Category: Ethnicity

Introduction

The Canadian Multiculturalism Act, whose idea was first conceived in the year 1971 under the then Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, was passed in the year 1988 and it aimed at enhancing and preserving multiculturalism in Canada.

The Act affirms the policy of the federal government to ensure for equal treatment of every Canadian citizen in the country, no matter their race or ethnicity dimensions. Under the regulations of this Act, the Canadian government would have to recognize and also respect its entire society, which is characterized by diversity in customs, languages, and religions, among other social and cultural differences (Edwards, 2010).

One of the most important policies of the Act was to ensure that all citizens were accorded equal protection and treatment by the government, under the provisions of the law, while their diversity was valued and respected.

Other key aspects which have been outlined in the main components of the Act include Aboriginal rights, equality rights regardless of one’s religion or skin color, full protection of the Canadian multicultural heritage, English and French as the only official languages even though other languages may be used, and the right of the minorities to enjoy and celebrate their culture.

This paper provides an in-depth review and analysis of the multiculturalism policy in Canada whereby social and political locations such as gender, race, sexuality, class, and citizenship are fully examined. Canada is increasingly becoming a culturally and ethnically diverse country and for that reason, multiculturalism policy is observed to be one of the major responses of the Federal government towards this diversity.

What is Multiculturalism?

As it would be observed, there is no specific definition for this term and various countries across the world would tend to approach the issue in a variety of ways and perspectives, but in related phenomena. Over the years, different and inconsistent strategies have come up through different communities, whereby the term has been applied in a variety of ways in the society, both normative and descriptive.

For instance, as a normative, the term would imply a positive appreciation of communal diversity, which is based on the right of people to recognize and respect the larger society of cultural diversity. However, as a descriptive term, multiculturalism has been used to refer to the concept of cultural diversity.

The term is generally used to define and describe the demographic structure of a specific region or community. This is basically an ideology which promotes the formal institutionalization of communities that are characterized by multiple cultures.

However, in a political context, the term is applied for varied perceptions that would range from a guided policy that recognizes the value of cultural diversity, to the responsibility of advocating for equality among different cultures within a particular setting of the society. The idea of multiculturalism has been practiced in a number of Western countries from ancient times, for reasons that would vary from region to region.

History of Multiculturalism in Canada

Canada is arguably a nation of immigrants whose ethnic structure is observed to have changed significantly over time owing to changing patterns of immigration. Unlike in the country’s colonial times, when Canada was constituted by only three main ethnic groups, which included Aboriginal people, the French, and the British, the Canadian population presently constitutes of people and groups that represent a plurality of racial origins and ethnocultural traditions.

The three founding nations or simply the ethnic groups described above were significant, considering their influence on the country’s social and political institutions. More importantly, these groups had also played a key role in shaping the strong multicultural nature of the country.

Following these ethnic groups, immigrants from other countries allover the world started flowing into Canada. Canada was continuously receiving large numbers of immigrants by the time of the 1867 Confederation and these numbers would surge to the peak between 1850 and 1950, especially with the construction of the transnational railway and the opening of the Canadian west (Buzzelli, 2001).

These two events attracted thousands of immigrants as people from the Eastern Europe, Europe, and the U.S. crossed the borders into Canada. Moreover, quite a big number of Chinese experts and laborers were brought into the country to assist with the railroad construction.

During the twentieth century, Canadian immigration patterns would experience a radical increase, with British being the primary source of majority of the immigrants entering the country those times. It leaves no doubt that, Canada is one of the major multicultural regions in the world, owing to the pluralist nature of its population.

From the beginning of time, Canada’s largest city, Toronto has been a living testament to the country’s outstanding multicultural nature (Beckfield & Krieger, 2007). Following the end of the World War II, the city constituted of a good number of Italians, Jews and other eastern and southern European immigrants among its high population.

However, ever since the beginning of 1970s, many people who settled in Toronto and other parts of Canada are immigrants who included South Asians, Chinese, and Africans, such as Ethiopians and Somalis, among others.

Other foreign communities who formed the Canadian population would include people from the Middle East, Greece, Poland, Portugal, Vietnam, Greece, Hispanic America, and Korea, just to name but a few. These immigration influxes however, were triggered, in large part, by the changes in the country’s immigration policy.

The initial policy had focused at attracting and retaining skilled, white people from the U.S. and parts of Europe. The recent policy however, allows for better opportunities for people from diverse parts of the world to migrate to Canada. As it would be observed, all these groups of people presented a mixture of varied citizenship, race, gender, class and sexuality.

Multiculturalism policy in the Canadian Society

Due to its emphasis on the great importance of immigration, as far as social value is concerned, the Canadian government is arguably a major escalator of this ideology in the contemporary world. The policy of multiculturalism in the country was first adopted officially by the Federal government in the course of Pierre Trudeau’s premiership in the 1970s and 1980s.

In the year 1971, the Canadian government would become the first country globally to declare multiculturalism as an official policy of the state. As observed from the previous paragraphs, this step would chart the way to an evolving cultural pattern in the country.

While the Canadian society remains diverse, progressive, and multicultural, the country’s political parties are ever cautious about posing any criticisms to the high levels of immigration witnessed by their country.

Nowadays, multiculturalism is perceived to be a touchstone and the defining point of the Canadian national identity and also as a point of prestige for the Canadian citizens, regardless of their race and ethnicity. Presently, this policy is portrayed in the country’s legal system, through the ‘Multiculturalism Act’ of the year 1988, among other key sections of the country’s governing laws and policies such as the ‘Charter of Rights and Freedoms.’

The implementation of the Canadian multicultural policy would pave way for subsequent legislation transformations and study and these would lead to the full inception of the ‘Canadian Multiculturalism Act’ of the year 1988; a defining point that would mark a transition to maximum economic and social participation and involvement by racial minorities in the country.

The Act fully recognized the value of racial and cultural diversity in the country and for this, it guaranteed the freedom for all people to enhance, preserve and share their varied cultural heritages as one way of removing cultural barriers from the Canadian territory (Berry et al., 2006).

Through the strong policies of the Act, people from all cultural groups are recognized and valued as Canadian citizens and are expected to take full force in contributing towards the country’s national identity. Moreover, the policy encourages both the Canadians and the immigrants to take part in the society by exploiting their full potential and ability in enhancing social, economic, and cultural integration levels.

As a matter of fact, the Canadian multiculturalism has been looked upon with great admiration by other countries, both developed and developing. Supporters of the Canadian move to officially embrace the policy have always observed that the trend has progressively helped to bring both the locals and the foreigners together, thus turning them as part of the diverse society of the country.

According to many native Canadians, immigrants do help the society to advance politically and economically and in that case, there is an acceptance between the natives and the foreigners (Angus, 2008). For these reasons, there have been increased demand and emphasis for changes in the Canadian multicultural policy, for this was viewed as a certain way to promote greater racial harmony and equality in the country. This way, Canada is a multicultural and multiracial nation which has been recognized universally for their zealous attempts to promote and facilitate race and ethnicity relations among all people across the world.

The Canadian multiculturalism policy has continued to play a significant role in eradicating social and political locations normally triggered by citizenship, race, sexuality, class and gender, among others. The Federal government has always recognized the diversity of its population as regards the above characteristics of its diverse population.

