There are so many groups of people, who differ by their race, ethnicity, gender, and age. Each of these groups has its own preferences, interests, and ways of comprehension of this world. In this essay, we will talk about one of the ethnic groups that the general population has rather strong opinions about and about its peculiarities from a neutral point of view. We will talk about African Americans, who should be differentiated not as a racial group, but as a pure ethnic group.
Any ethnic group is considered to be a socially organized group of people that identifies itself by means of some common heritage (Edelman & Mandle, 32). African Americans are those citizens of the United States of America with origins, connected to black population of Africa.
The point is that lots of people prefer to identify African Americans as a racial group. In fact, it is a bit wrong. It is a good example of an ethnic group that even has its cultural content (Ellis, 143). Of course, being an African American is not easy; the history and the way to freedom on this ethnic group are rather sad and prejudiced. The ways, White American treated to these people, and the steps, White Americans took to enslave black people, will be always under a hot consideration.
However, nowadays, there are so many great African Americans, who did a lot in order to develop America, helped it to take the leading positions, and be one of the most powerful countries in the world. Martin Luther King Jr., Condoleezza Rice, Barack Obama, Muhammad Ali, Michael Jordon, and Michael Jackson all these people are one of the brightest representatives of this ethnic group. Each of them did something useful for his/her country in order to be remembered, be respected, and recognized.
It is necessary to admit that people of color tried to participate in numerous spheres simultaneously in order to achieve good results and use them to achieve better ones. And these great achievements are dated long time ago. Even before the birth of Christ, African Americans were mentioned as one of the best practitioners in the field of medicine (Sluby, 3).
The point is that this ethnical group has lots of own points of view within each sphere of life, which differ from any other group. For example, health. African Americans are regarded as an ethnic group that has much more chances to be affected with HIV or AIDS.
During the times of the Civil Rights war, African American got many benefits from the economical perspective; this is why this ethnic group cannot be called the poorest one. For example, Oprah Winfrey, the media personality, producer, critic, and actress is considered to be of the richest African American people in the world.
Among numerous ethnical groups all over the world, African Americans distinguish by their desire to protect people of the same group, to prove own points of view by means of words and actions at the same time, and to demonstrate that the times when someone could control them has already passed.
It is not very difficult to find some common themes with the representatives of this ethnic group, as they are always eager to listen and present personal vision of the situation. To my mind, it is high time to forget about the prejudice and pride that was demonstrated to this ethnic group by the representatives of other groups and think how to improve this world together, without fear and wars.
Works Cited
Edelman, Carole and Mandle, Carol, L. Health Promotion throughout the Lifespan. Elsevier Health Sciences, 2005.
Ellis, Donald, G. Crafting Society: Ethnicity, Class, and Communication Theory. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999.
Sluby, Patricia, C. The Inventive Spirit of African Americans: Patented Ingenuity. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004.
The United States is a host to many varied cultures and is considered the worlds super power with developments that are envied all over the globe. The countrys democracy has undergone various changes over the years. It has also made several steps towards peace, and equity, among other principles of its foundation. However, this was not achieved in a day; in fact, it took several decades of civil wars and conflicts, among other problems to realize the American dream.
The country boasts of varied culture that arises from immigration. Every year, it receives people from other countries as immigrants. This has improved its credibility in the world. Some of the ethnicities that live in the United States include, Native Americans, African Americans, Chicanos, Asian Americans, among others. These ethnicities did not find it easy settling in the country.
They went through various obstacles such as discrimination, among others. This led to conflicts that spurred acts of atrocities. The strategies employed to fight against racial discrimination included political participation, armed resistance, legal system, and economic participation, among others. This paper will therefore explore each of these ethnicities, their most effective along with the least effective strategies employed in fighting against racial discrimination, as well as the evidence (Baugh 133-146).
Native Americans
These were indigenous people found in North America by the European colonialists. They lived in areas such as Alaska, Hawaii, among others parts. The community was composed of various tribes, ethnic groups and States. In most cases, these communities are referred to as Indians or American Indians.
The largest of these tribes included Apache, Iroquois, Navajo, Sioux, Cherokee, among others. In the last 500 years, the community encountered discrimination and wars with European populations. These were mainly because they had encroached on their Native lands and also tried to displace them. In the process, most were killed; some assimilated, and others removed. In the 19th century, the communities were granted citizenship after several treaties and wars.
During United States fight, for independence against British, Native Americans sided with the latter hoping that they would help them avoid land seizure. This later backfired as the British handed over their land to Europeans. They also sided with Southern States during the civil war. George Washington later helped in restoring them as citizens with rights to vote even though they were not given the opportunity to govern themselves (Colin 34).
African American
These are black Americans who were largely from the African continent during slavery. They were also known as American Negroes. It is quite important to note that this term is usually employed when refereeing to people with African ancestry (sub Saharan Africa). The majority of these communities were descendants of victims and survivors of slavery era.
They faced several problems as they fought for freedom, these included slavery, racial segregation, reconstruction and civil rights movement, among others. This community forms the second largest racial community in United States, only second to Whites. They formed part of the American military conflicts during civil wars. In addition, the community has been active in politics ranging from Martin Luther to Rice and the countrys current president Obama, among others (Baugh 133-146).
Chicanos
These are United States citizens of Mexican descent. This term was used widely during Mexican movements and was aimed at fighting against racism in the 1960s. The community is said to have lived in the United States as early as 1848, even though they are sometimes considered as the latest of immigrants, to arrive.
This is mainly because some of them crossed over and joined with indigenous American Mexicans. The war against mainstream whites between 1846 and1848 in New Mexico among other parts, left many casualties on Mexicans and attributed to their bitterness towards federal government. Their movement was also formed to help fight for affirmative action, immigration rights, globalization, among other issues (Toro 1).
Asian Americans
These are American citizens with origins from peoples of Asia. They were first referred to as Orientals and this displeased them as they considered it a colonialist term. In this regard, they adopted the term Asian Americans, as a way of identification. They benefited from elimination of the Hart-Celler Act, which had restricted them from moving into the United States.
This development led to increased influx from Asia. Asian Americans are now estimated to have the highest attainment of education in United States. Moreover, they also form some of the best-paid employees in the country. Their fight against racial discrimination was also difficult as they fought against acts instituted to exclude them. These included among others, Asian as well as Chinese exclusion acts (History World International 1).
Areas in which they have been most effective when fighting against racial discrimination
These communities faced several challenges in their quest for equality and citizenship as well as acceptance in the American society by mainstream whites. This was achieved through many ways that included political participation, armed resistance, legal system, and economic participation, among others.
Native Americans
Native Americans fought for their rights to own ancestral land in the United States. However, this failed as they lost the battle to retain that land. In this regard, the most effective way of fighting against racial discrimination was through political participation.
African Americans
African Americans have had a long history of civil rights activists, conflicts as well as politics. In this regard, the most effective way of fighting against racial discrimination was through political participation.
Chicanos
The Chicanos fought to govern themselves but lost to the federal government. In this regard, the most effective way of fighting against racial discrimination was through political participation.
Asian Americans
Most Asian communities immigrated for jobs in the 19th century. This helped empower them economically. In this regard, the most effective way of fighting against racial discrimination was through economic participation.
Areas in which they have been least effective when fighting against racial discrimination
These communities used various means to fight against racial discrimination, some of which caused many casualties and was least effective. These were:
Native Americans
Native Americans had their own culture, which was anti-western. Therefore, in their quest for recognition, they fought against mainstream whites and lost. This was therefore the least effective method of fighting against racial discrimination.
African Americans
African American used several means to fight for freedom and racial discrimination. The least effective way of fighting against racial discrimination was through legal system.
Chicanos
Chicanos believed that they had the right to govern themselves; the least effective way of fighting against racial discrimination was through armed resistance.
Asian Americans
Asian Americans came as laborers at the coast. The least effective way of fighting against racial discrimination was through the legal system.
Evidence
Throughout the history of fight against racial discrimination, various occurrences ranging from conflicts to political participation proved to be either the least or most effective way of fighting racism. These were as follows:
Native Americans
These were the indigenous people found in North America by the European colonialists. They suffered from racial discrimination in the 1700s when slavery was a racial caste. This led to various wars in response to this, as they tried to protect their land and culture. Infightings also led to their downfall as some groups were assimilated.
This proves why use of armed resistance was the least effective. On the other hand, their ways of governing was widely adopted by United States Presidents like Benjamin Franklin, among others. In addition, wider political participation allowed them to reduce racial discrimination through George Washington. Political participation was therefore the most effective (Colin 34).
African Americans
These black Americans were largely from the African continent during slavery. They faced several problems as they fought for freedom, these included slavery, racial segregation, reconstruction and civil rights movement, among others. Like Native Americans, the law was against freedom to African Americans who were racial castes.
