Category: Ethnicity

Many of the problems seen in modern times are due to events that many Americans pass off as “typical” with misfortunes and injustices. The Other Wes Moore perfectly exemplifies these exact afflictions that a multitude of people face in the United States, partially due to ethnicity or cultural background. The instances of poverty, economic injustice, drugs, and family influence in The Other Wes Moore contribute to significant findings in the socioeconomic structure that relate to considerable matters in the present day. An in-depth analysis of the story of both Wes and Moore in the eyes of a student of National Security and Foreign Affairs, and through the perspective of an Intelligence Officer, reveals small factors that both characters faced that resulted in life-altering circumstances. The purpose of this paper is to examine, contrast, and relate the conditions that were faced by both Wes Moore’s, and how those impacts alter political decisions and ultimately matters of national security. Commonalities between Wes and Moore regarding their growth and development included financial issues, fatherlessness, the use and dealing of controlled substances and the overall involvement of their family in their lives. The concepts concerning the field of national security are heavily influenced by the topics states above. Both Moore families face economic injustice in either Baltimore and the Bronx. For the author, his mother struggles to send him to Riverdale County School, a prestigious private school far away from the poverty he is used to in the Bronx. His mother works multiple jobs just to send her son to a place where he can achieve academic excellence and receive the education he deserves. However, once he attends this school, Moore realizes that in comparison to his fellow students who also attend this school, his family is quite economically disadvantaged. Massive amounts of extreme poverty can be deemed a threat to domestic and global security for a variety of reasons. For nations that are forced into widespread poverty, civil unrest is often present and may result in the destruction of borders and total anarchy. Education is an important factor in terms of national security as well, in the United States, highly educated citizens can prosper and pull themselves out of an economic hole, similar to the author, and much like what the original values of the American Dream stood for. To Mary, her acceptance letter to John Hopkins was a godsend and, “It was a golden ticket to another world,” and that it was a pathway to “the life she wanted, the life she dreamed about.” However, even the highly educated can be led into a world of terrorism. Georgetown University professor, Carol Lancaster describes how “[t]he terrorists of Al Qaeda were educated, from well-off families, and mostly from countries that have long ago graduated from the category of the world’s poorest,”. Nevertheless, senior security Iraqi officials reported that the majority of ISIS recruits were, “mostly young men between the ages of 16 and 25 who are primarily poor, unemployed and lack an education.” Based on his background, Wes would have been a prime candidate for recruitment by radicalized groups because they often incentivize means of escaping injustices and gaining power in a group that they are accepted by. The same philosophy applies to gangs are throughout the nation, which increases domestic crime rates. In the future position of an Intelligence Officer with specializations in counterterrorism, it is vital to understand the roots of radicalized groups and the motivations they offer for moderate civilians to join their ranks. It is far less costly to combat these issues, such as widespread poverty, at their source in the United States and throughout the world, rather than invade and conquer, but offer no long-term solutions.

In addition to the misfortunes brought upon by the horrors of economic injustice, the environment of family life has a significant effect on the upbringing of a child. Both Moore and Wes were fatherless from a young age, but from the knowledge of their fathers, they had starkly different parenting styles. The beginning of the story describes one of the few memories that Moore has of his father, Westley. When Moore is three years old, he playfully punches his older sister, Nikki. Joy, his mother, is furious, which upsets Moore, but when Westley comes to speak with him, he expresses calamity and the means and reasonings for correcting his actions and wrongdoing. Westley died shortly after of epiglottitis. Ever since then, Westley was an inspiration to Moore and he strived to make his father proud, even though he was no longer with them. Westley was Moore’s inspiration and set him up on a path for success. On the other hand, Wes’ father, Bernard, left his family before the birth of his son. Wes first meets his father when he is eight, as he is sitting on Wes’ grandmother’s couch in an alcoholic stupor. Bernard does not have a positive impact on Wes’ life, like that Moore did with his father. Wes’ other family members were not conducive to his success either. Although it does not make them “bad people”, much of Wes’ family suffers from alcohol or drug abuse, and are not as present in the life of a young child as most people would hope for. It appears to me that an influence that kept Wes’ inline was the pride he took in his recreational football team.

[Wes] played defensive end for the Northwood Rams, one of the best rec football teams in the nation. Wes loved football, and his athletic frame made him a natural. Even if he was just going out to play in the streets with Woody and some other friends, he wore that jersey like a badge of honor. The crimson ‘Northwood’ that blazed across his white jersey gave him a sense of pride, a sense of belonging.

His inclusion and success on the Rams allowed him to discipline himself because the team was so important to him, it gave him something that he truly cared about in a life that offered him so little. Unfortunately, Wes’ life made a turn for the worse when he became involved in the drug game like so many of his peers. Some may argue that this was necessary for Wes as he had few other means of earning money to survive and fulfill his desires. All this is important to understand in my discipline and future career because it is essential to understand critical divergent points in the lives that criminals are created. However, in the field of national security, crimes must be looked at from a broader perspective, so that one can understand the social and political influences that affect the lives of these individuals.

Overall, The Other Wes Moore connects to my discipline by providing a case study of how two people, born into very similar worlds, can have such different results. Understanding those pivot points and forks in road can help me to better comprehend widespread socioeconomic that have the potential to become a domestic or foreign threat. Furthermore, this novel does not entirely change my perception of Ut Proism, but it does provide insight into who I am serving, and why. This story is ever more encouraging to help others take the path that Moore took, rather than Wes, and although everyone’s case varies, it provides generalizations of those who may be at risk for becoming involved with crime.

1.0. Introduction:

Education in Ireland plays a crucial role in shaping society. The dramatic transformation of Irish society in the past number of decades has contributed to the monumental steps taken to strive to create inclusivity in the Irish Education System. The growing interest and impact of ethnicity, gender and social class on schools and schooling effects a students experience of education. Students are undoubtedly influenced socially though the school environment and their peers. It is evident that those of varied ethnic groups, gender and social class are aware of their social status more predominantly at secondary level than primary level. It is the responsibility of the education system to equip the youth with the knowledge, values and attitudes to make a difference as well as a positive contribution to society. Through teaching students how to critically think they form their own conceptions and perceptions of people and situations.

W.B. Yeats once said that “Education is not like the filling of the pail, but the lighting of a fire.” This reflects on its role and impact on society, how its inherent ability to change ones behaviours and attitudes in an ever changing world. This essay will examine the impact of ethnicity, gender and social class on schools and schooling reflecting on the importance of student experience and its effect on students educational outcomes and progression into further education and working life.

1.1. Ethnicity and Education:

Ethnicity is referring to a shared culture or way of life. There has been a long standing indigenous and immigrant ethnic minorities in Ireland e.g. travellers, Jewish, Italian, Chinese, Polish and refugees. It cannot be denied that ethnicity in schools in today’s society has a substantial impact on students experience of education both socially and academically. The Irish education system has been crucial in the cultural revival of the 1920’s in post- independence Ireland. A significant number of schools in the country were and still are religiously owned and controlled. Predominantly, schools with Roman Catholic ethos have a dominant ethnic community. This section will identify the impact of ethnicity on schools and schooling and its effects on students education experience in Ireland.

The increase in immigrants attending schools in Ireland has been consequential since 1990. Ethnic identities are actively formed through interaction which is a very personal experience and what makes adolescence so important. According to the CSO in 2016 there were 96,497 non-Irish national students and pupils aged 5 years and over attending schools throughout the country. Dympna Devine states that “the role of the state, through its immigration and educational policies, in framing teacher discourse in inclusionary or exclusionary terms” therefore, Devine highlights that the state has only a national identity interest which positions all minority ethnic groups as “other” (Devine, 2005, p. 49). This discourse is indeed evident through the vast majority of schools with a Roman Catholic ethos in the country. Incorporating as well as introducing culture and awareness of ethnicity to society is becoming a growing part of the Irish education system. The three main types of secondary school still stand, voluntary, vocational and community and comprehensive schools. The Educate Together school establishments which were first introduced in 1978 and are increasing in numbers around the country. These schools are democratically run with an emphasis on the encouragement of active participation by both students and parents. The schools differ in many ways to the traditional school values previous to 1978. Educate together schools ethos involve an equality based environment with no one set of religious ethos, a child-centred environment where student voice is valued and a co-educational classroom is in place (Educate Together, 2018).

Intercultural relationships need to be promoted in schools where ‘inclusive’ admission policies need to be implemented in schools throughout the country. David Gillborn in his article examines the various ethnic groups in secondary schools in the U.K. He found that students ethnic backgrounds impacted on their academic results in school. In maths in particular students who were of Indian origin or white achieved significantly higher results than the Black African or Black Caribbean students. Gender also played a role in the results. These test scores and perceptions result in students being streamed into higher and lower sets and as a result the “association between set placement and final achievement is hardly surprising” (Gillborn, 2010, p. 234). These students are left feeling segregated in a non- inclusive environment. Van der Brachts moves away from the impact of ethnicity on academic achievement and examines idea “that schools exert important socializing influences” and that due to the amount of time students spend in school it shapes a student’s behaviour and values (Van der Bracht, 2017, p. 2). Students in a school with a higher population of varied ethnic groups effects religiosity and Van der Bracht finds that “ a positive effect of attending a school with a higher share of ethnic minority pupils on changes in religiosity” (Van der Bracht, 2017, p. 8). Students in the minority tend to remain together which is evident in schools throughout the country.