This is achieved through the foundations of the ‘Canadian Multicultural Act’ which has been designed to enhance, preserve, and promote the multicultural heritage of every Canadian citizen in the society and their right to acquire equal opportunities in the social, political, economic, and cultural life of the country.

As provided in the Act, all existing federal institutions and organizations will have to ensure that people of all races and ethnicity enjoys equal chances to gain employment in those organizations. However, where the policy of multiculturalism may have served its purpose in the Canadian society, it has been fraught with many controversies and critics from all over the world.

Achievements and Challenges of the Canadian Multiculturalism

There have been a lot of debates on the issue of the multicultural policy as witnessed in Canada. Ever since the policy was officially incepted in the country way back in 1971, supporters and critics from across the world have constantly debated its objectives, impacts and implications on the integration of immigrants, ethnic and racial groups, as well as religious minorities in the country.

There have been mixed reactions about the policy, with those in favor of and others against the policy coming up with arguments to support their varied claims.

For instance, those in support of multiculturalism policy would tend to argue that, by removing the barriers to full participation in the Canadian society, the policy has continued to play a positive role in the promotion of integration among people of different races and ethnicities in the country, when compared to other countries that are yet to make multiculturalism official.

Considering the high levels of mutual acceptance and interactions among native Canadians and immigrants, there would be a high possibility of the immigrants becoming real citizens in the long term, thus being able to take part in the overall social and political activities of the country.

Those against multiculturalism, on the other hand, would maintain their stand that the policy acts as a big threat to the national cohesion, among other notable drawbacks. Other critics have also viewed multiculturalism as a barrier to social inclusion and immigrant integration.

On the same line, some scholars have also expressed their views and perceptions by pointing out that multiculturalism, which focusing mainly on the overall preservation of cultural, religious, and/or ethnic identities, is less effective compared to those policies that are centered on educational and economic integration.

Critical intersection analysis of the policy

Various aspects of social identity such as gender, race, sexuality, class, and citizenship are expected to raise different behaviors, reactions and/or relationships in different oppression systems. In most cases, immigrants to foreign nations or countries are treated as members of specific groups in the society having limited privileges and rights to their lives.

These groupings are likely to result in structural inequalities and discriminations for these minority groups, owing to the different stereotypes associated with varied aspects of their identities (Banting et al., 2007). Aspects such as race, ethnicity, and citizenship normally intersect with other factors in the line to establish patterns of exploitation and domination.

These patterns of collective failure whereby institutions fail to offer appropriate services to people simply because of their race or ethnicity can obviously be observed through attitudes, processes, and behavior expressing discrimination through ignorance, racist stereotyping, unwitting prejudice, and thoughtlessness among other ways expressing discrimination against people in a specific community.

As it would be expected, the interplay of gender, sexuality, class, race, and citizenship in the Canadian society is most likely to be the same as in any other place in the world, which is characterized by high immigration rates.

This, however, is not the case with Canada, where the multicultural policy remains official and which is enforced by the ‘Canadian Multicultural Act, 1988.’ The multicultural policy in the country has continued to form a new political and demographic reality over the years, thus leading to greater social equality in all the institutions of its diverse society, irrespective of the various social identities defining those demographics.

More importantly, visible minorities in the Canadian society have increasingly continued to share the country’s liberal-democratic values and norms, regardless of their religious differences and affiliation. These rights would include those of women and gays.

However, irrespective of the strong policies regarding the fundamental human right perceived by the Canadian government, there are still cases of collective experiences of people of different race and ethnicity being exposed to unequal treatment in various segments of the society.

This is clear evidence that despite the positive impacts of the Canadian multicultural policy, the aspect of racism is still one of the major stumbling blocks towards full integration of the policy’s holy missions to the diverse Canadian society.

This, however, is likely to offer great challenges for the policy, considering the way it can be applied to address racism and other systems of oppression and exploitation in the country. Cases of racism in the Canadian territory have been characterized by the minority group’s progressive lack of fair and equal access to employment opportunities, exclusion, and marginalization over the years (Fleras, 2010).

This comes up despite the right to equal treatment for all Canadian citizens, whether natives or immigrants, being a fundamental requirement of the ‘Canadian multicultural Act of the year 1988. In this case, there is an urgent need for the Canadian society to adopt ways of addressing the resulting disparities by trying to foster racial justice, inclusion and equity in all government institutions.

Policies that are likely to eliminate structural and institutional access barriers leading to inequities ought to be adopted, to bring a transformational change in the agenda of the Canadian multicultural policy.

This actually would be a timely intervention to the issue considering the fact that; some policies in various segments of the diverse Canadian society have incessantly continued to instill negative effects on its marginalized groups, mainly constituted of immigrants.

Structural and institutional obstacles impeding equal treatment for every Canadian citizen is much consistent and anticipated with the aim of coming up with an inclusion framework which is likely to ensure for full recognition and respect for all Canadian citizens regardless of their ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, citizenship or even race.

This would not only help to establish an inclusive society characterized by equality, but it will also generate a more valued Canadian society that recognizes and practices the fundamental rights of human rights.

Conclusion

As observed from this report, Canada is increasingly becoming a culturally and ethnically diverse country, and for that reason, multiculturalism policy is arguably one of the major responses of the Federal government towards this diversity.

Multicultural policy as perceived by the Canadian government is indeed one of the key aspects that define better the country’s character. Multiculturalism in Canada is as old as the nation itself and this reflects the country’s history, as well as its current reality as an official multicultural nation since the year 1971.

As it is observed here, owing to its multicultural policy, Canada has continued to welcome immigrants from all parts of the world, without taking any chance to compromise the legacies of its founding ethnic groups, which include the Aboriginal people, the French, and the British.

Through this strategy, the highly-controversial multicultural policy has played a significant role in transforming Canada as a nation that values the great diversity of people within its political boundaries and which reflects the surging transnational nature of the global communities.

The most successful ways of integration realized in Canada have been outlined in this report, as observed through the culturally interwoven fabric of the country’s multicultural population. Apart from offering an intersectional analysis of key social and political locations as they are related to the multicultural policy, this paper has also called on the need for the Canadian society to adopt new strategies of addressing those differences appropriately, in all sectors of the community.

References

Angus, I. (2008). Identity and Justice. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Banting, K., Thomas, J., Courchene, T., & Seidle, L. (2007). Belonging? Diversity, recognition and shared citizenship in Canada. Montreal: Institute for Research in Public Policy.

Beckfield, J., & Krieger, N. (2009). Epi 1 demos 1 cracy: Linking political systems and priorities to the magnitude of health inequities-Evidence, gaps, and a research agenda. Epidemiologic Reviews, 31(1), 152-177.

Berry, J., Phinney, J., Sam, d., & Vedder, P. (2006). Immigrant youth: Acculturation, identity and adaptation. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 55(3), 303-332.

Buzzelli, M. (2001). From Little Britain to Little Italy: an urban ethnic landscape study in Toronto. Journal of Historical Geography, 27(4), 573–587.

Edwards, B. (2010). Who do we think we are: Writings on citizenship and identity in the twenty-first century. Journal of Canadian Studies, 44(1), 221-228.

Fleras, A. (2010). Unequal Relations: An Introduction to Race, Ethnic and Aboriginal Dynamics in Canada. Sixth Edition. Toronto: Pearson Canada.

For millions of people around the globe, television is more than just a source of entertainment; they are a window through which to glimpse the life and culture of people across all nationalities. But as NPR’s Lynn Neary reports, many of the TV programs continue to perpetuate disturbing racial stereotypes (“Racism on Silverscreen,” 2001).

