Category: Ethnicity

Introduction

Wage disparity is used to refer to the differences in earning for two different groups of people, working in similar set up or their wages are arbitrarily different in the labour market. Wage disparity is mostly used in relation to describing the uneven spread of income across gender, race, and ethnic groups, which can lead to social inequalities and other problems in the workplace especially when the disparity is much pronounced.

Various research studies have been undertaken on the wage disparities by many researchers to examine various parameters of wage inequalities since they contribute a lot to the labor-market inequalities. Majority of the studies relating to wage disparities are quantitative in nature and involve measurements and comparison of wages and salaries.

These studies are mainly intersectional, trying to explain the wage inequalities using survey data to evaluate the differences based on gender, social status, and racial/ethnic groupings.

Wage disparities exist due to a variety of factors and the leading contributor to these wage gaps is the fact that many women and racial discriminated people are still secluded in the low paying occupations, with more than half of the all women workers holding sales, office administration entry-level jobs, and service jobs.

In addition, most female dominated jobs are low paying compared to male dominated jobs (Howard, 2004). The issue of privileges also appears to affect wage disparity in the work place. Privileges refer favors that are allowed to certain people or a particular person and are not allowed to other people in set up such as a work place.

These privileges are earned through achievement or are allowed to a certain grouping of people within most organizational structures.

In workplace, some organization members are allowed some privileges based not on merit, but on their ascribed status due to their association with certain groupings such as race, gender, sexual orientation, religion, class, and physical ability and this status is mostly influenced by external factors that are beyond the persons immediate control (Karsten, 2006, P.254).

These unearned privileges have been shown to play a role in contributing to wage gaps among employees of the same level or in work of equivalent magnitude. Wage disparity due to any form of discrimination against certain groups in the workplace are common recipe for hatred, tensions, low level of motivation among workers and reduced productivity of the entire organization.

In this research paper, issues of unearned privileges will only be discussed in the context of race and gender. This research paper seeks to explore the issues of wage disparity across gender, race, and ethnicity in the American workplace set up. In the next sections of this paper, the following two relationships will be explored based on studies carried on them:

• Wage disparity and gender.
• Wage disparity and race/ethnicity issues.

Wage disparity and gender

Since time in memorial, there have been noticeable salary gaps between the two genders in majority of the existing occupations. Although there have been some level of salary parity between male and female in professional occupations, the level of wages gaps are still high between the two groups.

Studies have clearly revealed that, generally, men earn higher salaries than women even when at the same job group and mostly female dominated jobs are low paying compared to male dominated jobs, which pay better wages and salaries. According to the analysis carried on the Bureau of Labor Statistics data in 1998, it was revealed that gender salary disparities continue to persist.

In this case, the median weekly pay of full-time working women being 75 percent of the median pay for men in 1996; though women began closing the wage gap in 1980s, the earning for women in salaried full-time year-round positions reached 71 percent of mens earnings in 1991 after a long stagnation period (Gibelman, 2003,P.25).

One of the contributing factors to low earning among the women is the occupation choices they make. Generally, women are more tied with family obligations such as looking after the children. Though men are increasing being more involved in child upbringing, this area of family life is still considered female oriented.

In order to cope with family obligations and work necessities, many women tend to work in part time jobs, which mostly pay lowly and lead to low pay increments; with studies showing that in 2002, 32 percent of women compared to 10.8 percent of men worked part-time, thus the income disparity pitied women against the men (Anon, 2003).

Other factors that may limit womens choice include lack of affordable child care, a spouses unwillingness to share family responsibility, lack of flexible working schedule, and lack of well paying part-time jobs, which cause women to drop out of the workforce for longer periods than men, hence eventually they losing their career momentum and needed experience leading them to end up in jobs that pay less (Howard, 2004, P.19).

A women choice is just one of the many complex factors that are put forward by scholars in trying to explain the continued wage disparity between men and women.

The position of authority at work is always associated with better pay and room for advancement in ones career path. Research on authority at work place mainly relate to its attainment and returns associated with the authority. Several studies conducted by sociologist and economist have concluded that women are less likely to ascend to positions with much decision-making power and they receive lower authority returns than men.

Thus, women reap little authority returns from education and experience compared to men, even though education produces a lot of positive results for women at lowest levels of authority, while for men education enable them to reap more benefits at highest levels of authority (Romero, & Margolis, 2005, P. 175). Between the male and female dominated occupations, gender seems to play a significant role in determining the occupants of the position of authority in the workplace.

Several research studies have revealed that jobs dominated by women are mostly characterized by lower level of authority, with male dominated jobs experiencing little authority gaps between the two groups.

However, in jobs with many women, there is reduced room for progress for both men and women, though men are more likely to climb to decision-making authority in that set up (Romero, & Margolis, 2005, P. 175). The level authority thus has also contributed to the wage disparity between male and female employees of same qualifications.

After many studies being undertaken, still the wage disparity between men and women cannot be completely explained or be solved in most of occupations.