The least effective method was through legal system since their position as slaves was in law until reconstruction period and civil right s movements. The most effective way was through political participation, which has enabled them to improve in leadership (Baugh 133-146).
Chicanos
This community lived in the United States as early as 1848, even though they are sometimes considered as the latest immigrants. This is mainly because some of them crossed over and joined with indigenous American Mexicans.
Their least effective method of fighting racism was through armed resistance as they were excluded and displaced from their land. This was also witnessed in Texas. On the other hand, their most effective method was through political participation in the Chicano movement that kept pushing for equality since 1960s (Toro 1).
Asian Americans
The Asian community benefited from the elimination of Hart-Celler Act, which had restricted immigrations from Asia. This led to more influx of Asians. Currently they are estimated to have the highest attainment of education in United States.
Their attempts to mitigate racism through legal system were least effective as the acts defended Asian and Chinese exclusion (Wong 25). The most effective method of mitigating racial discrimination was through economic participation, which made them superior in education and pay (History World International 1).
Conclusion
United States is a home to various cultures of the world. This is due to influx of different communities, which started over 500 years ago. Among the communities that live in United States include, Native Americans, African Americans, Chicanos, Asian Americans, among others. These communities did not find it easy settling in the country. They went through various racial subjections in the hands of mainstream whites. This led to several conflicts that caused high numbers of casualties.
The strategies employed in fighting against racial discrimination included political participation, armed resistance, legal system, and economic participation, among others. Most of these communities realized their dreams through political and economic participation, while those that opted for armed resistance lost in many occasions as was seen in Native Americans and Chicanos, as well as African Americans (Toro 1).
Works Cited
Baugh, John. The Politicization of Changing Terms of Self Reference among American Slave Descendants . American Speech. Vol. 66, No. 2, 1991, pp. 133-146.
Colin, Calloway. Native Americans First View Whites from the Shore . American Heritage. Spring 2009.
History World International. ASIAN AMERICANS . World History center. 19.07.2011. Web.
Toro, Luis. Chicanos as a Racialized Minority . The University of Dayton School of Law. 31.12.2010. Web.
Wong, Sau-ling. Asian America.Net: Essays in Ethnicity. Nationalism and Cyberspace. Routledge University Press.
Recent analysis of international affairs paints the picture that the world is embroiled in age-old ethnic conflicts. Proponents of this notion contend that people from different ethnic groups harbor deep hatred for one another, and are only restrained by modern civilizations.
They predict that, in the future, either the modern states will break up into smaller ethnic groupings or great civilizations will rise against each other (Gurr 43). However, the general agreement is that modern regional conflicts can be attributed to cultural differences and affective ties of tribal groupings.
This notion does not foresee a situation where diverse people can coexist. In fact, most ethnic conflicts do not result from ethnic diversity; rather, these conflicts are often fueled by the struggle for power and scarce resources such as land. This implies that in talking about ethnic conflicts, the assumption that ethnic identities are age-old and unchanging may be misleading.
In other words, contrary to this assumption, ethnicity or race is a creation of contemporary politics that denies some people opportunities and gives others access to resources and power (Gurr 44). Cultural or religious differences have not, by themselves, resulted in ethnic conflict. Moreover, in modern times, culturally different people have learned one anothers cultural behaviors and have even intermarried, hence blurring contrasts between ethnic groupings.
Contemporary Situation of Ethnic Conflicts
In modern times, there is a common notion that ethnicity is age-old and often presents itself as ethnocentricism particularly in governance. In Eastern Europe, the current conflicts portray various ethnic groups as having strong nationalistic tendencies, which can only be suppressed by an autocratic government.
In contrast, in the Western world, the American melting pot suggests ethnicities are fast disintegrating while Eastern ethnicities must be suppressed by the autocratic leadership (Gurr 118). In former Yugoslavia, the Bosnians, Croats, and Serbs are different ethnic groupings, which, historically clashed from time to time over resources. However, due to intermarriages, the differences between these currently warring communities are actually so small.
The Bosnians, Croats, and Serbs all speak Italian language and have coexisted in peace for a long time. Although these ethnic groups profess different religions-Serbs being mainly Orthodox, Croats being Roman Catholic and Bosnians being predominantly Muslim-still, each ethnic group comprises of considerable numbers of each religion. This, coupled with high rates of intermarriages, has blurred the differences between these groups.
Therefore, it is clear that the cause of the current Balkan wars is not fueled by ancient religious and ethnic differences, but rather by the contemporary politics, which rally individuals around nationalistic ideologies. In this regard, ethnicity is packaged as nationalism in the pretext of gaining access to resources, land, and power.
The Serb and Croat leaders advocated for a right to self-rule in nation states. Serbs on their part wanted to expand outwards and include other ethnic groups (Horowitz 77). Croats on the other hand held a different nationalistic ideology, which promised to keep out non-Croats. In this view, different nationalistic ideologies are factors that fuelled the massacre of Serbs during the Second World War and in the 1990s.
The Effect of Colonialism
The origin of ethnic conflict in Eastern Europe is different from that of Africa. African violence is not fueled by conflicting ideologies, but rather by ancient warfare between tribes that was propagated by the colonial powers (Horowitz 51).
Ethnic conflict in Africa can be defined by four factors, namely; membership ties in a group, prejudice towards non-members, fear, and expectations about resource allocation. Ethnicities produce affection for in-group members, where the members prefer their own and exclude or discriminate against non-members (Gurr 87). Often, discrimination arises because of these strong in-group ties and loyalty.
Usually, people have a positive social relationship with in-group members. A close relationship exists between the positive feelings between co-ethnics and the prejudice or fear for ethnic strangers. According to Horowitz, contemporary politics breed fear and prejudice, which ultimately determine political behavior, (91).
In contemporary politics, politicians often use fear and prejudice against out groups when seeking support from members of their race or tribe. In the United States, whites predominantly hold a social aversion to participation of blacks in mainstream politics. This stems from learned racist practices in the south. Past voting trends in the US, white voting behavior reflect an aversion towards blacks.
In the African case, ethnic conflict, in the political perspective, is a product of the struggle over power and resources. True, in earlier decades, Africans identified themselves with their ethnic identity, or lineage. However, as people migrate to far places seeking for employment and trade opportunities; ethnic or racial identity has become less important (American Anthropological Association Par. 8).
Now, the conflict is rarely caused by ethnic differences but a struggle for scarce resources such as land, water and pastoral land. The colonial system determined that each person belonged to a particular ethnic identity within the colony. This meant that each had to belong or show loyalty to a particular African group.
This was not restricted to Africa: in India, the British Empire promoted the Hindu nationalism where people identified themselves as either Hindu or Sikh. This later transformed to distinct ethnic groups after independence. Other cases include the Maronites in Lebanon, Moluccans in Dutch and Karens in Burma where colonial states created groupings, which they christened as either ethnic or religious groups.
Nevertheless, in modern times, the need for political autonomy, resources, jobs, and better livelihoods has become the new frontier for ethnic conflicts. Thus, age-old tribal loyalties have become less significant as people strive to attain better socioeconomic status.
Ethnic Diversity and Conflict
It is often assumed that ethnic diversity is the cause of ethnic conflict and political instability. To the contrary, ethnic diversity has less to do with tribal or racial conflicts. In ethnically diverse countries such as Indonesia and Pakistan, less inter-ethnic conflicts have been experienced compared to countries such as Somalia, Yugoslavia, and Rwanda that are relatively less ethnically diverse (Glenny 78).
This indicates that ethnic diversity does not breed ethnic conflicts, but rather relationships of people relative to power that cause local conflicts. A good example is Indonesia. Indonesia is known for its suppression of political activism in East Timor (Glenny 85). This cannot be classified as an ethnic conflict, as the country has over three hundred ethnic groupings with distinct language and religion. In fact, the recent ethnic conflict has much to do with the struggle for control of local resources, specifically oil and gas resources.
Ethnic diversity can sometimes affect national integration in most nation states. However, some countries often succeed in fostering national integration while others fail. It all depends on the social cohesion policies implemented.
In countries such as Rwanda and Burundi, where one ethnic group has been dominating over the others, avoiding ethnic conflicts requires concerted efforts to enhance national healing and reconciliation (Horowitz 86). Often systems where one or two major groups polarize regional politics are less stable compared to systems where smaller groups have an equal chance to participate in national politics.
An example is Malaysia where politicians established an all-inclusive political coalition that strengthened ties between diverse ethnic groupings, i.e. the Chinese communities and Malay people. In contrast, in Sri Lanka, the Sinhalese people formed a government, which, however, split into two ethnic factions, Tamils and Sinhalese, resulted in ethnic conflict.
Political systems can also be modified to accommodate diverse ethnic groups and prevent ethnic tensions. In Nigeria, for instance, after the Biafra war in 1965 a new political system that curved the country into 19 states comprising of the major ethnic groups, Hausa, Igbo, and Yoruba, was implemented (Horowitz 119).