It was viewed that because of these trends in the media outlets, institutional racism still exists. Institutional racism, unlike harsher forms of racism such as apartheid and structural racism, does not have racial intentions. It derives itself from a policy drafted by an institution, whether private or public. The enforcement of such policies results in generalized tendencies that have the systematic effect of disadvantaging certain racial or ethnic groups. It is fundamentally caused by ignorance, thoughtlessness, unwitting prejudice, and haphazard lapses in judgment. Due to its fundamental nature of being unconscious and unintentional, institutional racism becomes more compelling to ignore. However, especially at the hands of people who are passionately professional in working for the institution, the pervasiveness of the discriminatory act becomes highly unavoidable. The lack of intentionality becomes, in itself, a rationalization that racism does not take place. However, it is in institutional racism’s “predominantly hidden character … within the occupational culture” (Macpherson of Cluny, 1999) provides a wide stage for unending jousts and disputes and, in essence, allowing its spectators to form the same level of judgment that translates to a wider propagation of the ethnocentric belief.

However, contrary to this perspective, there are now a number of TV programs and drama series which now highlight the idea of multiculturalism. The best example is the well-known TV drama series entitled “Ugly Betty.” “Ugly Betty” is a TV series which caters to all families. It is focused on an average-looking lady named Betty, who works in a fashion magazine company. This starts the irony in this TV series. Betty, who has very profound knowledge of the fashion industry and branded clothing and/or items but rarely uses that knowledge on herself, is working in a fashion magazine company that highlights looks more than personality. Also, another irony in this drama series lies in the fact that betty, being part of a Mexican family who migrated (through illegal means) to the US territory, is just on a low-level or rank and file level, but her opinions are highly respected by her bosses and other people around her. It is also worth noting that Betty’s bosses are all whites or Americans. They are high and mighty in the company, but they tend to listen to Betty’s advice.

Multiculturalism or the difference in race and ethnicity is highlighted in this TV program because it clearly shows how Americans are different from other races, yet despite the differences, they can still work pretty well with each other. Betty and her family are very Catholic and give high regard to family. Her bosses, on the other hand, don’t talk much about religion and give more time to work and fame than to their own respective families. This just put the Americans in a negative perspective. Because of the American’s priorities, they have broken families, unlike that of Betty’s, which is very tight even up to their extended families. Betty’s family, her sister, plus her nephew all love her so much and are very keen on supporting all her needs. They laugh with Betty when she is happy, and they cry with her when she feels so down. In the same manner, Betty at work, despite being ridiculed by his co-workers at most times (mainly because of her looks and her being from a different race), never fails to show how knowledgeable she is at work. That’s why her boss trusts her very much. She may have some mishaps and flaws, but she already proved to her boss how effective and efficient she is at work. These are how multiculturalism or the difference in race and ethnicity is portrayed in this TV series.

All in all, “Ugly Betty” is a TV program which suits the whole family and whatever race and ethnicity one belongs with. It is a kind of program where one can enjoy and at the same time learn the essence of multiculturalism, life, family, and work.

References

1. Macpherson of Cluny, Sir W (1999) The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry, Cm 4262 London: Stationery Officer
2. “Racism on the Silver Screen” (2001)

The problem of race has been one of the most debatable questions throughout the entire US history. American society has made a long way to achieving tolerance in the question of race and becoming colorblind. In the meantime, the problems of racial rights and social prejudice are still acute. The relevant phenomenon might be connected with the fact that the race issue has strong political implications – whereas the Americans might be utterly colorblind, their politicians may find it beneficial to pursue another ideology.

It is essential to admit that the idea of the superiority of the white race was established a long time ago by the American founding fathers when the Constitution, defined Africans as property. Therefore, it became evident, that the question of racism is not only about ethics and morality but about power and authority as well. At that point, politicians promoted actively the ideas of racial inequality that were accepted by the society for granted.

As soon as the policy of the white race dominance became unpopular and began causing excessive difficulties, politicians changed their strategy and imposed a colorblind ideology. Thus, Reagan’s main appeal was to support the creation of a colorblind society and advance the principles of equality and fairness. The new ideology shift was willingly accepted, and all the mass media sources would publish numerous articles devoted to the race issue. The key point resides in the fact that there no document or evidence justifying the dominance of one race over another would ever exist. Thus, the extent of colorblindness in the society would always be determined by the governmental policy.

In the meantime, certain social groups can show strong resistance to the ideology imposed from above. One of the most vivid examples supporting this idea is the critical ideological discrepancy that occurred in Los Angeles in 1940s. The spread of the so-called “black” popular music and dance performances caused made the white the law enforcement authorities implement a reactionary regulation. In order to protect white art and its values, local politicians founded a Bureau of Music that was aimed at encouraging patriotic Arts (Macias 699). In fact, the Bureau’s activity had the strongest racial connotations. However, Los-Angeles residents, despite all the personal prejudice they might have had refused to put up with the violation the civil liberties of their neighboring communities. As a result, American musical and art culture enriched significantly due to the contribution of the Afro-American and Mexican artists. The case was the illustration of the democracy’s victory over political interests and historic prejudices. Unfortunately, such examples are rather exceptions than a rule.

In conclusion, it is necessary to note that the colorblindness of the society is largely determined by the national politics. Today, American people are highly tolerant and respectful towards the racial differences. They do not have any personal interests to promote the ideas of racial dominance. In the meantime, the government that often fails to assure an adequate standard of living for the racial minorities, whether it is willingly or not, emphasizes the difference between races. It might be hard to remain colorblind when notices implications for the unequal rights and facilities in the spheres of education, job, medicine and social guarantees. The American nation has already made a long way to overcome this problem, yet much has to be done to eliminate it completely.

Works Cited

Macias, Anthony. “Bringing Music to the People: Race, Urban Culture, and Municipal Politics in Postwar Los Angeles.” American Quarterly 56.3 (2004): 693-717. Print.

Race and ethnicity have been a topic for a variety of surveys for many decades. Many researchers have provided data on particular areas. It is necessary to note that many studies have shown that there is certain correlation between ethnic structure of communities and the rate of crime within the communities.

However, the conclusions drawn were based on quite limited data so their relevance has been questioned. Peterson and Krivo provide in-depth analysis of the matter in their book Divergent Social Worlds. In this book, the authors focus on the correlation between ethnicity and crime in urban areas across the United States.

The relevance of the present research is evident as the authors provide extensive empirical evidence to support their theoretical argument. Peterson and Krivo argue that race and ethnicity “fundamentally shape the experience of urban residents, including their exposure to crime” (1).

Peterson and Krivo employ several theories to support their claim. For instance, the authors exploit structural race theory and claim that urban areas are still characterized by certain kind of segregation as three major ethnic groups (i.e. whites, African Americans and Latinos) have different opportunities. The authors argue that these groups live in socially instable communities, which leads to the increased rates of crime.

They rely on social disorganization theory to stress that social instability is associated with crime in communities as people have no tools to diminish crime (Peterson & Krivo 35). The authors also employ social theory to highlight “structural conditions that produce” certain gaps between different racial groups (Peterson & Krivo 20).