According to the analysis conducted by the General Accounting Office study, after taking care of all major factors that affect wage gap, majority of women earned 80 percent of what men earned in 2000, and the evaluation was unable to account for the remaining 20 percent earning gap, even if the other factors contributing to discrimination which can cause wage gap were considered (U.S. General Accounting Office, 2003).

Further, studies have shown that wage disparity between men and women are historical in that, even in situations where men and women occupy same job group and work in similar conditions they still exist. According to studies carried on wage disparities in the profession of social workers, the salaries of social workers who are members of NASW supported the historic trend in wage gaps, since in 1995, still the gaps existed with the median income of female respondents being $ 34,135 and $ 37,503 for male respondents (Gibelman & Schervish, 1997).

Wage disparity and race/ethnicity issues

The Civil Rights Act clearly prohibits discrimination of employees by the employers based on race, color, gender, sexual orientation, religion, and background. Though these laws are there to protect the employees against racial discrimination, up to date studies show that there are significant wage gaps between the whites and the African Americans and other minority groups.

Researchers have mainly identified two factors that they have based their arguments in, trying to explain the continuing wage disparity between the two groups. These two factors include racial discrimination and level of expertise between the two groups at their workplaces. The issue of racial discrimination in the work place is still common, with some employers acknowledging that they practice it.

According to studies carried out by Kirschenman and Neckerman (1991), it was revealed that several of Chicago employers they involved in the study discriminated against the African Americans and workers from the inner city, and around 74 percent of the employers had negative attitudes towards the African American young men (Coleman, 2003, p.894).

Through studies involving use regression method, researchers have been able to show that wage gaps among different race groups in a workplace can mainly be attributed to discrimination rather than lack of skills. According to Coleman (2003), the African American men and women still face more discrimination in wage increment and promotion than whites after all factors have been accounted for, and they also earn less compared to the whites working in the same organization, implying that racial discrimination continues to exist in the workplaces.

According to the regressions studies carried out by Mason to evaluate the lack of skills issue in relation to wage gaps, he found out that whites received larger returns on job tenure than blacks or Latinos; white Latinos, whether immigrant or native, have higher wages than nonwhite Latinos, immigrant or native (Mason, 1999).

The race factor in wage disparity is not a gender issue, but rather, it ascribed by the discrimination that exist among the groups that are working in the same workplace. Browne and Misra, while conducting studies to determine earnings gap based on race and gender found out that, White women earn more than most Latino men, and Asian women earn more than White women and African American men (Romero, & Margolis, 2005, P. 171).

Several studies have been conducted to evaluate how job mobility may affect wage gaps among the different groups yielding varied results. One of the profound studies is the research that was carried out by Alon and Tienda to determine how young womens job mobility affects racial and ethnic wage growth gaps. They found out that African American and Hispanic women experienced less job mobility compared to the white women.

Secondly, the unskilled women who made several job changes in the first four post school years had better wage returns, but beyond that, the returns dwindled. Lastly, the job changes do not appear to improve wage growth for the skilled women (Alon & Tienda, 2005). This study, coupled with other studies, indicates that job mobility can cause wage disparity among different group, especially in unskilled sectors were mobility appear to favor Whites against other groups.

Recommendations

Wage disparity across gender, race, and ethnicity has been one of the predominant social problems facing our society since ancient times. Though eliminating wage disparity across these areas is quite difficult to achieve, significantly reducing these disparity can be achieved through various remedies. The following recommendations can significantly help in reducing wage gaps brought about by gender, race, and ethnicity issues.

First, the government, the civil societies, and other stakeholders should press the congress to pass the Paycheck Fairness Act bill that has been pending many years. The Civil Rights Act outlaws various form of discrimination but still it lack some provision that would tackle issues of all forms of discrimination appropriately. This bill would ensure that women get equal pay they deserve for the equal job they do.

They put gender-based wage discrimination on par with other forms of wage discrimination, such as that based on race, by allowing women to sue for compensatory and punitive damages, rather than just for back pay; Limit the legitimate reasons employers can give in court for wage disparities; and, Prohibit employers from retaliating against employees who discuss their wages (Hall, 2010).

This bill will empower legal and organizational mechanisms for addressing wage disparity across gender, race, and ethnicity, something that will enable workers to earn what they rightfully deserve, enhancing their economic security, and gradually aiding the countrys economic recovery.

Secondly, the government and the community at large should empower existing or come up with programs that can enlighten people about their rights, offer career mentoring, and improve the financial literacy of all workers. These would be powerful tools in ensuring that workers are able to advocate for equal pay for equal job, making right career choices or move, and investing in what they earn for their future and that of the country.

Thirdly, professional bodies should regularly sponsor and organize forums involving all stakeholders from local to national level, to discuss and evaluate the gender-related issues and to formulate ways of eliminating wage disparities in the work place (Gibelman, 2003, P.28). Lastly, the government should encourage more women to venture in male dominated careers such as engineering, architecture, in efforts to earn better pay and bridge the wage gaps between the two genders.

