become comfortable with being an interviewer. Thus, this learning experience will help me prepare for my dissertation and work on my future research projects as a practitioner and a scholar.
Next Steps
Before completing the dissertation, I intend on reviewing the feedback from the instructors and revising the work to meet the University’s standards. Additionally, I plan on examining more sources and studies to enhance my understanding of CRT and systemic racism. Next, I plan to review similar studies to read their approach to data collection and their results. All in all, this project has prepared me and given me the knowledge and skills necessary to complete a dissertation.
Conway, C. (Ed.). (2020). Approaches to qualitative research. Oxford University Press.
Green, L. (1999). Stereotypes: Negative racial stereotypes and their effect on attitudes toward African-Americans. Perspectives on Multiculturalism and Cultural Identity, 9(1), 1-10.
Hubbard, S. M., & Stage, F. A. (2016). Attitudes, perceptions, and preferences of faculty at Hispanic serving and predominantly black institutions. The Journal of Higher Education, 80(3), 270-289.
NVIVO. (n.d.). Web.
Korstjens, I. & Moser, A. (2018). Series: Practical guidance to qualitative research. Part 4: Trustworthiness and publishing. European Journal of General Practice, 24(1), 120-124. Web.
Palinkas, L., Horwitz, S., Green, C., Wisdom, J., Duan, N., & Hoagwood, K. (2015). Purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection and analysis in mixed method implementation research. Administration and Policy In Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 42(5), 533-544. Web.
Race and ethnicity are essential characteristic features that define people biologically and culturally. However, the race has often been used as a factor of discrimination and social stratification. The latter can be defined as a “system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy” (Macionis, 2019, p. 243). It has four critical features: individual differences within society, generational traits, variability, and incorporation of beliefs (Macionis, 2019). Social stratification can be open or closed, where changes can be introduced in the former, while alterations are impossible in the latter (Macionis, 2019). For example, historic gender differences in Western states were more open to restructuring compared to some conservative Islamic countries. Similarly, ethnic stratification in various societies had a different speed of change.
Although the United States is racially and ethnically diverse, it enables equality for people. However, initially, it maintained strict racial stratification of white and black people. Notably, such separation existed long after the Civil War until the Civil Rights Act (Macionis, 2019). The only significance of identifying race is estimating certain health risks, but even a century ago, researchers tried to use the ethnic difference to prove some groups’ superiority or inferiority. These false views generated the wrong attitude of people of different races towards each other, resulting in discrimination and conflict. Fortunately, the racial and ethnic variation has resulted in pluralism and assimilation in the U.S. (Macionis, 2019). Still, cases of segregation and genocide are still known to occur sometimes (Macionis, 2019). The reason for such conflicts is numerous myths about social stratification regarding race that persist in some parts of the country. Nevertheless, many are no longer valid because rights are equal for everyone, but opportunities may be distributed unevenly due to economic rather than ethnic differences.
Reference
Macionis, J. J. (2019). Society. The basics (15th ed.). Pearson.
Many people are often treated differently based on their ethnicity and race. In Chapter 11 of their book Introduction to Sociology, Giddens et al. (2021) discuss the concepts of race and ethnicity and explore racism in the modern US. The authors argue that contemporary racism has several facets, present controversies regarding new immigrants, and debate on the presence of representatives of different races and ethnicities across the nation.
Discussion
Racism is a concept topic that concerns multiple individuals in diverse areas of life. Giddens et al. (2021) investigate the theme of racism and argue that it can be understood through several distinct concepts. In particular, the writers state that racism is one specific form of prejudice concerning physically inherited characteristics, and it can be color-blind, institutional, overt, or expressed through microaggressions or White privilege (Giddens et al., 2021). For instance, the authors propose that the case of George Floyd is an example of institutional racism (Giddens et al., 2021). Consequently, the writers’ argument centers on racism and its illustrations in modern society.
Historical representations of racism raise many issues about how diverse groups of people have been treated. Giddens et al. (2021) debate the presence of various ethnic and racial groups across the country and their experiences. For example, the authors claim that Hispanics and Latinos have a long history of immigrating to the US, often come undocumented, and are employed more cheaply than indigenous workers (Giddens et al., 2021). Accordingly, the authors discuss how certain races and ethnicities have arrived and lived in the US.
The subject of racism is associated with numerous questions regarding the difficulties faced by diverse individuals and the consequences of mistreatment. Giddens et al. (2021) present a controversy about whether new immigrants benefit or hinder the economy in the country. While some dispute that immigrant workers enhance the national economy, others argue that employees who come from overseas cannot secure employment due to not being educated and skilled enough (Giddens et al., 2021). Therefore, the authors demonstrate that racial and ethnic disparities can be influential for both the public and the economy.