Peterson and Krivo argue that the major factor contributing to the existing racial composition of communities is segregated nature of the American society where Latinos, Asians and especially African Americans are deprived of many opportunities. The authors state that whites tend to get better jobs and higher salaries. They also get more loans and financial aid compared to other ethnic groups.

This leads to low income in families of such racial groups as African Americans and Latinos, which, in its turn, leads to few educational opportunities for children and limited opportunities to move to better neighborhoods.

Notably, the authors refer to a number of theoretical frameworks to support their claims, which makes the book an important and reliable source concerning racial stratification of urban areas and crime rates associated with this stratification.

Apart from extensive theoretical background, the book in question is characterized by sufficient amount of empirical evidence. It is necessary to note that many surveys have been carried out to analyze correlation between racial structure of communities and crime rates. However, previous research tends to focus on quite limited number of residents and communities.

Kubrin states that the authors have carried out a number of surveys on the matter and the book under consideration is a “culmination of decades of work” (119). Peterson and Krivo provide an in-depth analysis of urban population of 91 big cities, which includes 9,593 neighborhoods. Each city included in the study has population of more than 100,000 people.

The cities were chosen randomly. The authors use the data revealed in the National Neighborhood Crime Study. The researchers obtained crime data from police departments which enabled the researchers to get information on particular communities within the cities studied (Peterson & Krivo 41).

Importantly, these sources were chosen as other resources of information on crime (the Federal Bureau of Investigations) provide data on entire cities rather than on particular communities or neighborhoods (Peterson & Krivo 41). The authors draw specific conclusions and provide a variety of diagrams and tables which illustrate these conclusions. This is very important as it helps readers better perceive the information.

One of the findings is concerned with the segregation value. The researchers note that segregation value affects violence rates in communities. Communities where segregation value is higher are also characterized by higher rates of violence (Peterson & Krivo 73).

The authors also provide certain data that explain distribution of wealth in communities. For instance, Peterson and Krivo state that in the 1990s middle-class white families got 4 times as many loans as “middle-class black neighborhood” (31). Clearly, different communities had different funding which led to further segregation.

It is necessary to note that the book under analysis is a valuable source which provides in-depth insights into the terrain of the correlation between crime rates and race stratification in urban settings. The researchers identify specific goals of the research. They claim that there is a specific correlation between the racial structure of the community and the crime rate in the area.

The researchers manage to achieve their goal as they provide both theoretical and empirical evidence to support their claim. Importantly, the authors start with theoretical frameworks to unveil the relation between crime rates and racial structure of communities. The authors provide brief analysis of the existing research in the area.

They note that the research is not enough as researchers tend to focus on quite limited number of people or communities which can be regarded as insufficient for drawing conclusion in terms of the entire country. At the same time, the authors point out that they have also researched specific areas previously.

The extensive data accumulated and data of the National Neighborhood Crime Study enabled the authors to provide appropriate empirical evidence to support their claim. The authors cover significant population which is enough to draw conclusions in terms of the USA. Therefore, they manage to accomplish the major aim of the research.

It is also important to note that the authors do not only reveal certain facts, they also identify the causes of the specific trends. Thus, the authors state that white communities have received more funding throughout decades while African American as well as Latinos and other ethnic groups within communities have got insignificant monetary aid.

The authors also stress that lack of opportunities leads to increased crime rates as people fail to find the ways to provide for their families. Young people also fail to see prospects as they are confined to follow their parents’ path, i.e. the path of low-paid workers. These conspicuous examples help understand how and even why crime rates and racial structure of communities are related.

Therefore, it is possible to state that the authors managed to achieve their goal and unveil the correlation between crime rates and racial structure of urban communities and reasons for the correlation. They provide sufficient data which justify relevance of the authors’ arguments.

Thus, the book in question is a comprehensive analysis which shows that previous studies on the matter can be regarded as relevant. The book can also become a basis of the further research aimed at developing ways to diminish racial segregation in the country.

Works Cited

Kubrin, Charis E. “Book Review: Divergent Social Worlds.” City & Community 11.1 (2012): 119-121. Print

Peterson, Ruth D. and Lauren Joy Krivo. Divergent Social Worlds: Neighborhood Crime and the Racial-Spatial Divide. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 2010. Print.

Introduction

More than a century ago, Marxists theorists predicted that the social class would replace some primitive basis of political relationship as language and ethnicity. But at the beginning of a new millennium, ethnicity is still a virulent and resilient political force, extending its tendrils to totalitarian states, developing nations, as well as peaceful democracies. Ethnicity and race relations are two social contexts that have been used by the human race both positively and negatively (Eller, 1999). Positive ethnicity has been used by civilizations to facilitate harmonious coexistence of members of one ethnic group. People have been able to identify and share in values and beliefs that have informed their cultural orientations through positive ethnicity. But negative ethnicity has brought untold suffering to the human race inform of genocides and wars. The world has witnessed ethnic groups rising up against each other, and spearheading ethnic cleansing of unimaginable magnitude. This was the case in Luanda, where the Tutsi and Hutu ethnic groups rose against each other. In what appeared to be an ethnically motivated genocide, over 500,000 citizens lost their lives.

Sociologists, anthropologists, and other scholars have spent considerable time trying to understand ethnicity and race issues, which seem to have the power to propel whole ethnic groups into full-scale wars. This research paper, through interviewing a member of the black-American community, will attempt to bring out all sociological issues surrounding ethnicity and its historical background.

Ethnicity is a relative term that has been coined from an ethnic group. By definition, an ethnic group is viewed as a group of individuals who identify with each other on the foundations of real or presumed common ancestry, or on the basis of preferential endogamy (Forbes, 1997). An ethnic group must have a shared group identity, which is easily recognizable through common linguistic, cultural, behavioral, religious, and biological traits.

Having known what an ethnic group is, it is imperative to define ethnicity in relation to the interview with the black-American respondent. Broadly put, ethnicity serves as an important channel through which various individuals can identify themselves. My respondent identifies himself as a black-American, having different biological traits from a Hispanic, Latino, or an Asian. Ethnicity is a phenomenon that is inherent to human experience and therefore serves as a fundamental factor in human life (Restrepo, 2004).

The Interview

To understand the issues of ethnicity better, a one-on-one interview was conducted with a member of the black-American community. Besides the demographic questions, the respondent was asked to comment about his religion, association and friendship, social status, culture, race, nationalism, discrimination, and other issues viewed as pertinent to issues on ethnicity. This paper attempts to give an analysis of the interview based on the broad categories listed above. The analysis is offered below.

Ethnicity and race

The respondent was a black-American, with historical association to a tiny African country called Kenya. He was born in Kenya but his parents later became US citizens due to the nature of the work that they did. The respondent stayed in Kenya until he finished his primary level education, and then flew to join his parents in the United States. The respondent has now lived in US for a total of 14 years and now considers himself as a US citizen.

Through undertaking the interview, it was vehemently clear that race was fundamentally different from ethnicity. Whereas ethnicity describes a cultural heritage, race is seen to describe a biological descent (Sanchez, 1994). Race is inherited while ethnicity is socially learned. To this effect, ethnicity is regarded as a product of social associations while race is viewed in terms of the indispensable qualities that are inherent to human groupings. My respondent had internalized the cultural heritages of the minority black-American neighborhood he was staying in, and to a larger extent the black-American community in the US. When it came to his race, he was inherently a black person from Kenya’s biggest cultural grouping – the Kikuyu.