The states comprised of multiethnic coalitions, which helped to foster cohesion and avoid ethnic tensions. However, competing political interests resulted to excessive fragmentations, and subsequently the recurrence of ethnic tensions. It is apparent that negative stereotypes, prejudice, and fear of members of other groups are effects of contemporary political choices made by leaders.
Conclusion
Contemporary ethnic conflicts are not based on ancient cultural or religious differences. In fact, studies have established that ethnic diversity does not necessarily lead to ethnic conflict. The competition for resources causes ethnic tension and violence. In addition, political choices made by the leaders often cause intergroup tensions. Hence, leaders who develop perverse nationalistic ideologies cultivate hatred, which eventually breeds ethnic violence.
Works Cited
American Anthropological Association (AAA). Statement on Race . 1998. Web.
Glenny, Misha. The Fall of Yugoslavia. New York: Penguin, 1992. Print.
Gurr, Ted. Ethnic Conflict in World Politics. Boulder, Colo: Westview, 1994. Print.
Horowitz, Donald. Ethnic Groups in conflict. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999. Print.
Different countries and societies are made up of people with diverse cultural or even linguistic backgrounds. This makes them plural societies. However, because of this plural nature certain issues with regards to race and ethnicity are bound to arise.
According to Knight, (1996) race and ethnicity are essentially historical and intellectual constructs. They were coined at a specific period in time and place in particular circumstances. Mccallum posits that it, therefore, becomes impossible to understand the concepts of race and ethnicity without first understanding their history (1999). But, depending on political and intellectual forces, they evolve and their definitions change. Consequently, Knight posits that for this reason, it could be that how race and ethnicity are defined in modern-day times is probably not how they were defined when they were initially coined (1996).
Accordingly, Knight opines that race and ethnicity are closely related to identity, power,psycho-cultural and psycho-cultural needs. They are used by particular groups in society as a way through which they can define others or themselves. The issues of race and ethnicity gained ideological importance back in the enlightenment period in the 18th century. By the 19th century, political discussions were connoted with the language of race. Ethnic plurality and state formation seemed to be conflicting. To the nationalists, a political state was supposed to represent people who not only lived in one locality but also shared a common identifiable ethnicity. This European definition of nationalism was not only racist but also exclusionary. It sought to deny political independence to people who had a non-European, background. This had important ramifications. To the Latin American countries that wanted to secure their independence, the non-European ethnic groups that were part of them proved to be major hurdles. To this effect, it was not surprising that the Afro American and the indigenous Americans were not considered to be part of the newly independent states, despite their large numbers. They were eventually included in the new states but only because there was no other way out. Also, because the positivists thought they would ultimately be eliminated by the technical age being what they referred to as inferior while the Social Darwinists were convinced that they would naturally fail to survive. By mid 19th century, ideas on race were already hardened. Moreover, the Europeans now had a different perception of the world. According to Knight, this was best illustrated in the writings of the Cuban nationalist who was at the forefront in the agitation of political independence. While the majority of the population was comprised of African slaves, the Europeans though few were still more influential (1996).
Issues on race and ethnicity are different in Latin America compared to say North America. In Northern America, people from different races and diverse ethnicity have been assimilated thus the formation of one complete Northern American society. The reverse is true for Latin America. According to Knight, although some assimilation has taken place in Latin American society, to a large extent, people are still distinguished socially from each other based on their appearance. Thus, in Latin American countries, social divisions have been based on the ethnic pluralism therein. This has had important social and political ramifications in particular countries. For instance, for years Brazil has been characterized by discrimination based on ones race and ethnicity. However, it is important to note that despite race and ethnicity issues being of concern in countries such as Brazil resulting in the ethnic consciousness of those affected, there has been no political instability. This is because the politics of the country do not play the race or the ethnicity card to gain popularity and ultimately power (1996).
By all standards, Brazil is considered to be a successful economy. It is a country that is rich in resources. Still, Brazil also experiences what Hamilton, Huntley, Alexander, Guimaraes, James, and Rienner consider as backwardness. Racial inequality is widespread in Brazil, even though by law there is the absence of racial segregation (2001).
Hamilton et al, opine that there are two distinct racial groups in Brazil. The black African dark-skinned Brazilians and the Mulatto. This then forms the basis of racial separation. For instance, the black Brazilians live in the urban shantytowns known as the favelas or Mocambo where they lack the most basic social amenities. The native Brazilians are even worse off with some falling victim to activities that can only be considered as genocide carried out by the white Brazilians in an attempt to make Brazil an all-white society. What sets Brazil apart from other countries does not lie like the social injustices therein, rather in what is referred to as the ideological dance of deception. On the surface, the different races in Brazil seem to be living in harmony, that racial inequality seems inexistent. As far as inequality is concerned, race and ethnicity are the major determining factors. There are wide differences among the various racial and ethnic groups. Case in point. Blacks are three times poorer compared to whites in the regions of Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paolo. Also, blacks earn way much less than whites, with 26% earning less than minimum wage. The African (black) Brazilian women represent the feminization of poverty. While black men earn more than their black female counterparts, white women on average earn more than the black men in Brazil. The same goes for education, with frequent dropouts from school so that they can work, black Brazilian children end up less educated than their white counterparts. The implication of this is that their literacy levels are much lower than those of the white. Only about two-thirds of the African Brazilian children are fortunate enough to get a basic education. Thus, the black African Brazilians seem to be experiencing the brunt of racial and ethnic discrimination. The problem could lie in the fact that Brazil was the last Christian country to abolish slavery back in 1888. Conversely, steps were never taken to integrate the former slaves and their descendants into mainstream society. (2001) This is the major factor in their exclusion from society. Hamilton et al, opine that African Brazilians were many which proved to be a threat to the political elite. To curb the threat, the elite in the talk of national unity established Africanity and blackness to be anti-Brazil. These sentiments are still widespread which is why African black Brazil experience racial and ethnic discrimination (2001). Black men are excluded from well-paying gainful employment since they were termed as incompetent, unruly, and dangerous. All this serves as the setting of the inequality and discrimination that affects African Brazilians to date.
According to Telles, Latin Americas indigenous, black and mulatto (mixture of white and black) citizens are the most affected by the problems of underdevelopment. Consequently, he opines that Latin governments should incorporate the race and ethnicity factors in their millennium development goals. This is a sure way of reducing their social exclusion in Latin America by the year 2015. The problem however lies in the fact that the Latin American countries do not have the necessary data owing to their failure to collect it appropriately, sometimes failing to collect it at all. What Latin America needs is for census and national surveys to be carried out that will provide the necessary data (2007).
History and especially migration, colonialism, and even slave trade can be said to be responsible for the formation of plural societies throughout the world. That is, of people with diverse backgrounds living together, for instance in Brazil. This is supposed to be a good thing. However, it has led to the segregation of people based on their origin and even their skin color. the result is that race and ethnicity have become a major issue. Race and ethnicity in Brazil have been used to exclude certain groups of people especially the black Brazilians from mainstream society. It is based on race and ethnicity that the black Brazilians earn less, have access to little or no social amenities. It is also the reason why they cannot access well-paying jobs and their children are school dropouts. The only way out is for the Brazilian and other Latin American governments to include the race and ethnicity factors in the Millennium Development goals. This is the only way that the exclusion of black Brazilians can be reduced by the year 2015. Without this, race and ethnicity will continue to be serious issues.
References
Hamilton, Charles V., Huntley, Lynn, Alexander, Neville, Guimaraes, Antonio S.E., James, Wilmot & Reinner, Lynne. Beyond racism: race and inequality in Brazil, South Africa, and the United States. Boulder CO, 2001.
Knight, Franklin W. Race, ethnicity and class: Forging the plural society in Latin America and the Caribbean. Waco TX: Baylor University Press, 1996.
Mccallum, Cecilia. Race and ethnicity in Latin America. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 5.1 (1999).
Telles, Edward E. Race and ethnicity and Latin Americas United Nations Millennium Development Goals. Latin American and Caribbean studies 2.2 (2007): 185-200.