1.2. Gender and Education:

Gender is a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions associated with being male or female. Gender identity is the extent to which one identifies as being either masculine or feminine (Diamond, 2002). It is apparent that gender has a profound effect on the educational outcomes of students. This section will examine how ones gender both male/ female and LGBT effects educational experience in Ireland.

According to Diane Reay “The seduction of binaries such as male: female, boy: girl often prevents us from seeing the full range of diversity and differentiation existing within one gender as well as between categories of male and female.” (Reay, 2001, p. 163). Society determines peoples behaviours depending on their gender identification. In Barbara Reads article she examines young girls perceptions of femininity as being associated with “niceness”, “prettiness” and “friendliness” (Read, 2011, p. 6 & 7). Young girls role models from an early age are usually gender based with the popular girl in school aligning with these role models who are generally the highly feminine celebrity. These common perceptions among girls are the result of the docile manifestations of femininity where women are compliant, elegant, polite, gentle and deferential in stark comparison to the ideas in this hegemonic society where masculinity is defined by acts of aggression, physical domination and denigration of the female (Keddie, 2006). Education and schools are agents for perpetuating the social process of gendered identities.

It is evident that in today’s society school subjects undertaken by students are often dependant on gender. “Gender ideology” is a concept discussed by many academics, the concept of the ideology ascertains how a social environment and the depiction of cultural beliefs can define the “appropriate” behaviours of male and female. The generalisations that males are academically stronger at maths, science and practical subjects such as woodwork, DCG, and metal work are compared with the generalisations that art, music, English are subjects associated with being highly feminine. According to the Central Statistics Office (CSO) on Education in 2016, more girls than boys sat higher level papers in the Leaving Certificate exams in English, French, Irish, Biology, Chemistry, Art, Home Economics and Music. In the same year more boys than girls took the higher level papers in Mathematics, Physics, Construction studies, Design and communication graphics (DCG) and Engineering. As a result of this, the number of males graduating from Engineering degrees in 2016 was 82.4% and the number of females graduating from Health being 76. % and Education 71.4%. These statistics confirm the “gender ideology” surrounding male and female behaviours and who influences the perceived “appropriate” occupations for these gender stereotypes.

Emer Smyth (2010) examines the low take up of practical or technological subjects by females in a school in co-educational secondary schools in Ireland. A high percentage of students did not take “non-conventional” subjects due to the influence of their peers, teacher input and influence from family members. It was noted that business was seen as a “useful” subject and one of which provides potential success and opportunity. Student perceptions of subjects varied from her research with students seeing Art as an easy subject predominantly taken by females and with small female to male ratios in the woodwork classes. The influence of subject teachers in their approach to promoting their subject to the targeted gender group reiterates Jessica Ringrose’s theory that schools are upholding the “status quo” and continues to be the sight of the reproduction of these gender inequalities (Ringrose, 2012). This leads to the long standing promotion of single sex schools especially in Ireland and the tendency of students to do better academically due to “less distraction” from the opposite sex. This perception however, may be applied and practised due to cultural, historical or religious influences and as a result one third of the secondary schools in this country are single sex. The downfall of single sex schools is the lack of development in social skills for interaction between the sexes and in preparation for third level or working life. During their secondary education students feel the need to promote their masculinity or femininity and outside of these traditional conventions and constraints it can be extremely difficult to “fit in”. It must be considered by teachers the varied learning styles and varied expectations of students depending on their gender identification. It is important to encourage students to enjoy their educational experience and not to be defined by the social constraints (peers, social media, family, teachers etc.) they struggle to escape.

1.3. Social Class and Education:

Bourdieu defines social class as not defined by a property, nor by a collection of properties […] but by the structure of relations between all the pertinent properties which gives its specific value to each of them and to the effects they exert on practices. (Bourdieu, 1984). The idea of social class is complex and the boundaries between the classes are rarely clear-cut. In today’s society people tend to be familiar with their own social stratification, from an individual’s job title, income, education background, geographical position, family history or their accent etc. people are profoundly aware of their status in society. The most influential factor in determining ones class in today’s society is income. Society today continues to favour those of ‘privilege’, those who are given the ‘opportunity’ for further education, jobs in ‘positions of trust’ and the contacts to ‘network’. This idea refers back to Bourdieu’s theory on the types of capital in society, economic, cultural and social. Working class are seen as ‘inferior’ and ‘contained’ with limited opportunity or potential for success and unfortunately as a result of this prejudice the working class suffers in society. It is evident that even through our education system that schools are educating different social classes from different functions in society.

Social class determines your place in society. This intersectionality produces more complex patterns of discrimination than allowed for by single dimension conceptualisations. Consequently, this refers back to Bourdieu’s view on class structure, the social reproduction by societal constitutions including the approach by schools and the education system to reproduce relationships of power between social classes. Working class education is made to serve middle class interests (Reay, 2006, p. 294). Rising inequalities in our society prevent the movement of the classes although it is not uncommon for people to change their social status. This “social destination” (Ishida, 1995) is often difficult to reach due to the current social situation. In the Irish school league tables (although not always accurate) we see a blatant division between the classes and the effect that ‘geographical position’ has on society. According to these tables based on students who sat the Leaving Certificate (2018), Secondary schools in the Dublin 4 region had a 97% rate of progression to third level education, this is in comparison to postcodes such as Dublin 17 with a 7% rate of progression to third level and Dublin 18 with a 18% rate of progression to third level. This does not determine a person’s academic ability and does not confirm that the middle class are somewhat more intelligent, instead it reflects on people’s perceptions, expectations and aspirations depending on class. Without the suitable resources and a safe environment available for students, they are unable to learn or in fact reach their “social destination”. DEIS (Delivering Equality of Opportunity in Schools) were set up in 2005 to facilitate these educational and social needs. The initiative strives to create a positive educational experience where students are able to learn in a secure environment. Reay discusses how disadvantaged schools are seen as an illusion and questions how students and teachers are seen as “inferior” in these schools (Reay, 2006). It is unfortunate that in fact it is these teachers who are often superb at their job and are dismissed due to the “status” of the school and the academic records each year which are compared to the ever increasing fee paying and grind schools. Again we consistently see middle class verses the working class.

An effective education system is one which promotes enhancement, inclusion and participation despite the division in social classes. Margaret Thatcher a woman who had a substantial impact on neo-liberal reform in the English education system, once said “there is no such thing as society”. In a society that is moving into a culture of individualisation it is our responsibility to attack the social justice problems and stop the generalisations. Marx’s theory of “alienation” is pivotal in comprehending the divide and through being aware of peoples positions in society let it be due to their culture i.e. travellers, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation etc. people can contribute to creating an inclusive environment. As teachers it is of significant importance to not deny or ignore social inequalities but to be sensitive and considerate. Diane Reay refers to her study on students treatment in the classroom (although it is based on a school in the U.K.) and how it was notable that the teacher unknowingly differentiated his behaviour towards students based on their class and perceptive academic ability (Reay, 2006). This behaviour and treatment combined with bad experiences with other teachers, low grades or a more common factor in recent times “irresponsible parenting” etc. leads to high levels of absenteeism. In his article Croll sees “family behaviour, or the behaviour of family members is seen as playing a key role in the educational experiences and outcomes for a child” (Croll, 2004, p. 393). Rising percentages of students consistent absence in schools in turn leads to the intervention of organisations such as TUSLA (The Child and Family Agency) who investigate the child’s welfare and protection. Unfortunately, the majority of these problems all return to a persons or a family’s income. People who struggle through school with high levels of absence etc. often are lacking in motivation, self-esteem and aspiration due to the constraints of their social class. The demand for high grades and substantial fees required for entry to third level education favours the middle class interests. Education should be accessible to all, society should not and cannot determine a person’s ability to succeed in life both socially and economically.

1.4. Conclusion:

To conclude, it is evident that the impact of ethnicity, class and gender on schools and schooling is monumental. A persons class or financial state, ethnicity or whether a person identifies as masculine or feminine should not determine their experience of schooling and their outcome from school.