The discussions provided in the above-reviewed chapter seem quite substantial. Upon analyzing the topic of racism on my own, I can say that I share the writer’s point of view. For instance, Giddens et al. (2021) suggest that the murder of George Floyd illustrates institutional racism, which focuses on the notion that social institutions promote White supremacy. Similarly, a recent article indicates that George Floyd’s killing is connected to police violence against Black civilians (Reny & Newman, 2021). I support the authors’ position that the Black population has fewer opportunities than White people because it appears convincing that different forms of racism do not persecute many White individuals (Giddens et al., 2021). For example, although race-related housing inequalities have declined, Black Americans live in poorer neighborhoods than White people (Quillian et al., 2020). Nonetheless, the analysis presented by Giddens et al. (2021) seems to have missed the perspective of the White citizens. For instance, a national survey has reported that White Americans believe discrimination against Whites is becoming more common nowadays (Payne, 2019). Consequently, the reviewed chapter offers a sufficient investigation of racism, but the topic can be explored further.
Conclusion
To conclude, the authors argue about concepts concerning contemporary racism, debate the experiences of different races and ethnicities in the US, and offer a controversy about racial and ethnic minorities and the economy. Based on doing additional research on the subject, I agree with the insights of the chapter. However, it seems that the writers should have mentioned the position of White people to analyze the other side of the matter and broaden the discussion. Overall, the text provided a substantial examination of the topic of race, ethnicity, and racism.
Reference
Giddens, A., Duneier, M., Appelbaum, R. P., & Carr, D. (2021). Introduction to sociology (12th ed.). W. W. Norton & Company.
From biological viewpoint, race indicates the difference in physical appearance, particularly in color of skins, hair, nasal forms, etc (Healey, 2009, p, 19). From social and cultural viewpoint, race and ethnicity are considered in cultural and ideological dimensions. In particular, these two notions serve as the basic for constructing stereotypes and prejudices result in ethnic and social conflicts between the identified groups.
Within social and cultural concepts, race and ethnicity can also be conceived as measure of social and economical advantage (Spencer, 2006, p. 34).
Race and Ethnicity: Concepts, Theories, and Approaches
Race and ethnicity can be perceived through the concept of naming and categorization (Spencer, 2006, p. 33). Analysis of racial and ethnical conflicts should be carried out via the consideration of social, political, economical, and historical aspects. Finally, ethnicity, race, and gender are also presented through the prism of cultural identity.
According to Spencer (2006), “race and ethnicity do not have fixed referents, but rather belong to the domain of shifting social and cultural meanings in which boundaries are constantly negotiated…” (p. 32). In this respect, the concept of categorization has existed since the colonial times. Currently, classification and naming are seen in social construction and social classes.
Race, Ethnicity and Gender: Historic Perspective
Racial and ethnical issues are closely associated with the establishment of historical relations between the whites and the blacks in the American society. These relations are based on the principles of inferiority and laziness (Healey, 2009, p. 99). History of racial and ethnical group is also conceived through the concept of minority and dominating culture.
The examination of historical relations between races is closely connected with colonial past that have created the legal, political, and economic ground for constructing attitudes to the minority groups (Spencer, 2006, p, p. 55). In this regard, many comparisons and analyses are made on this basis of racial and ethnical concerns that influence modern attitudes and position in the U.S. society. Many problems are connected with processes as immigration and assimilation that have had a great influence on the identity construction.
The American history is also marked by the period of slavery and exploitation that have forms the present attitude toward African-Americans (Healey, 2009, p. 99). In this respect, previously established relation are echoed in modern society, particular in the way people treat minority groups.
Reference List
Healey, J. F. (2009). Diversity and Ethnicity: Race, Ethnicity, and Gender. CA: Pine Forge Press.
Spencer, S. (2006). Race and Ethnicity: Culture, Identity and Ethnicity. NY: Routledge.
African-American presence in American sports has been increasing for decades, generating a commonly accepted belief that racism is no longer present in the sports industry. The pattern of African-Americans constituting at least half of the number of players on the field, regardless of the game, leads many to a conclusion that modern professional sport is free of discrimination. However, this is not true for all sides of the sports business. As it concerns occupying management roles, racial minorities still make up a fragment of the workforce. This tendency of lack of certain ethnic groups in coaching leads to sports industries actively seeking diverse professionals for administrative jobs. Thus, the growing demand for African-Americans in coaching positions due to the underrepresentation of racial diversity in sports and the cultural incompetence of current coaches can have a positive effect by reinforcing strict policies of inclusion.