In the modern world of multi-culture and migration has the pertinent value of discussion and the realization that migration, ethnicity, and identity have much in common takes the serious debates towards finding new meanings to it. Migration is the nature of modern man in a global market. Many of the people in the modern world attempt to settle in new territories and such a tendency have great implication to people in the global world environment. Some of these migrations may be permanent while some others are temporary and a variety of reasons such as economic, family, professional, or other reasons can play a central role in such an attempt. It is commendable to be aware of the fact that immigration is the chief basis for the population growth of several nations in the modern world. It can also be seen that immigration of the modern world is highly marked by increasing racial, ethnic, and cultural diversity. As has been the case for the past 50 years, immigration continues to be marked by increasing racial/ethnic/cultural diversity. (Special Section: Psychological Perspectives on Immigration. 2007) It is also part of the immigrant life that they cause the spread of many languages, ways of living, cultures, and world views. The great significance to the spread of all these aspects of ones life including the cultures as a result of immigration is that the world is becoming multicultural at a high speed. There is a great implication to migration, ethnicity, and identity in the modern world with much disturbance and conflicts. From the recent upheavals we have witnessed in the last years, we can only agree that one of the most urgent, political perceptions of our time is the regard for cultural diversity as a positive value crucial to human survival. It is the realization that ethnicity, race and culture, rather than functioning as divisive factors, can contribute to create a rich human situation, multicultural and poly-ethnic, that is beneficial to all. The full acceptance, indeed appreciation, of global diversity will free people from prejudice, intolerance and fear and bring us closer to the basic human ideals invoked centuries ago as liberty, equality and fraternity. (Guillermo). In this background, an analysis of migration, ethnicity, and identity of Chinese immigrants in Australia has great implications which bring about crucial results. Australia is often proclaimed to be one of the most culturally assorted nations in the world, and a cavernous evaluation of Australias immigration history confirms that it is a multicultural society with immigrants from every corner of the world. One may note that Australia is regarded as a country of immigrants which has formally accepted the diversity of its population, evolving specific multicultural policies to deal with this diversity, whatever their merits and demerits. (Bloul 2002). In the given situation, it is most encouraging and fruitful to take up an analysis of Chinese migration to Australia as it covers various elements such as the issues of migration, ethnicity, and identity.
Australian multiculturalism is often regarded as the essential character of the nation. It is essential to understand multiculturalism as the coming together of various cultures that occurred and shown in society, which includes different arts and customs of different race groups. Multiculturalism has its origin from two Latin words, Multus which means many, and Cultura which means cultivation. Therefore, in short, Multiculturalism can be comprehended as many different racial groups with their own culture mixing into one nation and in this meaning, Australia forms a multicultural society. The Australians came from more than one-hundred different country origins which have brought their own cultures. They settled in Australia in order to find a better life. In Australia there exist many different cultural groups. This condition makes Australia a multicultural country, a country with many races, ethnic groups and cultures. The multicultural society has some effects on literature in Australia. There is a multicultural national literature. Since there are many cultural groups in Australia, the Australian government has then cultural policy in Australia in order to control the society and its cultures. So there is a law that will control all the ethnic has its own rights of its culture. (Multiculturalism in Australia). Apart from law and literature, there have been several other aspects of Australian life affected by various cultures. It can be seen that Chinese immigrants formed a huge number of Australian settlers in modern times and an investigation into the migration, ethnicity, and identity of these settlers bring about various essential factors about this life. It can be remarked that recent Chinese migration to Australia&shows how they have grown from being the fourteenth most important origin of settlers in the 1980s to be currently the third largest origin& There is a nexus between non-permanent migrations and eventual permanent settlement in Australia &especially that involving student migration. (Hugo). The issues concerning identity, ethnicity, and migration affecting these Chinese immigrants have been numerous.
Now it is essential to understand that the history of Chinese migration to Australia began centuries ago and it can be noted that the first Chinese settlers rushed to Australia in large numbers to strike gold. It is also seen that most of these were men who had contracted to agents who sponsored their voyages. They faced years of difficult repayments and sent money back to their families in China. Significantly, by the year 1861, there was 7% of Chinese immigrants making Australian population. Once the gold was no more the attraction, these settlers worked as market gardeners or farmhands and some of them began some small grocery stores or fruit and vegetable-hawking businesses in Australian towns. Some Chinese immigrants worked around Melbourne in a mixture of engagements, which included import-export businesses, laundry operations, cabinet making, and medicine. In this background, there began several Chinese religious and cultural organizations, and Chinese New Year celebrations became a highlight in many towns in Victoria. However, Chinese immigration was affected due to the restrictions by the Government policy from as early as the 1850s. It was mainly through the 1901Immigration Restriction Act often called the White Australia Policy that significantly hindered the entry of non-Europeans, including the Chinese, were restricted and this included the use of a dictation test. Residency conditions were also strictly controlled. The Chinese community actively protested against prejudice, however, and activists such as Loius Ah Mouy and Lowe Kong Meng highlighted the important economic and social contributions made by members of their community. Finally, policy restricting the migration of non-Europeans was lifted in the 1970s, and trade links with China were subsequently strengthened. Between 1986 and 1991 the China-born population in Victoria more than doubled to over 20,000. This number was largely due to the many Chinese students seeking citizenship and asylum after the repression of student demonstrations at Tiananmen Square in 1989. (Lam 2006). (Chinese Immigration to Australia). (Martin 1998). It will be noted that, in the modern days, most of the Chinese immigrants include professionals such as scholars, doctors, and business investors, and some others are students. This Chinese immigrant community y in Australia today continues the long and proud history of a Chinese community that remarkably contributed heavily to Victorian life.
In an analysis of the Chinese immigration of Australia, it becomes essential to understand that the issues relating to migration have been of central concern to the immigrants. There have been several policies that are the direct results of such problems concerning migration. In fact, for many years now, migration has been greatly politicized in Australia. There have been several political parties with different stands about migration and the government has raised its transparency to such a high level that the public is aware of developments and policy directions in migration for the present and future years. It is essential to realize that these issues have been of central concern to the Chinese immigrants in Australia. What happens in the past about migration was its motivation by population and labor needs and family re union. It was later realized that well-educated migrants with skills and experience are able to accomplish better employment prospects and settlement outcomes. Skilled migration has therefore been emphasized. From time to time, governments have examined and re-focused the objectives of migration so as to plan and decide for changes to migration policy. Changes to the requirements and categories will affect the skills and quality of future migrants and hence the future economic developments. (Lam 2006). Chinese immigrants have been one of the major immigrant groups in Australia and the migration issues directly affect their prospects in the nation. As we have already comprehended, Australia has been host to the first great invasion of Chinese people into Australia during the Victorian gold rush of the 1850s. it can be seen that during 1851-1861, half a million immigrants headed to the goldfields of Ballart making it huge immigration to Australia. It was later clarified that the diggers of European descent were suspicious of Chinese culture and resentful of Chinese competing for claims, and their intensity in finding gold. This led to violent anti-Chinese riots on the goldfields, and the government imposing a ten-pound tax on every Chinese entering a Victorian port. In December 1901 the Immigration Restriction Act was passed, to place certain restrictions on immigration and to provide for the removal from the Commonwealth of prohibited immigrants. This act was the cornerstone of the White Australia Policy, and was only abolished in 1973 under the Whitlam Labor government. This Act placed restrictions in the path of non-Europeans wishing to migrate, and included the notorious Dictation Test. This was used as a means to exclude non Europeans ostensibly on an objective, non-racial basis. The effect of all this was to greatly restrict Chinese migration to Australia for many decades. (Chinese Immigration to Australia).
Therefore, the migration issues were largely affected by the Chinese immigrants and this has long implications for the immigrants.
The migration of the Chinese people to Australia has been involving various countries and it can be seen that Chinese people have migrated to Australia from different parts of Asia. The migration of the Chinese to Australia was primarily from Malaysia in the 1970s, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Taiwan in the 1980s, and Hong Kong and China from the mid-1980s to 1993. As a result, the majority of Chinese immigrants to Australia have been from Malaysia, China and Vietnam. There have been several other countries significant Chinese migration to Australia and they are Singapore, Cambodia, Indonesia, East Timor, Papua New Guinea, Taiwan, Laos and Thailand, and Hong Kong. Smaller numbers of Chinese immigrants are from Fiji, The Philippines, New Zealand, Britain, Burma, Christmas Island, Mauritius, South Africa, India, and Japan. It can also be seen that these immigrant groups are the Australian-born Chinese and those of mixed race. Significantly, identity has been a central issue to these Chinese immigrants primarily resulting from cultural background and diversity in immigrant background. Recent studies have found that, in general, despite the diversity in country of origin and socio-economic status Chinese immigrant families in Australia retain something of their original cultural beliefs& Seven of the Chinese group had lived in Australia for less than five years, compared with four in each of the Cambodian and Hong Kong groups and one in the Malaysian group. Four in the Cambodian group and three in each of the Chinese, Hong Kong and Malaysian groups had lived in Australia for six to nine years. Two from the Cambodian group, three from the Hong Kong group and six from the Malaysian group had lived in Australia for over ten years. Nearly the entire Cambodian and Hong Kong group and over half of the Chinese group were Australian citizens& Thirteen different nationalities were given by the four groups for how they identified themselves. The majority of the Hong Kong group identified themselves as Australian Chinese& One of these Chinese people made the following comment I have a complicated feeling and thinking. I am not sure of my identity. I hope I am an Australian but because of racism I dont have a sense of belonging here. When I am back in China I will say I am Australian Chinese. Here the society seems stable, however it is not stable to accept other groups. (Martin 1998). Therefore, it is clear that identity has become a central issue to the immigrants in Australia and this issue has several aspects to be dealt with seriously and minutely. These issues include ethnicity as well.