According to Hylland Eriksen, ethnic studies have traditionally been dominated by two schools of thoughts – the premordialists and the instrumentalists (Edwards, 2002). Proponents of the primordial view perceive ethnic relations collectively as an external social bond. Ethnicity is treated by the instrumentalist’s proponents as an ad-hoc arrangement or political arrangement used by interest groups as a resource for attaining secondary objectives such as status, power, and wealth. My respondent became a US citizen because of his parents influence over the political leadership of his native country, Kenya. His parents belonged to the politically correct elitist tribal (racial) grouping, and held top diplomatic jobs that enabled them to relocate to the US. Through the instrumentalist approach, the respondent’s family was able to utilize ethnicity to attain a secondary objective of relocating in the US.

My respondent said that he had completely internalized the values and beliefs of the black-American neighborhood community. Members of this respective neighborhood come from different races and countries. But despite their racial backgrounds, this group is informed by a subjective belief in their common ancestry because of some unique similarities in their customs, physical physique and types, or because of their shared memories of migration and colonization. This reinforces Max Weber’s definition of an ethnic group (Sanchez, 1994). The ethnicity status of my respondent has been molded on the shared beliefs about colonization and oppression of the members, not withstanding their different racial backgrounds. My respondent’s ethnicity status is also informed by the shared biological make-up of the group – that of having a black skin (Forbes, 1997).

From the encounter with my respondent, it is crystal clear that race and ethnicity are different constructs, though related. They are social constructs that are both defined in reference to a communal genealogy (Forbes, 1997). Like my respondent’s experience with the neighborhood black-American community, ethnicity connotes some shared behavioral, linguistic, cultural, or religious traits. For example, to call the respondent an “African” would immediately elicits a clutch of racial, religious, linguistic, and cultural characteristics that are commonly shared within the ethnic group. By sharp contrast, race refers to concentrations of hereditary genetic configuration in conjunction with shared physical characteristics that appear to fluctuate and vanish in the course of time through the rationality of cultural or geographic isolation (Jessee, 2007). My respondent was initially a black person of the kikuyu race from Kenya. But this indigenous racial orientation evaporated when my respondent flew to America and started to identify with the black community neighborhood.

However, caution must be exercised not to confuse national, cultural, linguistic, and geographic groups as racial groups principally because the cultural traits of people within such groupings have no known genetic association that can be referred as racial trait (Hutchinson, 2000). In an ethnographic research conducted in the span of forty years, American anthropological researchers argued that ethnic and racial categories are representative markers that portray different ways that individuals from different parts of the globe have been integrated into world-wide economy.

Ethnicity and social stratification

During the interview, my respondent was asked about his perception on the American reward system and the distribution of power and authority, and if ethnicity has a role to play in the distribution. He said that most government positions go to the whites, with the blacks sharing in the spoils of blue collar jobs. In the analysis, it is vehemently clear that biological characteristics such as the color of ones skin are vital determinants of a person’s place in a deeply stratified society (Jessee, 2007). According to the responses given by the respondent, racialism and racism in the US are practiced legally in the strict sense of the word that it is normal for a particular racial group to discriminate against the interests of particular ethnic groupings. Ethnicity comes into play in that a particular ethnic orientation can be used against an individual to discriminate against that particular individual or his group. Thus it can be effectively argued that ethnicity is a major contributing factor to the social stratification in the American society.

Ethnicity has brought about a form of social stratification in society through which individuals and ethnic groups are differentiated along material and non-material characteristics. Material characteristics include things such as income and wealth, while non-material characteristics include status and power. Ethnicity is directly linked to the social inequalities found in the American society, which has inarguably contributed to the unequal distribution of non-material as well as material rewards. When an ethnic group is stratified, a set of social characteristics or behaviors are assigned to it. Since differences in social status can be used as a social resource to buy income and wealth statuses, individuals are encouraged to create status differences. In this kind of association, cultural or biological differences between individuals or social groups are potentially subjugated to create differences in status. It therefore becomes relatively easy to discriminate individuals on the variations of age, biological sex, disability, or color of the skin (Forbes, 1997).

Race has time and again influenced social stratification, which reveals an individual’s status within the social standing and introduces power variations as individuals of different races interact with one another. On the contrary, ethnicity connotes common shared meaning and culture. It includes perceptions, feelings, expectations, thoughts, and actions of a group as a direct result of shared historical experiences (Eller, 1999).

Ethnicity and culture

The respondent was asked to comment on his cultural orientation in relation to the ethnic grouping of the black-American community. In a broad context, culture includes just about everything about a particular set of individuals. In the analysis, Weberian assertion about culture and ethnicity was reinforced. Culture informs the ethnic orientation of a particular group. Culture governs the way people believe and act, and how they view and do things in the group. It informs the ethnicity of the group through the sharing of particular features such as the culture itself, language, religion, physical appearance, customs, and values (Albuquerque, & McElroy, 1999).

The concept of culture has been defined differently by many scholars depending on the context of use. For the purposes of this discussion, culture is defined as a cumulative deposit of experience, knowledge, values, beliefs, attitudes, hierarchies, meanings, spatial relations, roles, notion of times, spatial relations, material objects and possessions, and concepts of the universe acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through group as well as individual striving. Culture can also be defined as a system of communication and knowledge shared by a relatively large group of individuals. More importantly, culture can be defined as the sum total of the learned behavior of individuals that are universally considered to be the tradition of those individuals and are transmitted from one generation to another (Li & Karakowsky, 2001).

Culture was seen to inform the dynamics of the black-American minority group to which the respondent belonged. This minority group is numerically inferior to the other population of the nation, and is relegated to a non-dominant position. Members within the minority group share religious, ethnic, and linguistic characteristics that distinguish them from other members of the population. Through ethnicity, members of this particular minority group share a mutual desire to preserve their traditions, culture, religion, and language. Contextually speaking, a minority group can sometimes have the numerical majority but still be in a group position that is perceived as disadvantaged. It can explicitly be argued that ethnicity has a huge role to play in the dynamics and working relationships of a minority group which makes it not to be informed by the numbers but rather by some distinguishing characteristics such as discrimination (Sanchez, 1994).

Through the discussion held with the respondent, it was revealed that members of the respondent’s ethnic group suffer various disadvantages at the hands of the dominant culture – the white culture. It was also revealed that ethnicity enabled the minority group to be identified through group features that were socially visible. Such features include a complex self-consciousness and a very strong sense of togetherness and oneness made possible through identifying with one particular ethnic orientation (Edwards, 2002). Through the interview, it was also revealed that individuals are not naturalized into a minority group through voluntary basis but culture and ethnicity has a role to play in naturalizing people into the minority group.

The above formed some enterprising revelations about the real value of ethnicity in American society. Through the interview, it was revealed that culture informs the ethnic orientation of a particular group, which later serves as glue to hold the members of that particular group together. All what that transpires in the group is informed by the culture of that group.

Ethnic nationalism

During the interview, it was revealed that the respondent defined the “nation” in reflection to ethnicity. This brings the issue of ethnic nationalism, which defines a nation by the shared heritage, a common language, common ethnic ancestry, and common faith (Nancy, 2003). Under the tenets of ethnic nationalism, individuals from each ethnic group are entitled to self-determination. Ethnic nationalism in scholarly literature is keen to base membership of the nation on heredity or descent and often articulated in terms of kinship or common blood relations. It tends to highlight common culture and shared narratives.