Firstly, the extent of the underrepresentation of racial diversity in American sports is one of the most predominant reasons for the industry to seek more African-American coaches. As it concerns the players themselves, Savage and Seebruck (2016) claimed that “57.2 percent of the student-athletes in NCAA DI basketball are black whereas only 29.4 percent are white” (p. 3). This statistic might indicate that racism is no longer an issue. However, when it comes to the coaching positions in sports, the racial dynamic changes to the opposite, with Black coaches sustaining less than a quarter of all the jobs in American sports overall (Rankin-Wright et al., 2016). This drastic discrepancy in the representation of certain ethnic groups calls for a change in a democratic society. The hiring procedure might be the hidden reason for this to happen. Rankin-Wright et al. (2016) stated that recruitment in sports is deficient in the transparency that ensures the fair and race-blind selection procedure. Therefore, many sports associations want to eliminate racial preference in the hiring process to guarantee both equal job opportunities and the absence of discrimination.
Secondly, one of the reasons why African-American coaches are the needed resource in the modern sports industry is to compensate for the cultural incompetence of the white coaches. Given that many racial minorities, particularly African-Americans, enter the field as players, the majority of White coaches fail to support them due to their lack of cultural expertise. Thompson (2018) explored the dynamic between the over-represented Black players in professional sports and similarly predominant White coaches in the managerial roles throughout the industry. He claimed that “without awareness of environmental factors that develop a racial identity, a white intercollegiate coach can further become a function of institutional and environmental discrimination toward students of color on college campuses” (Thompson, 2018, p. 15). White coaching that dominates the college arena and then professional sports only deepens the racial discrimination. More than that, the current sports administration fails to exercise the cultural competence that is required when working with a multi-racial group of people for a more exceptional result. In a competitive setting of professional sports, ethnically incompetent white coaching proves to be less effective, leading to a higher demand for African-Americans in managerial roles.
Given the two reasons above into consideration, it is essential to make sure that racial minorities are included in sports management for positive change through effective policy implementation. One of the policies that are in action today is the Rooney Rule, which obliges the sports associations to consider at least one racial minority applicant in the hiring process for coaching roles (Lamb, 2016). Although this policy resulted in some positive impact on the African-American representation in sports administration, many companies still preferred to pay the fee for ignoring the system (Lamb, 2016). Likewise, some professional sports businesses have been accused of interviewing non-traditional “token” applicants that have not been taken into consideration instead of giving a chance to the legitimate minority applicants (Lamb, 2016, p. 303). These numerous violations of the Rooney Rule have shown that despite the belief that modern sport is free of racial bias, it persists, and the laws need to control it. The advantage of the Rooney Rule has been described by Hylton (2018) as it “ensures some resistance to unconscious bias in the workplace and that the best of everyone rather than the best of a few are considered for recruitment” (p. 35). The positive change can be provoked by introducing a stricter version of the Rooney Rule that will oblige companies to consider more minority applicants during the hiring process with fewer opportunities to circumvent the rules.
In conclusion, coaching positions in modern professional sports lack racial and ethnic diversity, creating a demand for more African-American representatives in managerial positions. The main reason why this need exists is the current over-representation of white professionals that leaves racial minorities outnumbered. More than that, the white majority shows the growing incompetence in training diverse players’ groups, therefore leading to a loss of effectiveness. The need for inclusive, practical professionals in the sports field urges for more African-American coaches on the administrative level. This positive change can be introduced by enforcing a stricter version of policies that require sports associations to interview and consider more than one non-traditional applicant during the hiring process.
References
Hylton, K. (2018). Contesting race and sport shaming the colour line. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
Lamb, C. (2016). From Jack Johnson to Lebron James: Sports, media, and the color line. Paw Prints.
Rankin-Wright, A. J., Hylton, K., & Norman, L. (2016). Off-color landscape: Framing race equality in sport coaching. Sociology of Sport Journal, 33(4), 357–368. Web.
Savage, S. V., & Seebruck, R. (2016). Race, supervisorial change, and job outcomes: Employability resilience in NCAA Division I college basketball coaching. The Sociological Quarterly, 1-22. Web.
Thompson, M. D. (2018). Innovative coaching in intercollegiate athletics: Advocating for cultural responsiveness (Publication No. 1) [Master’s thesis, Oregon State University]. Oregon State University Publishing.
The chapter explores the historical background of the term “tribe” and tribalism as a whole in the context of Africa. Since it is a term imposed by the White historians, the attempt to generalize and identify the prevailing social structure of the African population has proven to be highly subjective (Mafeje, 2020). Nowadays, the African elite often utilize the concept of tribalism to maintain their superiority and exploit their tribesmen; thus, the history of tribes has to be thoroughly researched to avoid the exploitation of power.