In conclusion, it is essential to comprehend that Chinese immigration to Australia involves various essential matters, and migration, ethnicity, and identity have formed most of the discussions on Chinese immigration to Australia. There have been several central issues, as evident in this analysis, that need to be focused on in a serious discussion concerning the Chinese immigrant experience in Victoria. These are very essential questions that call for detailed researches and studies which may be followed by efforts to solve the issues faced by the Chinese immigrants in Australia.
Bibliography
GUILLERMO, Alice G. 1995 Global Cultural Diversity Conference Proceedings, Sydney: Arts, Culture and Identity. [Online]. Australian Government. 2008. Web.
Multiculturalism in Australia. [Online]. Australian Studies Center. The People. 2008. Web.
HUGO, Graeme. Recent Trends in Chinese Migration to Australia. 2008. Web.
History of Immigration from China. [online]. Origins. 2008. Web.
LAM, David T (2006). The Economic Impact Of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy: Abstract. [Online]. Australia. 2008. Web.
Chinese Immigration to Australia. (2008). [online]. Microsoft Office Live Workspace. Web.
MARTIN, Jennifer (1998). Cultural Diversity and Practice with Australians of Chinese Background: Consumer Perspectives. [online]. Changing Families, Challenging Futures. 2008. Web.
Special Section: Psychological Perspectives on Immigration. (2007). [online]. Communiqué. 2008. Web.
In the current reality of the international society built under the influence of the process of globalization, ethnicity seems to matter much less than before; a similar tendency can be explored in Miami as well. This phenomenon of being post-racial can be witnessed on the most varied levels of society including the Presidency and the Supreme Court. This situation can be explained by the fact that there are so many different races and ethnicities mixed both in the global society and in the society of Miami, in particular. However, a closer look at the current situation in the globalized society shows that there exist such areas where ethnicity still matters including making stereotypes, marrying and medicine.
According to Placecia, race matters only to the extent that people in our society are still treated as members of a race . Speaking about the main areas where ethnicity is still important nowadays, it should be stated that making stereotypes is the most significant area where ones race still can be addressed as rather important. Race and Ethnicity argue that stereotyping is undoubtedly a natural process, used by individuals to simplify the world and to make life somewhat predictable (par.32). Concerning this, people seem to view and evaluate others based on ones ethnicity. I am a Latino , and that is why people who meet me for the first have a row of stereotypes about my personality especially about my hot, passionate and explosive nature. All the above-mentioned characteristics are not fully relevant to my personality, and for the reason of such a stereotyped misunderstanding, I am disappointed sometimes. Some sociologists and anthropologists believe that we perform race and ethnicity. It seems that such a saying implicate the idea that the representatives of different ethnic groups have their mentality and temperament. I thought about my behaviour in that way many times, and I must admit it often happens that my conduct does support the stereotypes about the mentality of my people; however, I am a person constantly trying to improve and enrich my personality trying to adopt the best qualities form the other ethnicities, and that is why I cannot agree with the above-mentioned scientists to the full extent.
Further, another important area where ethnicity still matters is the institute of marriage. By 1980 only one quarter of American-born whites was married to someone with an undivided ethnic heritage identical to his or her own (Race and Ethnicity par.37). Thus, it is evident that the assimilating process continues actively. However, roughly 99 percent of African American women and 97 percent of African American men marry one of their race (Race and Ethnicity par.37). From the last piece of data, the conclusion can be made that ethnicity still means a lot for the institution of the family.
In addition, the specialists on race naturalism may think that in some ways different genetic materials can influence the operating of the human body, and thus require a different treatment for particular diseases especially for such ones connected to genetics as cancer and diabetes. So, racial inherence can be seen as important in the area of medical treatment.
In conclusion, nowadays in the era of creating a new globalized society ethnicity appears to be less important than before. However, it is still rather significant for stereotyping, the institute of marriage and medicine. By 2001 there was an estimated 37 million Hispanic Americans, or nearly 13% of the total population (Alcoff par. 23). Thus, I can believe myself to be a part of one of the most numerous ethnicities in the United States. With regards to my position on the actuality of the racial issue nowadays I would say it still matters but it is less important.
Works Cited
Alcoff, Linda. n. d. Latinos and the Categories of Race. n. d. 2012.
Placecia, Nathan. n. d. Does Race Matter? n. d. 2012.
The problem of discrimination in the educational setting according to the race and ethnicity factor is very controversial, and researchers are interested in discussing the presence or absence of differences in minority students intelligence and abilities to demonstrate the high academic performance. While focusing on this problem, it is necessary to answer the following research question: Are there differences in students academic performance scores and intelligence based on the factor of ethnicity? The multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) can be discussed as effective to be used in this research because two dependent variables can be measured in numbers and one independent categorical variable (Agresti & Finlay, 2009, p. 20; Huck, 2012, p. 380). The study aims to test the following hypotheses:
H0: ¼1 = ¼2 = ¼3 = ¼4, H0: There are no differences in Caucasian, African American, Hispanic, and Asian students performance and intelligence scores based on the factor of ethnicity.
H1: ¼1 ` ¼2 ` ¼3 ` ¼4, H1: There are differences in Caucasian, African American, Hispanic, and Asian students performance and intelligence scores based on the factor of ethnicity.
Referring to the types of errors, it is important to note that Type II errors are more typical for this research conducted with the help of the MANOVA, although Type I errors are possible.
Methods
For this study, 40 participants are selected with the help of the questionnaire in which college students from one faculty state their age and ethnic or racial background. Thus, 40 male and female students aged 22-23 are randomly selected from 200 college students completing questionnaires. These 40 students are the sample population related to the research. Participants who belong to one student community are assigned to four groups according to their ethnic background: Caucasian, African American, Hispanic, and Asian. 10 participants represent each group.
The independent variable is the students ethnicity which is stated by students with the help of the questionnaire. The variable is categorical, and it is measured in four different ethnic or racial groups such as Caucasian, African American, Hispanic, and Asian according to the nominal scale. There are two dependent variables. The first dependent variable is the students academic performance score which is quantitative and continuous, and it is measured in 0.0 to 100.0 score according to the interval scale. In this case, the performance score is the students grade received after completing the Multi-Disciplinary Test, including questions from different academic disciplines studied at the faculty during the first year. The second dependent variable is intelligence which is quantitative and continuous, and it is measured in IQ scores with the help of the adapted IQ Tests. The used scale is also an interval.
Results
The MANOVA should be used to conduct the research when it is necessary to discuss how one independent variable can impact two or more dependent variables. The MANOVA is chosen for the study because it allows conducting one statistical test for two dependent variables instead of focusing on a series of tests. To interpret the results of the MANOVA effectively and in detail, it is necessary to use posthoc tests when there is a significant F. To discuss the observed significance, it is necessary to focus on comparing p-values. Much attention should be paid to the fact that there is an accepted p < 0.05. It is important to compare p-values characteristic for such DVs as academic performance score and intelligence score. If after running the MANOVA, the Sig. for the DVs is stated as < 0.05, it is important to conduct posthoc tests. There are four groups related to the IV that is why post-hoc tests are necessary to determine the actual source of the signs stated with the help of the MANOVA. When there is no statistical significance, the null hypothesis seems to be supported. That is why post-hoc tests are conducted only when the null hypothesis is rejected to find the source of significant differences in means.
The information obtained from the MANOVA and post-hoc tests are the numerical data representing possible differences or absence of differences in the performance and intelligence scores of students belonging to different racial backgrounds. The focus on differences in means and other measures of central tendency and variability is necessary. The shape of the distribution allows discussing the role of the students demographics. To conclude the hypotheses, it is necessary to compare the performance and intelligence scores of Caucasian, African American, Hispanic, and Asian students. F statistic is necessary to be studied while concluding on the hypotheses. If p < 0.05, the differences in the performance and intelligence scores can be discussed as present and caused by the ethnicity factor (American Psychological Association, 2010, p. 22; Welkowitz, Cohen, & Ewen, 2006, p. 112).
Discussion
The biases and faults are associated with the fact that if students determine their racial or ethnic background incorrectly or they have a mixed background, the results of the research cannot be discussed as accurate. To avoid limitations associated with using the ethnicity factor as the IV in the study, it is necessary to provide students with the opportunity to state their racial and ethnic background accurately, while pointing at the possible mixed origin and without selecting from the proposed options. The limitations of the study area in the fact that the selected students study at one faculty and these results are representative for the students of only this faculty. Furthermore, the content of the Multi-Disciplinary Test and IQ Tests used to measure the variables can also be biased, and this fact can affect the results and the researchers conclusions on hypotheses.