Culture and ethnicity informs the nationalistic orientations of a particular individual or ethnic group. Through the interview, it was found that ethnicity reflects the nationalism held by an individual to the point of identifying with nationalistic values held by the respondent. In my case, the respondent was a black-American of the Kenyan origin. Through ethnicity, he identified with the goals and aspirations of his Kenyan ancestry more than he could identify with American nationalistic values and beliefs. This clearly shows that ethnicity has a clear role to play in informing the nationalistic principles of an individual. The nationalistic values that take precedence over any other values are those that are internalized early in the life of individuals.

Ethnicity and the choice of food

Through the interview, it was revealed that ethnicity has an active role in determining the choice of food (lifestyles) of individuals. Different ethnic groupings select and choose different types of food and different feeding styles. Individuals belonging to the same ethnic group are brought up and raised in certain manner and style. This therefore means that ethnicity issues will pretty much influence their attitudes towards people, lifestyles, health, and even feeding habits. The feeding habits are instilled into the lives of individuals at a very early age and emanates from the country where the individuals originates from (Edwards, 2002). In my case, the feeding habits of my respondent were informed by the country of origin – Kenya.

Ethnicity has been directly linked to the choice of food that individuals consume. For example, afro-Caribbean and African ethnic groups are known to consume foods that contain a lot of rice, wheat, and meat. Asian and Eastern ethnic groups will consume food rations that contain a lot of spices and herbs. This is all influenced by the values, belief system, attitudes, and perceptions that a particular group holds, otherwise known as ethnicity. But it is influenced by social and cultural constructs in that the choice of food is influenced by other dominant cultures that surround the ethnic group (Sanjay, 2008). In my case, the respondent’s choice of food has been overly influenced by the western dominant culture to a point that he has forgotten his traditional choices of food.

Ethnicity and religion

My respondent held an Adventist religious orientation. This religious orientation was not inherent to his traditional Kenyan culture but it was learnt out of the interactions between the individuals of his black-American neighborhood community. It is perceived that ethnicity informs the religious orientation of a particular group. Religion in the mainstream American society is ethnically oriented. This idea can be reinforced by how anger is directed against members of the Muslim religious orientation after the tragic events of September 11 bombings of the World Trade Centre (Sanjay, 2008).

Religion is at the centre of ethnicity since it reveals an ethnic group’s belief or non-belief of a supernatural deity. Social interactions revolve around the religious beliefs and inform the lives of members of a particular group. In some instances, negative religious ethnicity has been found to cause untold suffering in the lives of people like it was the case in former Yugoslavia, where ethnic cleansing occurred based on religious affiliations. The Balkan war is a stark reminder of how religion is directly related to ethnicity.

Positive religious ethnicity on the other part has been used by ethnic groups to describe and illustrate their religious orientations, and to a wider context the lifestyles of that particular groups. This can best be reinforced by the Roman Catholics. Their religious orientation has been known to influence the way of life and ethnic orientations of its proponents. Catholics all over the world are driven by certain way of life and holds perceived values and beliefs to be mutually important. This can serve to show how both ethnicity and religion influences each other in the shaping of an ethnic group (Restrepo, 2004).

Conclusion

Without doubt, the interview with my black-American respondent revealed the close correlations between ethnicity, race, social stratification, and culture, choice of food, nationalism and religion. It was also revealed that ethnicity was at the core of social interactions in society. It was a social construct arising from the already mentioned factors. Ethnicity is coined from an ethnic group- a primary representation of individuals. Ethnicity is at the forefront of helping individuals to identify with one another through the foundations of a real or presumed common ancestry. Through ethnicity, individuals in a group share in one group identity which is easily recognizable through common linguistic, behavioral, religious, and biological traits (Sanchez, 1994).

Through the interview, various ethnicity issues have been brought up from past historical perspectives of sociologists such as Max Weber to modern ethnic orientations, and how it has been used in the world to bring both positive and negative results. We have seen how ethnicity has been particularly used to cause mayhem and genocide in various countries including Luanda and the former Yugoslavia. All in all, ethnicity has been perceived as a crucial determinant in race relations and will continue to influence how people interact with each other through the various ethnic groups that exist in the world.

References

1. Alburquerque, K., & McElroy, J. Race, Ethnicity, and Social Stratification in Three Windward Islands. 1999.
2. Edwards, W.B. Social Stratification – Ethnicity, Gender and Class. 2002. Web.
3. Eller, J.D. From Culture to Ethnicity to Conflict: An Anthropological Perspective on Ethnic Conflict. University of Michigan Press (1999). ISBN: 978-0472085385
4. Forbes, H.D. Ethnic conflict: Commerce, Culture, and Contact Hypothesis. Yale University Press (1997). ISBN: 9780300068191
5. Hutchinson, J., & Smith, A.D. Nationalism: Critical Concepts in Political science. Routledge (2000). ISBN: 0415217563
6. Jessee, M.K. Social Inequality and differentiation: Ethnicity and Stratification. Sociology Central. 2007
7. Nancy, S. Culture. 2003. Web.
8. Restrepo, A.D. “Human Rights and Ethnic Identity in a Sociological Perspective.” The Law and Society Association. 2004.
9. Sanchez, N.M. Race and Ethnicity. 1994.
10. Sanjay, D. “Hoe Personal Factors including Culture and Ethnicity affects the Choices and
11. Selection of Food we make.” The Internet Journal of Third World Medicine, vol 8, no 2 (2008).

Racial discrimination in the US has been a major problem since colonial period particularly during the eras of slave trade but at the moment it has reduced. This paper discusses the future of racial and ethnicity in the US. Diverse minority races have migrated to the United States throughout its history to interact with the Americans. However, the Americans perceived them different because of their language, cultural practices and appearance.

Ethnicity values among the Native Americans and minority races encouraged expansion of in group loyalty and out group enmity. Hostility was also promoted by colonialism, political dominance and competition for scarce resources but it is worthy to note that prejudicial attitude against the minority varied greatly. The increased number of different race in the US led to changes in attitude; social and economic conditions which greatly affected the immigrants since every race had their own expectations such as retain their cultural practices become US citizens or even get better opportunities to improve their lifestyle back in their homeland.

The increased number of Immigrants into US has contributed to changes in the demographic patterns for instance, according to the Census Bureau there are approximately I million minorities and 400,000 unregistered. In addition the fertility has also increased to 2.1 percent. By 2050 US will constitute many diversity races that will be unified by same cultural beliefs and practices and there is a possibility of them becoming minorities in their own country. In addition, the population characteristic of America is adjusting for instance minority race like the Hispanics (Latin Americans) will be largest in numbers followed by African Americans.

However, the Americans have not yet respected and appreciated the minority races. As a result some of them are crying out against migrations of minorities into their land. Still yet cases of racial and ethnic assimilation are present. But the main question goes, is America ready to deal with this? It begins with a change in attitude towards the minority and teaching the Americans to accept and appreciate others regardless of their racial backgrounds.

In future therefore different races are going to appreciate and understand one another diversity.Prejudice based on race will reduce in the society only when adjustments are incorporated in the society through social capital, transnational and segmented integration. Transnationalism is the continuous relations of individuals/groups and organizations across national frontiers resulting from international migration. This concept is very essential has helped the migrants to maintain cultural ties in both countries and the ability to make contributions to their homeland and new land. Therefore, instead of migrating to US permanently trans-nationalism legalizes the links.