From my own experience of schooling in Donegal it is evident that our education system struggles to facilitate those in varied socio-economic classes with the current starting fees in third level standing at 3000 euro. With the ever increasing college fees and the rising rent prices in cities such as Dublin, Galway and Cork families simply are unable to afford third level unless they qualify for government funding such as the SUSI grant however, it also proves difficult to receive. Unfortunately, this leads to students venturing to Scotland for college where free fees are enticing and as a result these students either remain their or emigrate, contributing to our falling young population in Ireland. Schools are moving away from streaming subjects and classifying them as ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ although it remains the case in a number of single sex schools, predominantly male that subjects such as home economics continue not to be an option. Our education system promotes the idea of schools creating an inclusive environment, however, when examining ethnicity in schools in Ireland it is apparent that an inclusive environment is not always to the fore. Looking at the schools with a Catholic Ethos it is evident that efforts are not always made to include students of ‘other’ religion or ethnicity when it comes to school masses etc. From my own experience in schools it is noticeable that these students are in another room in the school doing homework while the rest of the students attend mass. I feel efforts should be made for these students to incorporate their faith and culture into the school and create the inclusive environment schools strive for.

Society in Ireland has transformed dramatically over the past number of decades. Our education system is a pivotal part of society in educating and moulding the young people of today. Oscar Wilde once said “Society exists only as a mental concept; in the real world there are only individuals.”

Bibliography:

1. Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction; A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Central Statistics Office (CSO). (2016). [Accessed 20th April 2018].
2. Croll, P. (2004) Families, social capital and educational outcomes in British Journal of Educational Studies, Vol. 52 (4): 390-416.
3. Devine, D. (2005) Welcome to the Celtic Tiger? Teacher responses to immigration and increasing ethnic diversity in Irish schools. International Studies in Sociology of Education, Vol 15, No 1 : 49 – 70
4. Diamond, M. 2002. “Sex and Gender Are Different: Sexual Identity and Gender Identity Are Different.” Clinical Child Psychology & Psychiatry 7(3):320–334.
5. Educate Together, 2018. [Accessed 20th April 2019].
6. Gillborn, D. (2010) Reform, racism and the centrality of whiteness: assessment, ability and the ‘new eugenics’, Irish Educational Studies, Vol 29, No 3, 231- 2.
7. Ishida, Hiroshi. & Muller, Walter. & M. Ridge, John. (1995). Class Origin, Class Destination, and Education: A Cross-National Study of Ten Industrial Nations. American Journal of Sociology.
8. Keddie, A. (2006) Gender and Schooling: Frameworks for transformative social justice, Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 27:3, 399-415
9. Read, B. (2011) Britney, Beyoncé, and me – primary school girls’ role models and constructions of the ‘popular’ girl, Gender and Education, 23:1, 1-13
10. Reay, D. (2006) The Zombie Stalking English Schools: Social class and Educational Inequality. British Journal of Educational Studies. pp. 288-307.
11. Reay, D. (2001) Spice Girls, nice girls, girlies and tomboys – gender discourses, girls cultures and femininities in the primary classroom, Gender and Education 13, 1, 153 – 166
12. Ringrose, J. & Renold, E. (2012) Slut-shaming, girl power and ‘sexualisation’: thinking through the politics of the international: Slut Walks with teen girls, Gender and Education, 24:3, 333-343.
13. Smyth, E. and Darmody, M. (2010) Man enough to do it? Girls and non-traditional subjects in lower secondary, Gender and Education 21, 3; 273- 29.
14. Van der Bracht, K., Vervaet, R., D’hondt, F., Stevens, P., Van de Putte, B., & Van Houtte, M. (2017). School context and ethnic minority adolescent religiosity: A longitudinal study: SCHOOL CONTEXT AND ETHNIC MINORITY ADOLESCENT RELIGIOSITY. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 56 (3), 658-666.

1.0. Introduction:

Education in Ireland plays a crucial role in shaping society. The dramatic transformation of Irish society in the past number of decades has contributed to the monumental steps taken to strive to create inclusivity in the Irish Education System. The growing interest and impact of ethnicity, gender and social class on schools and schooling effects a students experience of education. Students are undoubtedly influenced socially though the school environment and their peers. It is evident that those of varied ethnic groups, gender and social class are aware of their social status more predominantly at secondary level than primary level. It is the responsibility of the education system to equip the youth with the knowledge, values and attitudes to make a difference as well as a positive contribution to society. Through teaching students how to critically think they form their own conceptions and perceptions of people and situations.

W.B. Yeats once said that “Education is not like the filling of the pail, but the lighting of a fire.” This reflects on its role and impact on society, how its inherent ability to change ones behaviours and attitudes in an ever changing world. This essay will examine the impact of ethnicity, gender and social class on schools and schooling reflecting on the importance of student experience and its effect on students educational outcomes and progression into further education and working life.

1.1. Ethnicity and Education:

Ethnicity is referring to a shared culture or way of life. There has been a long standing indigenous and immigrant ethnic minorities in Ireland e.g. travellers, Jewish, Italian, Chinese, Polish and refugees. It cannot be denied that ethnicity in schools in today’s society has a substantial impact on students experience of education both socially and academically. The Irish education system has been crucial in the cultural revival of the 1920’s in post- independence Ireland. A significant number of schools in the country were and still are religiously owned and controlled. Predominantly, schools with Roman Catholic ethos have a dominant ethnic community. This section will identify the impact of ethnicity on schools and schooling and its effects on students education experience in Ireland.

The increase in immigrants attending schools in Ireland has been consequential since 1990. Ethnic identities are actively formed through interaction which is a very personal experience and what makes adolescence so important. According to the CSO in 2016 there were 96,497 non-Irish national students and pupils aged 5 years and over attending schools throughout the country. Dympna Devine states that “the role of the state, through its immigration and educational policies, in framing teacher discourse in inclusionary or exclusionary terms” therefore, Devine highlights that the state has only a national identity interest which positions all minority ethnic groups as “other” (Devine, 2005, p. 49). This discourse is indeed evident through the vast majority of schools with a Roman Catholic ethos in the country. Incorporating as well as introducing culture and awareness of ethnicity to society is becoming a growing part of the Irish education system. The three main types of secondary school still stand, voluntary, vocational and community and comprehensive schools. The Educate Together school establishments which were first introduced in 1978 and are increasing in numbers around the country. These schools are democratically run with an emphasis on the encouragement of active participation by both students and parents. The schools differ in many ways to the traditional school values previous to 1978. Educate together schools ethos involve an equality based environment with no one set of religious ethos, a child-centred environment where student voice is valued and a co-educational classroom is in place (Educate Together, 2018).

Intercultural relationships need to be promoted in schools where ‘inclusive’ admission policies need to be implemented in schools throughout the country. David Gillborn in his article examines the various ethnic groups in secondary schools in the U.K. He found that students ethnic backgrounds impacted on their academic results in school. In maths in particular students who were of Indian origin or white achieved significantly higher results than the Black African or Black Caribbean students. Gender also played a role in the results. These test scores and perceptions result in students being streamed into higher and lower sets and as a result the “association between set placement and final achievement is hardly surprising” (Gillborn, 2010, p. 234). These students are left feeling segregated in a non- inclusive environment. Van der Brachts moves away from the impact of ethnicity on academic achievement and examines idea “that schools exert important socializing influences” and that due to the amount of time students spend in school it shapes a student’s behaviour and values (Van der Bracht, 2017, p. 2). Students in a school with a higher population of varied ethnic groups effects religiosity and Van der Bracht finds that “ a positive effect of attending a school with a higher share of ethnic minority pupils on changes in religiosity” (Van der Bracht, 2017, p. 8). Students in the minority tend to remain together which is evident in schools throughout the country.

1.2. Gender and Education:

Gender is a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions associated with being male or female. Gender identity is the extent to which one identifies as being either masculine or feminine (Diamond, 2002). It is apparent that gender has a profound effect on the educational outcomes of students. This section will examine how ones gender both male/ female and LGBT effects educational experience in Ireland.

According to Diane Reay “The seduction of binaries such as male: female, boy: girl often prevents us from seeing the full range of diversity and differentiation existing within one gender as well as between categories of male and female.” (Reay, 2001, p. 163). Society determines peoples behaviours depending on their gender identification. In Barbara Reads article she examines young girls perceptions of femininity as being associated with “niceness”, “prettiness” and “friendliness” (Read, 2011, p. 6 & 7). Young girls role models from an early age are usually gender based with the popular girl in school aligning with these role models who are generally the highly feminine celebrity. These common perceptions among girls are the result of the docile manifestations of femininity where women are compliant, elegant, polite, gentle and deferential in stark comparison to the ideas in this hegemonic society where masculinity is defined by acts of aggression, physical domination and denigration of the female (Keddie, 2006). Education and schools are agents for perpetuating the social process of gendered identities.

It is evident that in today’s society school subjects undertaken by students are often dependant on gender. “Gender ideology” is a concept discussed by many academics, the concept of the ideology ascertains how a social environment and the depiction of cultural beliefs can define the “appropriate” behaviours of male and female. The generalisations that males are academically stronger at maths, science and practical subjects such as woodwork, DCG, and metal work are compared with the generalisations that art, music, English are subjects associated with being highly feminine. According to the Central Statistics Office (CSO) on Education in 2016, more girls than boys sat higher level papers in the Leaving Certificate exams in English, French, Irish, Biology, Chemistry, Art, Home Economics and Music. In the same year more boys than girls took the higher level papers in Mathematics, Physics, Construction studies, Design and communication graphics (DCG) and Engineering. As a result of this, the number of males graduating from Engineering degrees in 2016 was 82.4% and the number of females graduating from Health being 76. % and Education 71.4%. These statistics confirm the “gender ideology” surrounding male and female behaviours and who influences the perceived “appropriate” occupations for these gender stereotypes.