Participants can have different academic backgrounds which can also affect the test results. The limitations can be noted while interpreting the findings. Using the MANOVA, it is possible to conclude the academic performance scores are different for Caucasian, African American, Hispanic, and Asian students. It is also possible to conclude that students with different ethical backgrounds have different intelligence levels. However, the research does not demonstrate how the ethnicity factor can impact the students academic successes in one certain discipline because of being limited by the use of the Multi-Disciplinary Test. The practical significance of the results is in opportunities for educators and psychologists to revise the approaches to working with minority students to enhance their academic performance.
Conclusion
The discussed study is focused on determining differences in Caucasian, African American, Hispanic, and Asian students performance and intelligence scores. The MANOVA is an effective statistical test to be applied to the research to provide accurate results on the presence or absence of studied differences in means.
References
Agresti, A., & Finlay, B. (2009). Statistical methods for the social sciences (4th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.
American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Huck, S. W. (2012). Reading statistics and research (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Welkowitz, J., Cohen, B. H., & Ewen, R. B. (2006). Introductory statistics for the behavioral sciences (6th ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Racial and ethnic groups offer policymakers an archetypal magnetism/dodging clash. Shielding the constitutional rights of workers from bigotry enables exposure of the vice by ethnic/tribal groups. However, only some edifying intercessions are supported by meaningful cultural national distinctiveness among workers. Consequently, classifying employees by race or traditions interferes with their growth whereas offering policymakers diminutive data for scheduling policies. Obviously, with the No Child Left behind Act, subcultures of employees ought to have been disaggregated so that each individual carries on with life sufficiently. However, the yearly objective is tailored for every worker not disjointedly for every faction.
Ethnic group elevates both pessimistic and constructive subtext. Unconstructive subtexts are inclined to the interior culture and more or less termed as open intolerance to various factions. An affirmative overtone seems to be linking the emotions of groupings and communal cultural setting. As the workplace organization and the Budget admits, customary and systematic classifications of race and traditions are less functional and suitable as opposed to realistic designations that may classify employees in the ways they may come across prejudice.
Certainly a few policymakers and scholars have referred to race and cultural groupings as somewhat diverse, such as residents assemblies, and the classification would be the racial cluster or crowd that natives identify with or fit in. This paper endeavors to scrutinize the possible perils in the USA Patriotic Act, evaluate it, identify barriers towards its amendment and finally suggest ways that would be applied in cleaning up the menace. The paper achieves this by taking a the form of a case study
US Patriot Act
USA PATRIOT ACT was enacted in 2001 in reaction to the September 11, bomb attack on the US. Reauthorization was passed in 2005 by Senate and made permanent most of the previous provisions about to expire in 2005. The Act strengthens and gives more authority to the federal agencies over individual privacy and secrecy of information. There is more federal authority on foreigners in the US and on electronic communications limiting the privacy of individuals as previously enjoyed (Abele, 2005). Some of the sections of the law have been contested in court with rulings made in favor of the applicant and some sections being nullified.
Organizational policy
In every organization, all workers are supposed to be treated equally as the constitution states clearly that all are equal before the law. In America, every person is given an equal opportunity to explore various avenues of opportunities in a bid to ensure every person can sustain his/herself while at the same time contributing to nation building efforts. Discrimination and harassment are unconstitutional and thus as in an organization, all are treated equally with every individual given an equal platform on which one can further and perfect the acquired skills. Individual properties are respected and no organizational activity should be deemed to be undermining individual freedom or privacy. Letters to the various personnel are dispatched without tampering with them in a bid to verify the contents (Scheppler, 2006).
The privacy Act
The Act gives federal agencies authority to intercept individual or corporate electronic communications perceived to be related to terrorism. Emails of individuals are also put under scrutiny with their contents disclosed by the various agencies. The Act is specifically discriminatory since aliens are mostly targeted with their bank accounts being scrutinized and under constant check in an effort to ensure they do not fund terrorism. The area of residents especially of aliens also under surveillance with their activities, especially those touted to be terrorists, being closely monitored. Computer communications not spared either with computer trespasser intercepted by the federal authority.
Organizational view on the Act
As an organization, the policies of the Patriot Act are very oppressive and going against the constitutional rights of individuals. Discrimination and harassment have been propagated by the Act, as federal agencies tend to launch the individual surveillance and interception, not mainly on the individual actions but on race and religion. As an organization, employees are never judged on their social inclinations, religion, or race. All races and tribes are given equal opportunities as policies have been put in place stating that individuals are judged by their productivity level, efforts and loyalty rather than race, place of origin or religious beliefs (Smith & Hung, 2010).
The Patriot Act is not desirable for any organizational functioning or policy formulations. The Act gives federal agencies the authority to detain persons perceived to be terrorists at the same time freezing their bank accounts and all of their assets in a bid to preventing the suspects from obtaining any form of support. The Act also provides for disclosure of private and confidential information to the agencies by financial institutions about their clients.
This goes against the professional business ethics. Furthermore, the information in most cases does not lead to any meaningful terrorism arrests. Most of the suspects are only investors whose main aim is for business purposes rather than terrorism. The Acts provisions are thus discriminatory and leave many individuals especially aliens vulnerable to harassment and torture.
All organizations are governed by formulated policies that are transparent and apply to all personnel. This ensures that the organization is put before and above individuals and as a result, individuals are deterred from misusing their power hence the levels of discrimination and harassment is significantly reduced. The Act on the other hand does not respect the set institutions like courts. This is portrayed in the Acts provision that allows for detention of persons or removal of non-citizens without judicial review. The government has also been given the powers to detain suspected terrorists without trial and monitoring foreign students and all activities they engage in. Such an act is discriminatory since the majority of foreign students has nothing to do with terrorism and is as vulnerable to terrorism like any other group.
Such monitoring can be psychologically disturbing to individuals because they cannot engage in social activities with their American peers freely as they feel someone is watching over them even when not being monitored. This creates disorders such as paranoia and depression and such students are even unable to accomplish their studies. In an organization, basing on experience, such measures should be avoided as they lower the productivity capacity of employees. They also go against human rights of individuals that should be maintained and observed at all time. In implementing organizational policies on harassment and discrimination, it becomes valuable to consider the diverse nature of employees and formulating the appropriate policies that are accommodative.
Instead of placing harsh conditions on aliens and foreigners that in most cases are against the constitution and human right of individuals, it would be better for the government to tackle pertinent issues such as American imperialism. Terrorism is only a result of the main problem facing America of which the main problem is the perception the outside world has about America. International relations should be improved with diplomacy being preferred instead of military confrontations. Countries such as China and Japan are global powerhouses but are not faced with the serious danger of terrorism like the US.
The system thus needs to think of a better way of tackling terrorism rather than imposing strict rules that are discriminatory. In this era of globalization, immigrants will always flow to the US and thus discriminatory acts against them do not portray the true image of the American nation. This applies to all organizations to also liberalize their policies and ensure that individuals are first treated like human beings before going to the national and race entities (Ewing and Doyle, 2005).
The Outcomes of the Act
The Acts implementation has not been objective as the process has been mainly associated with abuses. The Act has been one of the reasons cited for the over a hundred percent increase on hate crimes against American Muslims. The Act portrays the Muslim states as terrorists resulting to religious intolerance in the American society. American Muslim community has been struggling with civil rights especially since 2003. The Acts measures against terrorist suspects of whom many are Muslims have given the society a reason to continue discriminatory acts against Muslims. Almost half of the anti-Muslim incident complaints reported have been committed because of the governments anti-terrorism policies.
As observed by Scheppler (2006), the government at one time ordered the registration of male non-citizen visitors of whom the majorities were Muslims; over thirteen thousand Muslims were deported as a result. The sweeping powers of the government in probing and monitoring individuals have been questioned. The Act calls for institutions to seek customer details and probe their authenticity and if falsified they should take action. As a result, there have been many reported cases of bank accounts of Muslims being locked behind bars without notice or further explanations; others denied credit cards, bank officials citing the Acts provisions. This discrimination has been even extended to the US born Muslim citizens.
Harassment cases on Muslims have also increased significantly since the Act came to effect. The constitution has not stated the religion of the US and thus no religion is recognized as the federal religion with all religions being treated as equal. The act has thus resulted in contradicting the constitution in having discriminatory clauses.
For an organization, such treatment and oppressive acts are avoided. The policies of the organization are structured in such a way that all people are equally treated and the requirements for each individual employee are similar. Discrimination and harassment acts are discouraged at all costs. To ensure that the policies against harassment and discrimination are implemented efficiently and objectively, all the diverse employees from different cultural and religious inclinations are required to ensure no individual is contradicting the policies by engaging in acts that are not allowed. Suggestion boxes and employees representatives have been encouraged to improve communication in the organization. Seminars and workshops have also been organized in light to stamping out discrimination and harassment.