The Ignominious Origins of Ethnic Pluralism in America
The reading describes the origins of American pluralism and how it contributed to the current issue of ethnic discrimination. Steinberg (1981) defines four stages of colonization of America: the settlement, the expansion, agricultural development, and industrial development. Starting from the settlement, predominantly British newcomers sought foreign labor to cultivate the country’s economic growth. Given that America has indeed been founded on the exploitation and differentiation between the immigrants and the alleged “owner” population, it is no surprise that these beliefs are still present in American society.
Decolonizing Sociology: Since Its Inception, Sociologists Have Unconsciously Practiced A White Sociology
The article argues that the sociology of the 20th century was blind to racism and failed to predict Blacks’ civil rights movements. As a product of the colonial and imperialistic society of the time, it ignored racial issues and focused on White dominance (Steinberg, 2016). However, the Black Lives Matter movement has shown that the sociological theory for contact, competition, accommodation, and assimilation has little relation to current racial relations. This discrepancy between the theory and practice shows that sociology is a White-dominant field that fails to address the racial issues adequately.
Groundings with My Brothers
In both chapters, the author explores how the Whites repress the Black identity of African Americans and proposes solutions to these structural limitations. Rodney (2019) cites the Cuban revolution and the change it brought to the perception of race. The more culture and accurate historical facts people know about their race, the more they flourish as a nation as opposed to attempting to portray them as inferior by the White dominance.
References
Mafeje, A. (2020). The ideology of tribalism. In J. Benjamin (Ed.), Race and Ethnicity: Difference and Decolonization (pp. 91-95). Kendall Hunt Publishing.
Rodney, W. (2019). Groundings with My Brothers. Verso Books.
Steinberg, S. (1981). The Ethnic Myth: Race, Ethnicity, and Class in America. Beacon Press.
In the modern world, although there are initiatives and policies aimed at reducing incivility and discrimination of different groups of people based on gender, sexual orientation, ethnicity, and other features, such practices still persist. Many media platforms accentuate such an issue due to detrimental effects on the psychological and physical well-being of individuals, along with the injustice they have to experience. In their article, The US values Asian work more than Asian lives, S. Mitra Kalita emphasizes how students and employees are stigmatized as hardworking individuals and how it results in higher expectations of individuals.
Different stereotypes have an impact on Asians at work, both in terms of day-to-day treatment and career opportunities. According to Kalita (2023), one in three Asian and Asian American professionals report having encountered racial discrimination. The journalist proceeds by accentuating that Asians report experiencing incivility and stigmatization at greater rates than other races (Kalita, 2023). In this situation, the perceptions and expectations of employers and the public are the results of growing misunderstandings about Asian Americans in the US (Kalita, 2023). This majorly stems from the history of Asians and other immigrants coming to the U.S. throughout a significant portion of the 20th century (Kalita, 2023). However, with the times changing, a greater collapse awaits if events do not change and the perception of Asians as diligent workers and students persists. Among those who contribute to such an issue are the employers and columnists who frequently commit the sin of sweepingly generalizing Asians (Kalita, 2023). As a result, action is required to change the way how immigrants and people of different ethnicities are perceived.
When it comes to my positionality, I agree with the extent of the problem and the subsequent effects of such attitudes provided by the author Kalita. I believe that many people might not realize how they can influence the perceptions of immigrant groups or groups of different ethnicities and nationalities by seeing them as monolithic. I am a part of the community discussed in the article. Being an international Asian student, I have not experienced any discrimination yet in terms of student work, and I currently do not know anyone directly impacted by such a situation. However, I believe and fear that as I look for a job, I will encounter issues of stigmatization or incivility.
As for the intersecting identities that make the mentioned group vulnerable, it involves Asian students or Asian employees. In general, those most affected by this issue are young individuals who are stigmatized as hardworking people and are seen as a monolith, which involves perceiving all Asian nationalities as one identity. As a result, there is a need for more recognition of the many layers of identity. As seen from the article Kalita, many employers and columnists do not differentiate between nationalities in Asia. In this case, more recognition is required in this area, which can be resolved by a promotion of the change by either government, firms, or journals. In order to be vigilant, there is a necessity to draw attention to those who keep discriminating against people based on their ethnicity and provide media coverage on such individuals or institutions.
Hence, S. Mitra Kalita notes in their article how students and workers are branded as hard workers and how this leads to increased expectations of individuals. Regarding my positionality, I concur with the author Kalita’s assessment of the problem’s scope and the consequences of such views. I belong to the vulnerable group that the article discusses. Young people who are stigmatized as hard workers and are viewed as a monolith, which entails considering all Asian ethnicities to have a single identity, are typically those who are most impacted by this problem. More attention is needed in this situation, which may be achieved by promoting the change through either governments or media platforms.
Reference
Kalita, S. M. (2023). The US values Asian work more than Asian lives. Charter.