Emer Smyth (2010) examines the low take up of practical or technological subjects by females in a school in co-educational secondary schools in Ireland. A high percentage of students did not take “non-conventional” subjects due to the influence of their peers, teacher input and influence from family members. It was noted that business was seen as a “useful” subject and one of which provides potential success and opportunity. Student perceptions of subjects varied from her research with students seeing Art as an easy subject predominantly taken by females and with small female to male ratios in the woodwork classes. The influence of subject teachers in their approach to promoting their subject to the targeted gender group reiterates Jessica Ringrose’s theory that schools are upholding the “status quo” and continues to be the sight of the reproduction of these gender inequalities (Ringrose, 2012). This leads to the long standing promotion of single sex schools especially in Ireland and the tendency of students to do better academically due to “less distraction” from the opposite sex. This perception however, may be applied and practised due to cultural, historical or religious influences and as a result one third of the secondary schools in this country are single sex. The downfall of single sex schools is the lack of development in social skills for interaction between the sexes and in preparation for third level or working life. During their secondary education students feel the need to promote their masculinity or femininity and outside of these traditional conventions and constraints it can be extremely difficult to “fit in”. It must be considered by teachers the varied learning styles and varied expectations of students depending on their gender identification. It is important to encourage students to enjoy their educational experience and not to be defined by the social constraints (peers, social media, family, teachers etc.) they struggle to escape.

1.3. Social Class and Education:

Bourdieu defines social class as not defined by a property, nor by a collection of properties […] but by the structure of relations between all the pertinent properties which gives its specific value to each of them and to the effects they exert on practices. (Bourdieu, 1984). The idea of social class is complex and the boundaries between the classes are rarely clear-cut. In today’s society people tend to be familiar with their own social stratification, from an individual’s job title, income, education background, geographical position, family history or their accent etc. people are profoundly aware of their status in society. The most influential factor in determining ones class in today’s society is income. Society today continues to favour those of ‘privilege’, those who are given the ‘opportunity’ for further education, jobs in ‘positions of trust’ and the contacts to ‘network’. This idea refers back to Bourdieu’s theory on the types of capital in society, economic, cultural and social. Working class are seen as ‘inferior’ and ‘contained’ with limited opportunity or potential for success and unfortunately as a result of this prejudice the working class suffers in society. It is evident that even through our education system that schools are educating different social classes from different functions in society.

Social class determines your place in society. This intersectionality produces more complex patterns of discrimination than allowed for by single dimension conceptualisations. Consequently, this refers back to Bourdieu’s view on class structure, the social reproduction by societal constitutions including the approach by schools and the education system to reproduce relationships of power between social classes. Working class education is made to serve middle class interests (Reay, 2006, p. 294). Rising inequalities in our society prevent the movement of the classes although it is not uncommon for people to change their social status. This “social destination” (Ishida, 1995) is often difficult to reach due to the current social situation. In the Irish school league tables (although not always accurate) we see a blatant division between the classes and the effect that ‘geographical position’ has on society. According to these tables based on students who sat the Leaving Certificate (2018), Secondary schools in the Dublin 4 region had a 97% rate of progression to third level education, this is in comparison to postcodes such as Dublin 17 with a 7% rate of progression to third level and Dublin 18 with a 18% rate of progression to third level. This does not determine a person’s academic ability and does not confirm that the middle class are somewhat more intelligent, instead it reflects on people’s perceptions, expectations and aspirations depending on class. Without the suitable resources and a safe environment available for students, they are unable to learn or in fact reach their “social destination”. DEIS (Delivering Equality of Opportunity in Schools) were set up in 2005 to facilitate these educational and social needs. The initiative strives to create a positive educational experience where students are able to learn in a secure environment. Reay discusses how disadvantaged schools are seen as an illusion and questions how students and teachers are seen as “inferior” in these schools (Reay, 2006). It is unfortunate that in fact it is these teachers who are often superb at their job and are dismissed due to the “status” of the school and the academic records each year which are compared to the ever increasing fee paying and grind schools. Again we consistently see middle class verses the working class.

An effective education system is one which promotes enhancement, inclusion and participation despite the division in social classes. Margaret Thatcher a woman who had a substantial impact on neo-liberal reform in the English education system, once said “there is no such thing as society”. In a society that is moving into a culture of individualisation it is our responsibility to attack the social justice problems and stop the generalisations. Marx’s theory of “alienation” is pivotal in comprehending the divide and through being aware of peoples positions in society let it be due to their culture i.e. travellers, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation etc. people can contribute to creating an inclusive environment. As teachers it is of significant importance to not deny or ignore social inequalities but to be sensitive and considerate. Diane Reay refers to her study on students treatment in the classroom (although it is based on a school in the U.K.) and how it was notable that the teacher unknowingly differentiated his behaviour towards students based on their class and perceptive academic ability (Reay, 2006). This behaviour and treatment combined with bad experiences with other teachers, low grades or a more common factor in recent times “irresponsible parenting” etc. leads to high levels of absenteeism. In his article Croll sees “family behaviour, or the behaviour of family members is seen as playing a key role in the educational experiences and outcomes for a child” (Croll, 2004, p. 393). Rising percentages of students consistent absence in schools in turn leads to the intervention of organisations such as TUSLA (The Child and Family Agency) who investigate the child’s welfare and protection. Unfortunately, the majority of these problems all return to a persons or a family’s income. People who struggle through school with high levels of absence etc. often are lacking in motivation, self-esteem and aspiration due to the constraints of their social class. The demand for high grades and substantial fees required for entry to third level education favours the middle class interests. Education should be accessible to all, society should not and cannot determine a person’s ability to succeed in life both socially and economically.

1.4. Conclusion:

To conclude, it is evident that the impact of ethnicity, class and gender on schools and schooling is monumental. A persons class or financial state, ethnicity or whether a person identifies as masculine or feminine should not determine their experience of schooling and their outcome from school.

From my own experience of schooling in Donegal it is evident that our education system struggles to facilitate those in varied socio-economic classes with the current starting fees in third level standing at 3000 euro. With the ever increasing college fees and the rising rent prices in cities such as Dublin, Galway and Cork families simply are unable to afford third level unless they qualify for government funding such as the SUSI grant however, it also proves difficult to receive. Unfortunately, this leads to students venturing to Scotland for college where free fees are enticing and as a result these students either remain their or emigrate, contributing to our falling young population in Ireland. Schools are moving away from streaming subjects and classifying them as ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ although it remains the case in a number of single sex schools, predominantly male that subjects such as home economics continue not to be an option. Our education system promotes the idea of schools creating an inclusive environment, however, when examining ethnicity in schools in Ireland it is apparent that an inclusive environment is not always to the fore. Looking at the schools with a Catholic Ethos it is evident that efforts are not always made to include students of ‘other’ religion or ethnicity when it comes to school masses etc. From my own experience in schools it is noticeable that these students are in another room in the school doing homework while the rest of the students attend mass. I feel efforts should be made for these students to incorporate their faith and culture into the school and create the inclusive environment schools strive for.

Society in Ireland has transformed dramatically over the past number of decades. Our education system is a pivotal part of society in educating and moulding the young people of today. Oscar Wilde once said “Society exists only as a mental concept; in the real world there are only individuals.”

Bibliography:

1. Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction; A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Central Statistics Office (CSO). (2016). [Accessed 20th April 2018].
2. Croll, P. (2004) Families, social capital and educational outcomes in British Journal of Educational Studies, Vol. 52 (4): 390-416.
3. Devine, D. (2005) Welcome to the Celtic Tiger? Teacher responses to immigration and increasing ethnic diversity in Irish schools. International Studies in Sociology of Education, Vol 15, No 1 : 49 – 70
4. Diamond, M. 2002. “Sex and Gender Are Different: Sexual Identity and Gender Identity Are Different.” Clinical Child Psychology & Psychiatry 7(3):320–334.
5. Educate Together, 2018. [Accessed 20th April 2019].
6. Gillborn, D. (2010) Reform, racism and the centrality of whiteness: assessment, ability and the ‘new eugenics’, Irish Educational Studies, Vol 29, No 3, 231- 2.
7. Ishida, Hiroshi. & Muller, Walter. & M. Ridge, John. (1995). Class Origin, Class Destination, and Education: A Cross-National Study of Ten Industrial Nations. American Journal of Sociology.
8. Keddie, A. (2006) Gender and Schooling: Frameworks for transformative social justice, Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 27:3, 399-415
9. Read, B. (2011) Britney, Beyoncé, and me – primary school girls’ role models and constructions of the ‘popular’ girl, Gender and Education, 23:1, 1-13
10. Reay, D. (2006) The Zombie Stalking English Schools: Social class and Educational Inequality. British Journal of Educational Studies. pp. 288-307.
11. Reay, D. (2001) Spice Girls, nice girls, girlies and tomboys – gender discourses, girls cultures and femininities in the primary classroom, Gender and Education 13, 1, 153 – 166
12. Ringrose, J. & Renold, E. (2012) Slut-shaming, girl power and ‘sexualisation’: thinking through the politics of the international: Slut Walks with teen girls, Gender and Education, 24:3, 333-343.
13. Smyth, E. and Darmody, M. (2010) Man enough to do it? Girls and non-traditional subjects in lower secondary, Gender and Education 21, 3; 273- 29.
14. Van der Bracht, K., Vervaet, R., D’hondt, F., Stevens, P., Van de Putte, B., & Van Houtte, M. (2017). School context and ethnic minority adolescent religiosity: A longitudinal study: SCHOOL CONTEXT AND ETHNIC MINORITY ADOLESCENT RELIGIOSITY. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 56 (3), 658-666.