Evaluation of the Act
As indicated above, the US Patriot Act seems to do more harm than good. The Act discriminates against non-citizens, and oppresses the Constitutional rights of the individual. In a business setting, equal opportunities for employees are in place, and should employees and/or management violate these rights, there would be serious consequences. The US should be held to the same standard.
For an organization, such treatment and oppressive acts are avoided. The policies of the organization are structured in such a way that all people are treated equally and the requirements for each individual employee are similar. Discrimination and harassing acts are discouraged at all costs, including termination. To ensure the policies against harassment and discrimination are implemented efficiently and objectively.
All the diverse employees from different cultural and religious inclinations are required to ensure no individual is contradicting the policies by engaging in acts that are not allowed. Suggestion boxes and employees representatives have been encouraged to improve communication in the organization. Seminars and workshops have also been organized in light of preventing harassment and discrimination and to exhibit the consequences of such actions.
The attacks of September 11 instilled fear within the US government and the Act is a result of that fear. However, this document has left law enforcement a wide berth to conduct activities that are against the basic civil rights of individuals living in the US. Provisions were in place prior to the Act to attempt to protect the US. Many of them were not enforced. As a country, the government did not see that terrorism would ever be a problem on US soil.
One safeguard that should be implemented to avoid abuse of the Act would be to define domestic terrorism. As the Act is written now, the term includes anyone, even college groups involved in protesting war. This is in direct violation of the Constitutional right to freedom of speech, which is one of the rights that the US is known for (Totenberg, 2010). Specifically defining domestic terrorism may assist in mitigating the risk of violating an individuals civil rights (Iftikhar, 2005).
Additionally, the Act should be modified to reflect the basic rights of the US such as all men are created free. This does not mean all men within a certain culture, religion, or race. It is meant to reflect all men, human beings, legal immigrants, men, women and children. If a suspected terrorist is identified, under the Constitution, they are still entitled to due process (Khalil, 2002). The act of incarcerating an individual is barbaric and inhuman and is in direct violation of the 14th Amendment to the Constitution (Walenta, 2010).
Modification of the Act is desperately needed. In order to affect this change, it would be wise for a group to be established that can research and present the solutions to Congress. Although there are many groups like this in existence, a new organization made up of citizens who are well versed in the Act could be implemented to show the government the damage that the Act is doing to its own citizens. The members of the group should include all individuals who are looking to protect their basic civil liberties. A public group that infers peaceful resolution rather than violent protest can prevent the group from falling apart under the Acts regulations.
If the issues were presented to the government in an organized, well thought out manner, perhaps they would listen. In any event, the message would be heard, and regardless of the outcome, this group may begin to effect change. There are rallies, marches, and peaceful protests for many groups who want to enforce their Constitutional rights, some of which are violent groups. The Act may want to focus more on the groups that are known offenders rather than individuals who are looking for their basic civil rights and by publicizing this groups agenda in a constructive manner this could be accomplished.
This pie chart represents the number of US citizens that would like to see ratification of the Act.
This graph is based on numbers provided by the ACLU and the US Census Bureau. The blue colored part shows the fraction of American citizens who admit to abolishing the Act (Longley, n.d.). These brave individuals are willing to risk being victims of the Act, rather than stand aside and remain silent towards the injustices provided by such a discriminatory piece of legislation. Many others fear retaliation and being next victims of the Act.
Race, Ethnicity, Discrimination and Stereotyping
Racial and ethnical discrimination and stereotypes are important issues a contemporary society faces. In this section, we are going to address the issues of race and ethnicity and define and analyze the components of discrimination and stereotyping.
Contemporary discrimination practices have their roots in the history of development of the United States and are closely related to American anti-Semitism that was part of the late-nineteenth century racism emigrant from all parts of the world, as well as African Americans, Native Americans and Mexicans. The discriminatory treatment included closing the doors to immigration from Europe and Mexicans, between 1882 and 1927 (Ore, 2009). Contemporary discriminatory practices are done towards African Americans, Asian Americans, and Native Americans. They include denying equal access to opportunities, certain housing areas or membership in social organizations.
In the contemporary society, there is still a room for hidden forms of racism against ethnic groups mentioned earlier. The situation has changed since the early 1990s when blatant racism was more common for them.
In the contemporary society, there is still a room for hidden forms of racism against ethnic groups mentioned earlier.
Barriers to Implementation of Policies
Various interpretations of the terms race and ethnicity can lead to the types of discrimination identified in the first section. Thus, race is often associated with physical specifications such as skin color, and ethnicity is defined through the background, historical or cultural. Historically, people created various forms of prejudices about race and ethnicity. Thus, the prejudice that African Americans are low-intelligent race leads to the institutional and employment discrimination.
Race and ethnicity are defined on two models (social and biological). Both of them state that there are dominant and subjective race. However, they have considerable gaps. For example, from the biological perspective, all people have the same construction and functions of the body and it is ridiculous to distribute people into different races. From the social perspective, all people are members of the society they live in and according the same social rules, thus, this gap in the sociological model cannot proper reflect race and ethnic identity.
There are voluntary and involuntary models used to promote discrimination. Separatism model suggests that racial groups should be segregated from the rest of society. Assimilation model is associated with the issue of racial supremacy. For example, it defines what races are allowed to assimilate with the dominant culture, and what races will not fit social and political standards of the dominant race. Pluralistic model defined a racial group as a distinguished one and, according to Hochschild and Rogers (2000), groups will not dissolve into an anodyne melting pot, but individuals will have considerable leeway in deciding how and how much group identity matters to their lives .
Thus, racial profiling contributes to personal, spiritual, political, and procedural conflicts identified in the previous assignment. For example, as it has already been mentioned, the Patriot Acts provisions are discriminatory and leave many individuals especially aliens vulnerable to harassment and torture. The race of the individual becomes an identification used to attribute him/her to terrorists. Moreover, federal agencies have the right to freeze bank accounts of persons perceived as terrorist. It is a form of racial discrimination as well.
This analysis can be helpful in addressing the issue of international relations of the United States with other countries. We suggest that it is necessary to consider the diverse nature of employees within organizations, as well as people in communities, schools and other organizations. Racial prejudices should not be issues for classifying people in bad and good ones. In addition, international relations should be improved with diplomacy being preferred instead of military confrontations based on racial diversity. Race and ethnic identity of a person is often a reason for social discrimination. The Patriot Act should find different approaches to international relations in order prevent racial and ethnic discrimination.
Interventions to Issues of Race and Ethnicity
One proposal for moving away from the ethnicity and racial cultures is to enlarge the small group to higher civilization by centering on worldwide benefit such as the atmosphere. Unluckily, this model is not expected to do well especially when discussing agendas regarding to cryptogram of harmony and regulations of hostility. It should be acknowledged that unconstructive outlooks frequently overshadow the outlooks of optimistic feeling.
Orthodoxy could be a further suitable word as opposed to teamwork, and consistency is simply preferred when there is rivalry or danger from a different faction. When the environmental group or humanism gets into the activities of cluster insensitivity to substitute ethnocentrism, it will perhaps be undertaken in a conservative manner, a minority race or ethnic group will be detested and damned, possibly as humans not in favor of civilization.
A real amalgamation of human race will necessitate something reminiscent of an assault challenge from external force. The superior the cluster of a race or ethnic group the lesser the percentage of its associates with sky-scraping status. In some factions, there is only one prime man, and the control of the grouping does not enlarge with cluster magnitude at the equal rate as the grade and file. A subordinate associate of a collection is such a strain that reward is desirable, or else the individual will pull out from the faction if achievable. One of techniques utilized in balancing squat grading is stressing supremacy in relation to the exterior race or ethnic group.
The inferior the race or ethnic group, the more group egotism is produced as reparation. To sustain and legalize rivalry, the t inferior ethnic group or race is regularly located exterior to civilization. However, if the inferior ethnic group or race is diverse and not considered a danger, the contrast mislays its significance. Low-status factions in wealthy states obtain miniature comfort in identifying that they have a greater welfare as opposed to citizens in emerging economies.
Enhanced and more reliable data collection should be performed because it assists in evaluating and tumbling racial inequalities. Failures in data compilation hinder the endeavors within states and thwarts attempts to comprehend divergences among states. Tremendously, a few state examination structures still classify the entire ethnic and cultural factions as black or white only. The conventional public norm for data compilation depends upon the groups incorporated in the Federal Office of administration and Budgets order. States should therefore assemble and account for collected statistics on the cultural and racial subtexts that are inherent there, and they ought to come up with policies that spot gaps in existing facts for small groups.