Social capital this is the available resources to individuals or groups to ensure institutionalized ties of identification and approval. Minority races with social capital can use it to acquire support like job opportunities, child support and insurance in foreign land instead of being prejudiced against due to their racial or ethnic backgrounds. Segmented integration this is a concept that calls for immigrants to adapt different techniques to be assimilated in the US society such as education and residence area. This concept will enable them to be respected instead of being biased.

Conclusion

Research shows that the United States is a home for more than three million biracial kids as well as many innumerable grown up Blacks and Whites who also peg on the diverse ethnic pedigree. In a nutshell, multiplicity could help define the ancient times, current and the future of US.

And yet, as the global society develops into a dumpy village the common humanity is enlightening itself. A few decades from now I foresee a scenario where all Americans will be amalgamated by a core civilization, where values are shared with assured principles, the nations idiosyncrasies would comprehend what makes them common and as such embrace the belief of being equals as stipulated by a declaration that was pronounced over two hundred and twenty one years ago by the founding fathers.

References

Vincent Parrillo. Understanding Race and Ethnic Relations 3^rd Ed. Chapter 7 pp. 149-182. Copyright 2008, 2005, 2002 Pearson Education, Inc.

Suicide is one of the top ten main causes of death in the United States, making it a major issue. Suicide rates vary enormously across the United States. Understanding demographic trends and mortality processes at various levels of urbanization is crucial for developing and concentrating future prevention strategies. Suicide rates increased at all three levels of urbanization. The demographics with the highest suicide rates were men and non-Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Natives. The rate of suicides committed with firearms in nonmetropolitan/rural areas was nearly twice that of larger metropolitan counties. Suicides have increased in recent years, particularly among working-age people aged 45–64 (Ivey-Stephenson et al., 2017). The suicide rate in the West is higher than in the South, Midwest, and Northeast. This study looks at death certificate data from 2001 to 2015 to see how urbanization, demographic characteristics, and death method affect suicide patterns.

Nonmetropolitan or rural counties have persistently higher age-adjusted suicide rates than medium/small and large metropolitan counties from 2001 to 2015. Economic indices, for example, foreclosures, poverty, and unemployment, differ by the amount of urbanization, with rural regions often having a higher frequency of these negative aspects. Suicide rates for males are more significant than for women when age is considered (Ivey-Stephenson et al., 2017). This discrepancy persists independent of urbanization degree, with nonmetropolitan/rural counties showing the most significant disparities. Non-Hispanic American Indian or Alaska Natives have the highest suicide rates of any race or ethnicity.

Suicidal behavior is common among older people for several reasons, although much of it stems from social factors. Loneliness always and generally has been to top the list of reasons for suicide. Many older people are housebound and live on their own, usually after losing a spouse. If their spouse has recently passed away and there are no family members or friends nearby, they may lack the social connections to live a peaceful life. The result is prolonged and severe depression. As a rule, men kill themselves, and there is a reason for that too. This is professional and existential burnout, a whole life devoted to a particular cause, whether family or work, can eventually lead to depression in old age (Coon et al., 2018). The most obvious is the destructive influence on residents of densely populated urban areas. Even though there are many potential social interactions around at first glance, people feel alienated. The heavy, chaotic, and stressful workflow in cities; the same can be said about the urbanized life itself.

Suicide rates for the general population are greater in rural settlements than in metropolitan ones, regardless of sex, race/ethnicity, age group, or method of death. The study emphasizes the importance of analyzing both across and within urbanization levels in order to plan and implement personalized suicide prevention measures. In this case, alienation may arise due to literal asociality—life on remote and isolated farms, away from the nearest community center (Coon et al., 2018). The rural dweller’s lack of access to so many urban morale boosters, such as psychological help and antidepressants, has an effect. Hard manual labor also plays an important role, often causing more stress among the men who traditionally do it in the field. All these factors, in essence, form a logical picture of what happens to the resident of the countryside further. Stress, fatigue, and alienation lead to many people in rural areas experiencing depression. However, in the absence of qualified psychologists nearby and medical assistance, like antidepressants, people resort to older ways to relieve stress. As a rule, many people in late middle and old age can suffer from alcoholism, which comes from attempts to get rid of stress through alcohol.

References

Coon, D., Mitterer, J. O., & Martini, T. S. (2018). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior (15^th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Ivey-Stephenson, A. Z., Crosby, A. E., Jack, S. P. D., Haileyesus, T., & Kresnow-Sedacca, M. J. (2017). Suicide trends among and within urbanization levels by sex, race/ethnicity, age group, and mechanism of death — United States, 2001–2015.MMWR. Surveillance Summaries, 66(18), 1–16.

Introduction

Race refers to the phenotypic appearance of an individual, which includes skin color, nose, and hair appearance. On the other hand, ethnicity refers to cultural factors such as nationality, religion, tribal affiliation, traditions, and language. This paper seeks to explore what impacts the differences in race and ethnicity cause. Race and ethnicity are intertwined; people of a particular race are likely to portray similar cultural traits. In the USA, during the slave trade, the whites were regarded as the supreme race with civilized ethnic characteristics. Intersexual sex or marriage was considered as moves that would lower human quality, threaten the existence of the white race and weaken the concentration of white power. The white people, who enjoyed a large junk of power, cooked a way to reduce racial and ethnic mingling, thus the genesis of the one-drop rule.

One Drop Rule Deployment

The one-drop rule encompasses a set of rules that had two aims; one was to block interracial cohabitation while the second desire was to put across the definition of a Negro. The rule defined a Negro as anyone “with…any negro blood whatever.” Regarding the identification of a Negro, the powerful race engineered blood fractional laws. The first blood law was in the year 1705 and was known as the one-eighth rule where one was considered black if one of their great grandparents was entirely of African decency. By 1910, twenty out of the forty-six states applied the one-eighth or one-fourth rule to define a Negro. Later on, appearance and behavior chipped in as a possible guideline in defining a Negro. The role of appearance is evidenced by the Guy v. Daniel case in which Abby Guy-a a slave, was granted freedom based on his behavior and appearance.

In curbing interracial cohabitation, the government at various levels engineered ways. One of the ways was sound whipping, as was the case of Hugh Davis in 1630. Davis was suspected of interracial sexual contact with one of his black slave women; he was whipped before an assembly of Negroes while being accused of dishonoring God and shaming Christianity. In Virginia State, for example, extramarital sex was regarded as a crime. Moreover, during Oliver Cromwell’s era, the penalty for interracial sex was increased in 1662 (Painter 2009). In 1691, the celebration of interracial matrimony was criminalized- a move which Maryland too adapted. Later on, interracial marriage was banned, but extramarital interracial sex between white men and black women was tolerated. By 1910, twenty-nine states prosecuted interracial marriage but not interracial sex. Despite Sexual contact between white men and black women being tolerated, the arising offspring were considered people to increase laborers’ pool but have their freedom limited.

Sexual contact between black men and white women was intolerable; such women were considered a disgrace to the white race and the entire nation, and having them enslaved was their punishment. In the reconstruction period, having a biracial child was regarded as evidence of a parental crime (Hill 2009). The prohibition of interracial marriage, fining of interracial fornication, and enslavement of children born of interracial marriages/sex all acted to preserve racial purity. Subsequently, the offspring of interracial sex became large despite the rules of the one-drop rule. The offspring were regarded as mulatto, and the supreme race threatened them that they would be sterile, which was untrue.