Race, religion, and ethnicity gained importance with growing importance of issues related to immigration, religion, and ethnicity. These have also increased the incidence of religion and race related violence and terrorism. Post 9/11 these issues have gained predominance in American mind due to the strong identity among Americans based on race, religion, and ethnicity.

Understanding inequality based on ethnicity, race, and religion has gained paramount importance in social studies today. The present paper studies three articles based on race, religion, and ethnicity. It studies what these articles have to say about these three impetuses of inequality.

The first article reviewed is based on white ethnicity in America (Torkelson & Hartmann, 2010). This study is an empirical research based on white ethnicity in America in twenty first century. This research explores the impact of white ethnicity with self-identity among white Americans, degree of association with the idea of whiteness or color in America, and the impact ethnic identity has on political opinion of the people. The researchers pose a few questions:

1. “How ethnic is white America today?”
2. “What distinguishes whites who profess an ethnic identity from other whites?”
3. How is white ethnic identity relates to political attitudes, racial ideologies, and racial identity salience?” (Torkelson & Hartmann, 2010, pp. 1315-6)

A questionnaire survey was conducted to gauge racial and ethnic identification among white Americans. The research findings show that only 14 percent of the white population in America has an ethnic identity, which is greater among non-whites (Torkelson & Hartmann, 2010). There is a high awareness of racial identities among whites, which shows a strong connection between white ethnicity and white racial identity.

The second article reviewed is a research on the gap of quality of life based on black and white racial and ethnic divide in America (Coverdill, Lopez, & Petrie, 2011). This article researches the existence of inequality in the quality of life among whites and non-whites including blacks and Hispanics.

The data used for the research is a trend data from General Social Surveys to measure quality of life in the US. the research findings suggests that there is a declining trend in the quality of life gap among whites and blacks but still there exists significant difference. The study was further extended for understanding the gap with “other races” i.e. Asians and Latinos. The result suggests that “other races” have a higher gap in quality of life measure compared to whites.

With a higher rate of immigration in America, there has been a noted increase in hate crimes against immigrants of other racial, ethnic, and religious origin in the country. The third article explores the rising hate crimes against immigrants of other religious and racial origin in America (Sherr & Montesino, 2009). Hate crimes are a source of inequality in social strata. The article explores the increase in the number of hate crimes in America in name of religious inclinations especially after the 9/11 attack.

Hate crimes has increased against specific ethnicities and regions such as Arabs, Asians, and Latinos and against Muslims. The research article describes the hate crimes occurring in America against Muslims, Arabs, Latinos, and South Asians. The article describes the rising number of hate crimes and racial slurs against people or other ethnic or religious background in America. The incidents demonstrate a debate on US as the melting pot for all religions and races.

The three articles reviewed demonstrates that race, ethnic, and religion based inequality is rampant in America. This affects quality of life and identity among Americans. Hate crimes are another off shoot of the racial and religious overtones in identity creation and inequality ingrained in society.

References

Coverdill, J. E., Lopez, C. A., & Petrie, M. A. (2011). Race, Ethnicity and the Quality of Life in America, 1972-2008. Social Forces, 889(3) , 783-806.

Sherr, M., & Montesino, M. (2009). Hate crime based on ethnicity and religion: A description of the phenomenon in the United States since 2000. The Internaitonal Journal of Diversity in Organizations, Communities, and Nations, 9(4) , 23-37.

Torkelson, J., & Hartmann, D. (2010). White ethnicity in twenty-first-century America: findings from a new national survey. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 33(8) , 1310-1331.

The use of the White Racial Identity Model developed by Janet Helms is useful for analyzing a person’s attitudes towards race and ethnicity. In particular, this framework is helpful for explaining how an individual perceives the effects of racial injustice on the community (Cousins, 2014, p. 1104). Moreover, this model can show how people can break free of their biases and stereotypes with time passing. While working on this assignment, I have been able to interview a Caucasian male aged 25. It is important to mention that his parents came to the United States from Eastern Europe in the late eighties. Currently, they are the citizens of the United States. During the interview, I asked him to express his views about the legacies of racism in modern American society. Overall, the responses of this person show that many of his beliefs are rather conflicting. Additionally, this interview has demonstrated to me that people can display the signs of several identity statuses identified by Janet Helms.

The interviewee displays the signs of the so-called contact status identified by Janet Helms. At this stage, a person is satisfied with the existing status quo (Peterson, 2006, p. 24). In particular, individuals believe that currently, people have equal opportunities for raising their social status, even though they may differ in terms of their race, ethnicity, or religious background (Sue, 2005, p. 117). Additionally, they lay stress on the idea that they did not contribute to racial discrimination in any way. Some of these arguments are made by the interviewee. In particular, he is convinced that he cannot be accused of racial discrimination. This person states that his parents did not approve or promote racial laws since they came to the United States only three decades ago at the time when discriminatory practices were prohibited by the state. Moreover, he notes that his family also had to struggle with considerable economic hardships at the beginning. Furthermore, they faced difficulties due to linguistic barriers. So, at a certain point, their socio-economic status was rather similar to the position of many black people. Yet, they were able to overcome these problems. This is one of the issues that can be identified.

Overall, this person does not take into account that despite the initial poverty of his parents, they were better positioned in society due to the education that they previously obtained. Therefore, they had many employment opportunities, unlike many black people. Moreover, they did not have to struggle with prejudices because they were white. In contrast, many black people had to struggle with such difficulties as insufficient funding of many public schools located in the inner cities (McWhorter, 2000, p. 119). Furthermore, many of them had to grow up in crime-ridden neighborhoods. Apart from that, they had to struggle with biased attitudes of governmental officials. This person did not pay much attention to these issues.

Nevertheless, at the same time, the interviewee displays the signs of the so-called disintegration status. At this stage, a person understands that the legacies of racism are still palpable nowadays. They want to emphasize that he does not hold any racist beliefs. In turn, this person thinks that is necessary to support black people. In particular, he says that he is a staunch advocate of affirmative action because this policy can help many young people find employment. He also adds that this opinion is not shared by many of his friends. In this way, he tries to show that his moral conviction often leads to conflicts. Such situations are rather typical of the disintegration stage at which people have to resolve some ethical dilemmas related to race and ethnicity (Jackson, 2006). For instance, in many cases, they have to disagree with racial stereotypes, even though this disagreement can result in conflicts with peers. To a great extent, these experiences are familiar to the interviewee.

Additionally, this person does not agree with the common stereotypes according to which many members of minority groups struggle with economic difficulties because they do not want to work harder. In his opinion, this assumption is rather superficial. This detail is important for showing that people do not necessarily occupy only one of the statuses identified by Janet Helms. In many cases, they display the signs of several identity stages. This is one of the key points that should not be overlooked.

Overall, this discussion shows that White Racial Identity Model can be important for analyzing people’s beliefs about the influence of racism on society. This framework can show how they examine various ethical dilemmas associated with racism. Sometimes their biases can be explained by their lack of awareness about existing problems. In particular, they want to show that they did not contribute to racial discrimination in any way. Moreover, they state that their parents also had to struggle with significant challenges that may be familiar to minority groups. Yet, at the same time, they can admit that the current situation has to be changed. Furthermore, they may choose to enter conflicts with peers at the time when they need to refute some racial stereotypes. These are the main arguments that can be put forward.

Reference List

Cousins, L. (2014).Encyclopedia of Human Services and Diversity. New York, NY: SAGE Publications.

Jackson, Y. (2006). Encyclopedia of Multicultural Psychology. New York, NY: SAGE Publications.

McWhorter, J. (2000). Losing the Race: Self-sabotage in Black America. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

Peterson, R. (2006). White, Male, and “minority”: A Study of Racial Consciousness Development Among White Male Undergraduate Students at a Public Historically Black University. New York, NY: ProQuest.