Valuable appraisal of agendas facilitates categorization of most excellent observations amongst state agendas, orders, conventions, and proposals, although the investigators may rapidly be faced with a scarcity of research reviewing and certification efficiency.
The phrase greatest practice should be abandoned and replaced with a more indistinct phrase capable practices. Practices are termed as hopeful depending on researches and other information, over and above proposals made by pollsters, planning specialists, and state bureaucrats. The failures in locating greatest actions calls for the suggestion that investigators and civic administrators work jointly to assess the efficiency of discrepancy intercession and to certify and publish these agendas and strategies that capitulate to optimistic outcomes. On the other hand, there is a necessity of spotting intercessions that cannot function so that funds can be utilized prolifically.
The policymakers need to accentuate stronger ethnic and linguistic proficiency in all inequality lessening actions .Ethnically and linguistically suitable deliveries are services that are reverential and receptive to racial and linguistic wishes. Ethnic feeling is the capacity to counter the outlooks, thoughts, or state of affairs of persons or factions sharing a universal and idiosyncratic ethnic, public, spiritual, linguistic, or literary legacy. Ethnic and racial hurdles have been proved to be enhancing the cost of services. States must come up with stricter values for racially and ethnically proficient wellbeing; undertake information gathering and studies on victorious practices; back training, schooling, and improvement of more experienced personnel; and examine and implement the usefulness of programs. In the entire main concern vicinities, states need sustenance from the central administration and fundamentals.
Employee expansion agendas and upgrading to the cultural proficiency of every part of an organization also contribute to wellbeing and integration. Even though Latinos, African Americans, and American Indian/Alaska inhabitants constitute up to 25 percent of the U.S. residents, they add up to simply 6 percent of physicians and less than 14 percent of the certified nurses. White-high profession specialist and businesspersons are unlikely likely to work in federally chosen deficiency regions as opposed to their counterparts in other races.
Cultural prestige of people is connected with superior contribution at work resulting to advanced service delivery hence leading to contentment, and better observance to management. States have embarked on several programs aimed at developing the conduit of marginalized practitioners, nevertheless, states should enlarge and advance attempts meant to expand the working conditions of the employees, and they have to support them by classifying preeminent practices.
Conclusion
The problem of Ethnicity and race is a big challenge to the policymakers both in private and public organizations. An issue has threatened to divide the country into various subcultures because every ethnic group and race identifies themselves with certain distinct features. The government officials have found it hard to come up with strategies that are all encompassing mainly because of the continued resistance from some groups feeling that their interests are well catered in the plans. In general, the government is trying but more effort has to be put for there to be equality and equity in distribution of both material and non-material resources.
It can be concluded that ethnic and racial groupings cannot be eliminated in the country but instead it can be engaged to function positively. The policymakers should conduct an extensive research to identify how racial groupings have affected the development of the country. Upon the findings, the government should design policies basing on the findings. The issue extending favors to racial members at workplaces should be discouraged and severe measures ought to be formulated to deal with the problem.
References
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Hochschild, J.L. & Rogers, R. (2000). Race Relations in a Diversifying Nation. Washington D.C.: National Planning Association.
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How children and adolescents are taught about race and ethnicity shapes their attitudes toward race and biases associated with the topic. This is why it is important to ensure that these individuals are educated on the topic of ethnicity and diversity, which is something that I did not have when I was growing up. This lack of education has led to me adopting these biases and using them to make judgments about people before getting to know them. This paper will discuss the lessons about race and ethnicity I learned when growing up and the stereotypes that still exist in American society.
Main body
Unfortunately, I grew up in an environment where the community and my social circle did not discuss race from any viewpoint. Hence, I did not adopt a healthy attitude towards race and racial differences when I was a child. I would say that the most important influences on my racial beliefs were my family, community, and schooling. Specifically, I think that the biggest influence on me was the schooling I received and the environment of the middle and high school because there was an evident division between the students.
African-American students would usually make friends with the representatives of their community, and the same pattern was true for Hispanic and Asian-American students. I think that the formation of these small communities was natural since we were not taught about diversity and inclusion. Thus, the way the other students and I viewed the cultural and behavioral differences that prevailed in some communities was influenced by racial bias. It is very unfortunate that when growing up, I did not receive a proper learning experience that would teach me to embrace differences because, in that case, I could communicate with a broader circle of people and network with individuals of different ethnicities, which would culturally enrich me.
The main belief about race and ethnicity that I had when growing up was that having a certain color of skin means belonging to a certain ethnic group. Now I understand that this is a very simplified explanation that fails to account for the many factors, such as upbringing and culture, which are more important in defining ones ethnicity.
Currently, there are still many stereotypes relating to race in American society; for example, where I grew up, Latino people were considered loud and cheerful. This placed certain expectations regarding the behaviors of the members of this community because others would judge a particular person using these stereotypes and not the behaviors of the individual. Next, a common stereotype about Asian-Americans is that they are intelligent at an above-average level and dedicate most of their free time to studying.
In the article for the American Psychological Association, Abrams addresses some of the critical stereotypes that still affect the Asian-American community to this day (26). The main issue is that this community is often overlooked in the public discussions of race and racial biases. Partially, this may be linked to the fact that Asian-Americans are among the lesser discriminated minorities in the United States; however, this does not mean that there are social stereotypes that shape the attitudes towards this ethnicity. According to Abrams, Asian Americans report less discrimination in employment, housing, and criminal justice compared with other racial minorities in the United States (26). Still, they suffer from the bias of other ethnic groups since the latter perceive Asian-Americans as inherently successful and well-adapted to the cultural environment of the state.
The biases towards a certain ethnic group may not be evident at first sight. The specific instances of the bias that Abrams recalls are linked to employment opportunities and the inclusion of this minority in clinical studies (26). For example, the representatives of this ethnicity are more often denied the opportunity to become leaders in organizations when compared to other groups. Moreover, there is a lack of inclusion of this ethnic group in the clinical research and studies, which means that their results cannot be generalized to this population. Abrams notes that despite the fact that the population has increased by 72% since 2000, making it the countrys fastest-growing racial or ethnic group clinical research efforts focused on Asian American, Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander populations have made up only 0.17% of the National Institutes of Health budget since 1992 (26). Hence, the bias towards this group and other minorities is reflected in the policies of the government.
Summary
In summary, this paper is an analysis and a reflection of how I learned about race and ethnicity when I was growing up. Unfortunately, I was not educated on this subject until I went to college since there were no lessons dedicated to this subject at my high school. I learned from the social environment at school and in my community, where the divide between ethnicities was evident. To this day, American society is affected by racial bias; for example, Asian-Americans are viewed as well-adapted, intelligent, and successful. However, studies show that this minority group is denied opportunities and is excluded from state-funded research studies.
Work Cited
Abrams, Zara. Countering Stereotypes about Asian Americans. American Psychological Association, vol. 50, no. 11, 2019, p. 26.
The two magazines that will be analyzed within the framework of the current paper are Cosmopolitan and Vogue. Cosmopolitans target audience includes females aged between 18 and 35. At the same time, the general target audience that Vogue reaches are females aged from 20 to 40. These two magazines were explored in terms of their attitude toward race and representation because they generally reflect the same values and intend to communicate with the same target audience. This particular pick makes it easier to compare magazines and see how they approach their social agenda.
There were no particular stereotypes found in Cosmopolitan, as the magazine evidently cares about social justice and a display of all races, cultures, and ethnicities. There were no examples of cultural racism found in this magazine, which also means that this mass media instrument solely serves the purpose of conveying certain fashion-related messages ( Race The Power of an Illusion, n.d.). In terms of an approximate percentage of people appearing on the pages of Cosmopolitan, there was no particular superiority given to any of the ethnicities. As for Vogue, its advertisements and images tended to be not as culturally appropriate as in Cosmopolitan, as the majority of models were White. It may be perceived as an example of nurturing a cultural stereotype, where people of color are allegedly not as successful as their White counterparts in terms of a career in the model business. In general, Vogue can be considered a magazine that was not printed to appeal to numerous different racial groups.
Concerning the topic of possible segregation in the fashion magazine industry, it may be safe to conclude that different ethnic and racial groups should not be divided anymore, as the age of progression and amicability dictates that a cultural equilibrium has to be reached and protected. This is totally in line with Kendall (2015) and Scott (2012), who dwelled on the importance of going beyond mere representations in an attempt to draw different social groups closer to each other. Overall, Cosmopolitan and Vogue can be deemed as reputable sources that yet have enough room for improvement: Cosmopolitan could reach out to a broader target audience while Vogue might be interested in hiring and representing more people of color.
References
Kendall, D. (2015). Sociology in our times (11th ed.). Wadsworth.
Race The power of an illusion. (n.d.). Public Broadcasting Service. Web.
Scott, M. (2012). Think: Race and ethnicity. Pearson.