Conclusion

One’s race refers to one physical outlook, while ethnicity refers to their cultural identity. Race and ethnicity are tightly related, and the white people considered their race and ethnicity supreme, which made them enjoy privileges such as being a master rather than a slave. To protect their supremacy, they engineered the one-drop rule, which defines a Negro as anyone with black ancestry. The rule also sought to ban interracial sex and marriage for their supremacy to be protected.

References

Hill, J. H. (2009). The everyday language of white racism. John Wiley & Sons.

Painter, D. (2009). The everyday language of white racism, Jane H. Hill: book review. New Voices in Psychology, 5(1), 129-132.

Introduction

Canada is one of the countries that accommodate the highest number of immigrants in the world. This immigration has led to the entry of individuals from different races and ethnic backgrounds. This has eventually led to discrimination against some races and ethnic groups especially the immigrants. The main area of concern is income differentials between individuals from different races and ethnic groups. This paper will seek to analyze the issue of race and ethnicity in Canada.

Politically at Stake

The population in Canada has been unable to provide the workforce that is required in the country. This has led to the entry of immigrants into the country who possess the work skills that are needed. The experiences, identities, and outcomes of the people who live in Canada are greatly influenced by the racial background of an individual. The earnings by individuals who were born in Canada are very different from the earnings that the immigrants receive Non-white women in Canada assume certain positions and they mostly work as nurses, bank tellers, and secretaries. These immigrants receive lower wages about the amount that the Canadian-born individuals receive. A Canadian-born worker who performs the same responsibility as an immigrant from a different country gets higher salaries than the immigrant. In selecting immigrants into the labor market, the criteria are used to ensure that those who are absorbed can meet the outlined responsibilities. When such a criterion is used, there should be no differences in income by individuals taking similar work but discrimination still exist. The immigrants also do not get an equal opportunity when it comes to employment (Walker 28). Employment is affected by racial and ethnic factors where the Canadian-born individual will always have an added advantage in a vacancy. For example, if an immigrant from a certain minority group and a Canadian-born individual have the same qualifications for a job in terms of experience training, and education, and apply for the same job, the Canadian-born individual has a higher chance of getting the job than the immigrant. This is an indication that racial discrimination still exists regardless of claims that Canada is race-neutral (Thankery 8).

Consequences of Racial Discrimination

Racial and ethnic discrimination affects both the individuals who are discriminated against and the society in general (Vickers and Prempeh 54). The living standards of individuals from those races that are discriminated against are quite low. These individuals pay high prices for the goods that they buy and sell their products at lower prices so that the goods are bought. These individuals also have few employment opportunities and the ones that they get pay little amount of money. An individual who discriminates against some groups of people is likely to end up selling his or her products at a lower price to a fellow Canadian-born individual than sell it at a higher price to an immigrant of a different race. Some organizations fail to maximize their production by leaving some immigrants who are more productive than the Canadian-born whites.

Policies to help reduce Racial Discrimination

There has been a set of policies that are used in reducing discrimination in the labor market. These policies have not been very successful and some changes have been proposed (Hewitt 134). A much tighter and enforced quota system will ensure that the immigrants who get into the country are with the required qualification and the number is just enough without excesses. The changes in policies that affect the individuals already in the country include legislation, education, government subsidies, and others. Canada-born individuals should also be educated on the importance of all individuals to the growth of the country.

Conclusion

Canada claims to be a race-neutral country but there are still racial discriminations especially about income and employment. Most of the immigrants who get into the country experience racial discrimination. This discrimination affects individuals and society at large. Some changes in the current policies can help reduce racial discrimination in the country.

Works Cited

Hewitt Roger. White Backlash and the Politics of Multiculturalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Thankey, Veevek. Discrimination against Canadian Colors. 2002. Web.

Vickers, Jill and Prempeh, Edward. The Politics of Race: Canada, Australia, and the United States. New York: Dundern Press Ltd, 2003.

Walker Barrington. The History of racism and Immigration in Canada: Essential Readings. Canada: Canadian Scholars Press, 2002.

Ethnic-sensitive practices have developed increasing relevance in the social work literature. Diversity is a keynote feature in our society, and its inclusion in social work positively influences perceptions, behaviors, and interventions. I developed concern about race and ethnicity factors in social work after participating in an immigrant and refugee aid program in our local parish under Catholic Extension. We had traveled to the southern border to deliver charitable care to immigrant families. The southern boundary is diverse races and ethnicity, including Central Americans, Mexicans, black Americans, and Indians originating from El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, and Honduras. Differences in customs, beliefs, language of communication, and cultural values among the various immigrant races and ethnicities affected how we delivered our social aid.

First, the language barrier affected how we integrated and coordinated our charity program. The Mexicans spoke Spanish, whereas the native Indians communicated in Hindi. Therefore multilingual services were required to accommodate all the recipients with fairness. We had to introduce translators for effective communication and response when interacting with the ethnic and racially diverse communities. A conglomeration of people from diverse backgrounds demonstrates poor interest and response when there is a language barrier (De Vries et al., 2019). The translators had similar ethnic identities whose vocabulary and language evoked active participation. The immigrants were divided according to their ethnicities and addressed differently with a keen interest in individual group members.

We encountered varying customs and beliefs among the immigrants that we were unfamiliar with. I observed that the immigrants had integrated patterns of diverse and unique behaviors, including attitudes, thoughts, and actions attributable to their racial ethnicity. For instance, the Mexicans had a custom of maintaining family loyalty, African Americans had a hospitality custom, whereas Indians practiced many religions. Therefore our approach to donations differed whereby aid for the Mexicans was shared among family groups, while religious intermediaries were used to deliver assistance to the Indians. The black Americans were very welcoming of us, and the support was delivered. Racial and ethnic customary values enabled us to navigate the traditional barriers that would have potentially impeded our project.

Before attending the donation project, we had been composed by the youth leader how to demonstrate cultural competence and its importance. Unlike the customs, which are outward signs and rituals, cultural values aren’t evident right away and determine what is good and wrong in society (Corley & Young, 2018). We learned how to exercise cultural humility and sensitivity through examining our cultural background to enhance certainty of personal assumptions, biases, values, and stereotypes. Additionally, we were requested to abandon our values since they could affect our professional judgment, behaviors, actions, and decisions. For instance, the cultural values of Mexicans, black Americans, and Indians evident during the trip were royalty, compassion, and harmony. Understanding the cultural values enabled us to develop culturally competent interventions that appreciate their cultural values without prejudice or judgment.

Ignoring the ethnic and racial diversity in executing our church mission in refugee zones was impossible. Ethnic and racial diversities inflicted different customs, language barriers, and cultural values. We had to overcome the ethnic and racial barriers that would have potentially challenged our charity work. Ethnicity defines the values, language, behavior patterns, and lifestyle of social work groups critical for enhancing relations, predictability, and response. In my career as a social worker, I am preparing to work with clients with diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds.

References

Corley, N. A., & Young, S. M. (2018). Is social work still racist? A content analysis of recent literature. Social work, 63(4), 317-326. Web.

De Vries, K., Banister, E., Dening, K. H., & Ochieng, B. (2019). Advance care planning for older people: The influence of ethnicity, religiosity, spirituality and health literacy.Nursing ethics, 26(7-8), 1946-1954. Web.