Sue, D. (2005). Multicultural Social Work Practice. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

The USA is one of the world’s most multinational countries. It is home too many individuals of African, European, and Asian descent, large Latino and Hispanic communities, Pacific Islanders, and, of course, native populations.

Additionally, there are multiple individuals of mixed origin who identify as having two or more ethnicities.

The issues of race and ethnicity in the United States have always been one of the central social, political, and economic questions.

Besides, these issues have served as the sources of major tensions in the country. In the past, the country has faced some extremely serious tragedies related to race and ethnicity relations such as slavery and racial segregation.

Today, these phenomena are referred to as known problems that are consistently battled. However, the issues continue to persist.

Residential Segregation

Boustan defined residential segregation as “the separation of racial groups in urban space” (319). Segregation is measured with the help of DI (dissimilarity index) that shows the differences in the racial composition of populations by areas.

Residential segregation in the US is a historical phenomenon that has been developing since 1900 (Settles par. 3). Initially, African-American laborers lived alongside their employers of European descent evenly scattered throughout the cities.

However, during the time’s World Wars I and II, the cities were re-planned enforcing segregation (Seitles par. 4). The division was supported politically through housing policies facilitating the emergence of ghettos deprived of capitals and opportunities.

Residential segregation is a common happening in the urban areas of the American cities that aggravate the tension between people of different ethnicities leaving the racial minorities disadvantaged and stuck in the poor districts (Meyerhoffer 379).

The populations that face the highest levels of discomfort are Latino and African-Americans, who are deprived of opportunities to find good jobs or gain high-quality education (Meyerhoffer 379).

The interviews with the American citizens of various backgrounds have demonstrated various points of view upon the phenomenon. Most interviewees agreed as to the unfairness of modern segregation. One individual expressed quite a radical opinion.

Michael, a 27-year old African-American, who had lived in several big cities such as Denver, Buffalo, and Detroit, stated that in the areas where he lived “you can walk miles in any direction without meeting a single white person.”

Al, a 49-year old Puerto Rican, mentioned that he grew up in a segregated area of Brooklyn, New York where he was discriminated against by the residents of Italian background as they were “the white folk of the district.”

Al’s statement demonstrated that the division into superior and inferior communities based on ethnical origin existed within the segregated areas and victimized Latino and African-American populations.

The interviewee who stood out due to his opinion was Chris, a 40-year old European American, who did not seem to be aware of the intentional segregation and referred to African-Americans as people who lack organization and therefore, live in poverty.

In fact, Chris compared African-Americans with the residents of African countries emphasizing that poverty and disorganization are the common factors that have occurred due to the “nature” of this race.

It is noteworthy that answering question 4 about racism, Chris stated that he did not consider himself a racist and did not believe that there were superior and inferior races.

Biased Law Enforcement System

It is frequently claimed that the American society currently lives in the “post-racial” era and that racial biases are no longer existent. In other words, the claim is that no citizens are mistreated based on race and ethnicity.

At the same time, incidents such as the one that occurred in Ferguson, Missouri are rather common. The diverse communities of the United States recognize the presence of policing bias (Morales par. 3).

As mentioned by Morrison, the survey conducted by the Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights revealed that 55% of Americans admitted that people of color were more likely to be targeted by the police than European Americans (par. 4).

ACLU notes that racial profiling is the reason for the alienation of the communities from the police and the tension between different groups of the population (par. 1).

For instance, the populations who are targeted commonly tend to lose trust in the police and law enforcement in general. Moreover, racial profiling and policing frames the targeted populations as dangerous (Morales par. 4).

Most of the interviewed individuals admitted being aware of unfair policing and unreasonable targeting of Latinos and African-Americans by the police. Almost everyone mentioned the case of Ferguson.

Kendra, a 23-year old African-American woman, noted that her family members (males mainly) were often pulled over by the police and sometimes even searched without any visible reasons apart from being African-Americans.

Ashley, a 30-year old African-American expressed her concern as to the profiling practices and the effect it produces on the American citizens who are led to believe that Latinos and African-Americans are dangerous.

Ashley also mentioned reading about multiple cases of African-American people being ignored for knocking on the doors of their neighbors to ask for help and one case where a woman was shot for doing that.

Popular Culture

The modern popular culture is another focus of constant debates as to the issues of race and ethnicity.

Being in the center of public attention on a daily basis, the celebrities tend to have a lot of power are able to produce massive impact communicating certain points of view.

Reese presented a collection of the most memorable racism pop culture moments of 2014 that included such celebrities as Katy Perry, the Kardashians, Avril Lavigne, Gwen Stefani, among others (par. 1-10).

Unfortunately, racist incidents that mainly occur due to the ignorance of the perpetrators are quite common. In most cases, the authors of offensive music videos, posts, or statements fail to consider the impact they may produce.

Today, social diversity receives more recognition than just a couple of decades ago. However, as stated by Cuby, for the racial and ethnic minorities, it is still rather difficult to enjoy popular culture (par. 4).

First of all, this tendency occurs because race is often joked about in a diminishing way (Cuby par. 11). Secondly, race and ethnicity are stereotyped on TV which is offensive to the people who belong to the marginalized communities and cultures.

Speaking about their experiences with racism in modern popular culture, European American interviewees found it difficult to identify such situations.

At the same time, people of color mentioned many. For example, Kevin, a 32-year old Asian-American stated that he utterly disliked popular TV shows such as “Friends”, “How I Met Your Mother”, and “The Big Bang Theory”.

Kevin’s opinion was based on the fact that all of these shows focused on the lives of white people failing to portray the real America.

Michael also said that African-Americans represent comedic and unimportant characters in most shows. Kendra noticed that in her opinion, “the most stereotyped people on TV are blacks, Latinos, Muslims, and Russians.”

Having a massive power of public speaking, the media enforce and support offensive stereotypes targeting a multitude of cultures and ethnicities.

Relations between Different Ethnicities

At the end of the 20^th century, the rates of individuals of different races having only friends and partners of the same race were very high (Page-Gould par. 6). This tendency persisted among the European Americans the most.

The same dynamics were typical for marital and romantic relationships as the European Americans had the lowest rate of being together with a partner of another ethnicity (Page-Gould par. 9).

Among the interviewees, almost everyone admitted having had experiences with diverse partners, the only exception was a European American respondent Emma.

However, only two of the respondents of color said they had partners of European background.

Moreover, one of them noted that he felt self-conscious dating a blonde woman with blue eyes because he constantly thought that “she could do so much better”. This comment was directed at the fact that he was a man of color.

Conclusion

Modern society does not live in the “post-racial” era as racial stereotypes are present in policing and law enforcement, popular culture, residential patterns, and interpersonal relations.

Policies battling the prejudice exist alongside with tendencies that maintain them. That is why the phenomenon continues to persist and result in tension between people of diverse backgrounds.

Works Cited

ACLU. Racial Profiling. 2016. Web.

Boustan, Leah. Racial Residential Segregation in American Cities. 2013. Web.

Cuby, Michael. How to Enjoy Pop Culture When You’re Black. 2015. Web.

Meyerhoffer, Cassi A. “I Have More in Common with Americans Than I Do with Illegal Aliens”: Culture, Perceived Threat, and Neighborhood Preferences. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity 1.3 (2015): 378–393.

Morales, Alba. Why are US police departments still race-biased? 2015. Web.

Morrison, Aaron. Racial Profiling Laws: Most US Residents Want a Ban On Biased Policing; Will Federal Government Prohibit Practice?2015. Web.

Reese, Ashley. The 11 Most Racist Things That Happened In Pop Culture This Year. 2014. Web.

Seitles, Marc. The perpetuation of residential racial segregation in America: historical discrimination, modern forms of exclusion, and inclusionary remedies. 1996. Web.

Page-Gould, Elizabeth.Research on Cross-Race Relationships: An Annotated Bibliography. 2004. Web.

Identity can be described as a person’s emotional connection to a certain social category system. The aspect of identity, gender, and ethnicity are closely related, and it can be difficult to draw a separation between the concepts. Nonetheless, there are research studies that have been conducted to elaborate on the three concepts.

This paper looks at the relationship between gender, ethnicity and identity. Identity has been described as an element of self. In this case, identity remains a critical part of the self-concept. It is also a term that is often used in reference to a social category system. The concept of identity can be intertwined with gender and identity issues.

The aspects of gender and identity are closely related. Indeed, gender identity refers to a person’s relationship to gender. In this respect, gender is regarded as a social category. Initially, the aspect of gender identity used to refer to the sense of one being a male or female. In psychiatry and clinical psychology, gender identity is used in categorizing gender identity disorders.

These disorders are often apportioned to the sex of individuals. In addition, the aspect of gender identity is reflected in the different age groups. In this respect, there are various gender identity disorders among children, adolescents, and adults (Ypeij, 2012).

Gender stereotypes can be described as elements of bias regarding the gender of certain individuals. In this respect, gender stereotypes can lead to inequality and unfair treatment directed towards individuals based on gender. In essence, gender stereotypes may be referred to as sexism. Some of the gender stereotypes include regarding women as passive and meant to handle domestic duties (Pierre & Mahalik, 2005).

Gender and ethnicity are critical elements in the identity formation especially among children. The establishment of identity among the ethnic minority groups is a critical aspect of the multicultural society. There is a difficulty among the ethnic minorities in their quest to integrate within the mainstream culture.

Therefore, children who need to choose between the ethnic identity of their family origin and that of the culture should be able to balance the two aspects.

Ethnic identity is determined by various factors including socializing to one’s culture, understanding the mainstream culture, and understanding the chauvinism and discrimination associated with ethnicity. The children have to cope with these issues in their quest for ethnic identity (Altschul, Oyserman & Bybee, 2006).

Gender and ethnicity are elements that are closely related. The two aspects are critical in establishing identity development. Studies indicate that there are differences in the development identities among the male and female genders. The males are said to be aware of the ethnic impediments, but aspire to get equivalence to the majority group.

On the other hand, women are known to enhance their association with the ethnic legacy and belief. Studies indicated that the African American men were concerned with parity and ethnic barriers prevalent in the society. However, African American females were concerned with ethnic pride and loyalty to their culture.

It has been noted that the males from the ethnic minority are socialized to be aware of the institutional barriers that are prevalent in the society. Therefore, they develop turn to some behavior and attitudes meant to compensate for the bias. This may include being sexist and becoming aggressive in resolving disputes (Pierre & Mahalik, 2005).

It can be concluded that gender, ethnicity and identity aspects are quite interesting. Identity formation studies should be highly encouraged especially in a multicultural society. Notably, ethnic minorities encounter some challenges when trying to strike a balance between their cultural identity and the mainstream culture. Nonetheless, gender and ethnicity are critical aspects of identity development.

References

Altschul, I., Oyserman, D., & Bybee, D. (2006). Racial–ethnic identity in mid-adolescence: Content and change as predictors of grades. Child Development, 77, 1155–1169.

Pierre, M. R., & Mahalik, J. R. (2005). Examining African self-consciousness and black racial identity as predictors of Black men’s psychological well-being. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 11, 28–40.

Ypeij, A. (2012). The Intersection of Gender and Ethnic Identities in the Cuzco–Machu Picchu Tourism Industry: Sácamefotos, Tour Guides, and Women Weavers. Latin American Perspectives, 39 (6): 17-35.

The article by Fothergill, Maestas, and Darlington examines the issues of race and ethnicity on the example of natural disaster research and addresses the existing challenges and corresponding solutions. The authors emphasize that inequality and risks associated with the technological and natural environment remain one of the unresolved problems. It is argued that studies concerning disaster management and racism, insecurity, and economic strength do not provide sufficient synthesis. The authors aim at revealing the tendencies in the large body of academic literature on natural disaster and policies concerning race and ethnicity. By means of the eight-stage typology based on the chronological sequence approach, the information gained from the available sources is analyzed and exemplified.

First and foremost, risk perception data are analyzed. Taking into account the contradictory information received from different articles, the authors present the most essential findings and point out that racial and ethnical communities are reportedly subject to the influence of potential danger. Several examples are provided; one of them touches upon the earthquake threats studies pertaining to fatalism and haphazard events including natural catastrophes. According to the article under analysis, people of color and their communities are generally more vulnerable that the whites and their local areas.

The second emphasized stage refers to preparedness. It is underlined that few studies have been carried out, and they also identify non-white population as the unfavored social group. Awareness and education are the focus of the researchers’ attention: while the opportunities to receive money after the earthquake are given, the detailed information is available only in English. Consequently, some of the minorities fail to discover what they should do. Lack of training is also believed to be influential. Besides, the authors explain this state of affairs by the high costs connected with rebuilding.

Studying the third stage, warning communication and response, Fothergill, Maestas, and Darlington put forward the idea that warning and its various aspects, e.g., its efficiency, response procedures, and information reliability, are represented in the studies to an adequate degree. As the research indicates, Hispanics tend to utilize social networks more frequently, regard mass media as a credible source of information, and count on kinship to a greater extent than any other group.

Further, physical impacts, namely morbidity, mortality, injury statistics, and material losses, are discussed: in this respect, the authors discover that secure housing issues become vital. They give some data on several disaster research articles and prove that older and poorer houses of minorities cause more harm to people’s health while the money losses are less than those of the whites.

Psychological impact is seen as one of the most sensitive matters, and the detected limits in research are explained by the assumptions that investigators feel uncomfortable with the topic and work with homogeneous groups. Still, the authors of the article register a considerable number of works and reiterate that non-white people are, again, at a disadvantage. They provide several examples, such as the fear of earthquakes that is more characteristic of Hispanics.

Later on, the literature on emergency response is analyzed. Culturally insensitive emergency personnel, the authors state, is the major problem in this sphere. The specialists sometimes do not take into consideration languages, food supply, and media contents. It is illustrated by the studies of emergency measures that demonstrate the shortage of bilingual professionals, the information available only in English, and the wrong choice of the ingredients for meals.

The authors also discuss recovery in the context of one-year period changes. The information about the patterns of related to race and ethnicity is provided. The researchers highlight the marginalization of the damaged communities of color during the recovery stage and single out many problem areas among which pressure for money, unemployment, limited access to information, restoring documents, and interaction with recovery agencies become the most important research topics. It may be stated that, by and large, non-white communities do not receive the same support as the white areas.

Finally, reconstruction is viewed as the stage that researchers sometimes ignore. Fothergill, Maestas, and Darlington discuss housing issues one more time and evaluate the way communities deal with long-term challenges, namely infrastructure renewal, receiving loans, assistance requirements, and permanent residence. It is claimed that race and ethnicity make an impact in terms of reconstruction: for instance, people of color are less likely to be given loans, and communication with the authorities is also connected with obstacles in the form of the linguistic barrier.

Having analyzed the contents of the natural disaster and race research, the authors arrive at the logical conclusion that risk and vulnerability of non-white people and communities are high. In connection with the revealed problems, they mention that some progress has been made since some agencies take measures related to natural disaster and issues of race and ethnicity. However, the situation should be improved, and the recommendations are provided: the authors believe that proper housing, cultural education, cooperation between local communities and practitioners, and research are to be addressed in order to solve the existing problems and minimize losses and damages.

The problem of misjudgment based on ethnic stereotypes and the prejudice towards the representatives of specific races and ethnicities, which occurs in courts of the United States, seems to have become infamously common. Despite the recent attempts at introducing cultural sensitivity into the state and private organizations, as well as the incorporation of the multiculturalism concept into the framework of global companies’ operation, the American justice system retains its suspicion towards the people belonging to the ethnicities that are other than American.

As a result, misjudgments occur disturbingly regularly in the course of the court proceedings. Despite the numerous attempts taken for addressing the issue, the problem has not lost its topicality yet, which calls for the reinforcement of the ethical principles that the present-day legal system is based on, as well as the rearrangement of the existing approaches to treating racial and ethnic minorities.

Although the unceasing fight for equality, which has been going in the United States since the Civil War, has brought a range of fruitful results, the effects of the equity movements are still somewhat lackluster, especially when considering the attitudes towards the representatives of racial and ethnic minorities in the realm of the legal environment. According to the recent evidence, prejudice towards ethnic minorities takes place in courtrooms quite often in the 21^st century. Although, from the legal perspective, all parties taking part in the court proceedings must have equal rights and privileges, in reality, the ethnicity of the people involved often define the outcome of the proceedings as favorable for the representative of the majority of the U.S. population, whereas minorities are often misjudged based on their ethnicity.

The ostensibly inept approach, which is adopted towards treating the members of other ethnic communities in a range of the U.S. courtrooms, is clearly a reason for concern. A range of recent cases, some of them reaching the level of an internationally infamous scandal, while others being swept under the rug, showcase the problems of the present-day justice system. Specifically, the case of United States vs. Booker (Ulmer, Light & Kramer, 2011), which enhanced the model discriminating against the Black community representatives, deserves to be mentioned.

The explanation for the specified phenomenon to occur is, in fact, rather simple. It would be wrong to claim that the accusation of the people belonging to different races occurs on purpose in most cases; quite on the contrary, a suggestion the opposite will make more sense, as the jury displaying racially insensitive behavior and providing no other basis for sentencing the accused does not make any sense in the environment of the democratic principles, which are established in the U.S. Constitution.

Instead, the race of the defendant and, therefore, the ambiguity that it creates factors in as a side piece of information that serves as the trigger for the jury to pass the verdict, according to the existing researches on the subject: “Jurors are especially affected when the race is a non-salient factor of the case” (Malavanti, Johnson, Rowatt & Weaver, 2012, p. 3). More importantly, according to Malvanati et al. (2012), when the race issue factors into the study in a very obvious manner and makes a major part of the problem under discussion, it is most likely to be disregarded: “these attempts are guided by later- stage, explicit processes. For example, white jurors are likely to resist (or at least, to give the appearance of resisting) explicitly racial factors when the race is salient” (Malvanati et al., 2012).

Though the explanation provided above does not excuse the instances of accusations based solely on the racial identity of the defendant, it does provide extensive information on the mechanism of racial profiling in courts. It should be noted, though, that a range of theorists explains the specified phenomenon as the manifestation of the pervasiveness of social and ethnic stereotypes, which have become quite common in the United States over the past few years: “The application of negative stereotypes to minority ethnic groups has come to be an acceptable approach to understanding bias” (Espinoza & Willis-Esqueda, 2014, p. 2).

Seeing that the process of stereotyping is gaining new momentum in modern American culture, the threat of stereotypes invading the realm of courtrooms and affecting the decisions made by the jury is becoming increasingly more palpable.

One must admit that the reasons for the specified phenomenon to occur are attributed to the environment in which the minorities in question live. Specifically, extremely high crime rates within the areas that are populated by African Americans, Latinos, etc., deserve to be mentioned as the key basis for the prejudice to define the outcome of the proceedings. However, the specified phenomenon does not justify the unfairness of the U.S. legal system in the instances where people have been sentenced merely based on their cultural and ethnic background.

It should be noted that a range of solutions to the issue in question has been suggested, including the implementation of the principles of tolerance in the courtroom. However, the above-mentioned approaches still do not qualify as revolutionary tools, which will bring the members of the U.S. justice system to the necessity to disregard the ethnic background of the people involved. While setting the premises for the development of a more lenient approach towards the representatives of other races and ethnicities, it still does not provide any restrictions as far as the process of misjudgment is concerned.

Regrettably, prejudice towards the representatives of other cultures, ethnicities, and races still remains the issue of the current U.S. justice system. While measures for addressing shallow judgment are being taken, taking every single instance into account is basically impossible, which leads to the aggravation of the issue and the further enhancement of the attitudes that lead to discrimination in court.

There is no need to stress that the phenomenon of prejudice towards the representatives of minorities exists in the present-day justice system of the United States. Moreover, the effects of this prejudice are becoming increasingly more deleterious to the lives of numerous representatives of different ethnicities within the state. However, with the introduction of a set of rigid ethical principles into the American courtrooms and careful supervision of the court proceedings for providing full compliance with the regulations concerning race and prejudice, the situation may change for better.

Much to the credit of the current legal system, as well as the information management systems deployed at present, the issues such as the instances of racial discrimination, are disclosed to the public, which allows for an open discussion of the problem and the location of viable solutions. Integration of a proper ethical code will provide the framework for addressing the issue.

Reference List

Espinoza, K. E. & Willis-Esqueda, C. (2014). The influence of mitigation evidence, ethnicity, and SES on death penalty decisions by European American and Latino venire persons. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(2), 288–298.

Malavanti, K. F., Johnson, M. K., Rowatt, W. C. & Weaver, C. A. (2012). Subtle contextual influences on racial bias in the courtroom. The Jury Expert, 21(8), 1–15. Web.

Ulmer, J. T., Light, M. T. & Kramer, J. H. (2011). Racial disparity in the wake of the Booker/Fanfan decision: An alternative analysis to the USSC’s 2010 report. American Society of Criminology, 10(4), 1077–1117.

Influence of ethnicity on courtroom proceedings and judicial practices

Recent reports have indicated that cases of jury nullification based on the racial or ethnic background are on the rise. Rush (2000) defines jury nullification as, “A jury who believes that the defendant is guilty of the charges but for their reasons have decided to hand out a non-guilty verdict.”

There are cases where juries in the United States have acquitted the accused even after sufficient evidence has been presented. This may be traced back to the racial discrimination that had been witnessed in this country for several centuries. For instance, in the years preceding 1950s, when a white was convicted for having assaulted a black or committed any crime against races that were considered inferior, it was very likely that the jury would acquit him or her of the crime based on the race.

This was because most of the jurists were whites, and they believed that whites had the freedom to treat other races the way they pleased. This means that they would ignore the evidence presented in the court and issue a ‘not-guilty’ verdict. In contemporary society, this vice is still witnessed in various courtrooms.

There are cases where African Americans have been acquitted of their crimes just because the jurists are fellow African Americans. This acquittal would come despite the clear evidence given by the prosecution supporting the fact that a crime was committed. It is true that judicial practices are heavily influenced by ethnicity (McNamara & Burns, 2009).

Summary of the argument for and against ethnicity-based jury nullification

Some people have come out to condemn ethnicity-based jury nullification while others have supported it. Those who are opposed to ethnicity-based jury nullification and those in support have given different reasons for their stand. Those opposing ethnicity-based jury nullifications have claimed that this practice is denying other citizens of this country justice. According to Rush (2000), this country has taken a long path to achieving equality among all races.

This path towards racial equality had many huddles, and many lives were lost while many people suffered to ensure that equality amongst all Americans is achieved. This means that every citizen of this country should not be judged based on the race, skin color, religion, or any other demographical differences, but their character.

Free (2003) supports this argument by saying that American courts are the places where those who feel that their rights have been infringed go to seek justice. They expect the courts to look into the matter and make a sound decision based on the evidence provided. They expect the jury to be impartial and make rulings that are reasonably just.

When this is not observed, there will be no justice, and the victim will walk free to commit other crimes. Rush (2000) points out the case where Lemrick Nelson Jr. attacked and fatally stabbed Yankel Rosenbaum, a Jewish scholar. When Lemrick and his gang were arrested, the dying Yankel was able to identify Lemrick as the stabber.

This was in concurrence with the eyewitness of this crime. Despite the glaring evidence that was given in court, the jurists- majorly composed of blacks- acquitted Lemrick of the crimes against him. Their decision was pure because the accused was also black. Lemrick would later slash another student a few months after acquittal, a sign that he had a criminal mind.

For this reason, ethnicity-based jury nullification should be avoided at all cost. This is because it makes a section of the society believe that they have some form of protection, and are, therefore, justified to commit a crime. The other section will feel victimized and will have no confidence with the courts. This may encourage cases where people take law in their own hands because they believe that courts are unfair.

Some scholars have, however, supported ethnicity-based jury nullification on varying grounds. Paul Butler, a professor of law at the University of George Washington, is one of the strongest supporters of ethnicity-based jury nullifications (Walker, 2012). According to this professor, the majority of the current inmates in the courts of this country are African Americans. The main reason why they found themselves in jail was not their criminal actions, but their race.

Their main crime was to be blacks in a white-dominated country. This scholar further states that the law governing most courts in this country were developed during those oppressive years when the blacks were considered lesser citizens of this country.

Rice (2010) agrees with this fact by saying that jurists should make their decisions independent of some of the laws because they were not fair to some members of this country. This scholar says that this practice is an alternative way of offering justice to those who are not fully represented in some of the laws of this country.

Contemporary examples of ethnicity-based jury nullification

Several contemporary cases that involve ethnicity-based jury nullification have been pointed out by scholars and human rights watch groups who are concerned that justice in this country is going down the drain. One such case has been mentioned above the murder trial of Lemrick Nelson in 1991.

As was mentioned, Lemrick was acquitted despite the evidence that the prosecution team presented in the courts. Another recent case that has raised a lot of controversies involved two Pennsylvanians youths. A 19-year-old Derrick Donchak and a 17-year-old Brandon Piekarsky were charged with threatening to kill Luis Ramirez- an immigrant from Mexico- and then executing their threat.

The evidence that the two had been involved in the death of Ramirez was so clear that one did not need a legal background to know that the two were guilty as charged (Free, 2003). Many of those who attended the session in the courtroom knew that the two would be found guilty because even the defense attorney was not able to convince the court that the two were innocent. However, the jury acquitted the two, to the surprise of many who attended the courtroom session, family and friends of the victims, and the public (Rush, 2000).

Conclusion

Ethnicity-based jury nullification was very common when racial discrimination was common in the United States. However, this ugly practice is coming back to society once again. Jurists have made several controversial acquittals in manners, which points out that their decision was influenced by their ethnicity.

The jury should always base decisions on the evidence presented. It is important to give justice priority at all times to make the law courts relevant to the public. If ethnicity-based jury nullification is allowed to flourish, then courts will lose their meaning, and people will start looking for alternative ways of getting justice.

References

Free, M. D. (2003). Racial issues in criminal justice: The case of African Americans. Westport: Praeger.

McNamara, R., & Burns, R. (2009). Multiculturalism in the criminal justice system. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Rice, S. (2010). Race, ethnicity, and policing: New and essential readings. New York: New York University Press.

Rush, S. E. (2000). Loving across the color line: A white adoptive mother learns about race. Lanhamr: Rowman & Littlefield.

Walker, S. (2012). The Color of justice: Race, ethnicity, and crime in America. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company.