Conclusion

Government through it programs for monitoring wage discrimination and other form of employment discrimination should be conducting several checks in all workplaces and ensure that these vices are eliminated and these programs should always be on going to ensure that wage discriminations has been eliminated and it does not resurface.

Wage disparity being a social problem all the involved parties i.e. employers, employees, government, professional bodies and the community should cultivating a culture of continued engagement among all the parties to ensure that issues of wage disparity are addressed in all places. Since wage disparities cannot be accounted by the differences in skills, all organizations embrace proper unbiased performance appraisal systems for their employees, which will reward only the deserving individuals rather than an ascribed group of individuals due to their association

References

Alon, S. & Tienda, M. (2005). Job Mobility and Early Career Wage Growth of White, African-American, and Hispanic Women. Social Science Quarterly, Vol. 86, p1196-1217, 22p. Web.

Anon. (2003). Highlights of Womens Earnings in 2002, 2003. U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Coleman, M. G. (2003). Job Skill and Black Male Wage Discrimination. Social Science Quarterly, Vol. 84(4), p892-906, 15p. Blackwell Publishing Limited. Web.

Gibelman, M. (2003). So How Far Have We Come? Pestilent and Persistent Gender Gap in Pay. Social Work, Vol. 48 Issue 1, p22-32, 11p. Web.

Gibelman, M. & Schervish, P. H. (1997). Who are we: A second look. Washington, DC: NASW Press.

Hall, M. (2010). Obama to Push Congress on Pay-Fairness Bill. USA Today. Web.

Howard, L. (2004). Wage disparity: still a concern? Tennessee Economic Council on Women. Web.

Karsten, M. F. (2006). Gender, Race, and Ethnicity in the Workplace [Three Volumes] [3 Volumes]: Issues and Challenges for Todays Organizations. USA. Greenwood Publishing Group. Web.

Mason, P. L. (1999). Male Interracial Wage Differentials: Competing Explanations. Cambridge. Journal of Economics, Vol. 23, p261299.

Romero, M. & Margolis, E., 2005. The Blackwell companion to social inequalities. NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.

U. S. General Accounting Office. (2003). Womens Earnings: Work Patterns Partially Explain Difference between Mens and Womens Earnings. Web.

Introduction

Schools act as organizations where cultural interaction dominates. They bring together students from different cultural backgrounds (Banks and McGee 20). This paper presents my speech to Kennedy-King Middle School of Long Island New York on race and ethnicity in the American education focusing on critical assessment of how children and adults deal with race and racism from a sociological research perspective. It also discusses with reasons whether educators in the American schools should be held to a higher standard of responsibility in terms of addressing issues of race and racism in relation to a professional in other institutions in the American society.

Race, Ethnicity, and Gender issues at Kennedy-King Middle School of Long Island New York

The school under investigation has a body of racially diverse faculty, staff, and students. In the classrooms, the school has students who speak multiple languages. They come from different nations that have an array of skin colors. While this situation presents a major strength of the school in the effort to foster cultural diversity, it experiences cultural tensions.

A district audit revealed that students of European and Asian origin were more heavily represented in the gifted and advanced programs. On the other hand, students of African and Latin-American roots predominated in the regular and remedial programs. The audit also revealed imbalances in the degree of discipline distribution. Suspensions and reprimands for behavior among the former group were far less documented compared to the latter.

My Speech at the Schools Faculty and Staff Professional Meeting

It is my pleasure to offer insights on how racial ethnic and gender categorization of children affects their school experience. I recently completed a course on race, ethnicity, and gender in the American education, which addresses aspects that are used in classifying people in a society (Banks and McGee 45). I believe that the acquired skills and knowledge can be instrumental to this school in an effort to foster intercultural understanding among students from different nationality, linguistic, and/or color backgrounds.

Students experience in a multicultural community may be extended to schools. Living in a racist community, students may learn to stereotype members of different racial and micro-cultural backgrounds (Ornstein, Levine, and Gutek 92). Indeed, American Anthropological Association maintains that while constructing US society, leaders among European-Americans fabricated the cultural/behavioral characteristics that are associated with each race, thus linking superior traits with Europeans and negative and inferior ones to the blacks and Indians (par.6).

Banks and McGee reveal that micro-cultures in nations that have people from different diversity background share some common values with a nation or state, although they may be considered alien to it in some situations (9). In school settings, this situation hinders the embracement of diversity and equity (Tozer and Senese 398).

The perception of inconsistency of some peoples culture with core values of a nation may give rise to the current problem that is experienced in this school. Culture is also implicated in an education system (Banks and McGee 28). Thus, it becomes the responsibility of the schools stakeholders to ensure propagation of the values and ideas concerning people. They should clarify that people are equal, have talents, learn capability, and have knowledge that depends on individual potential, as opposed to racial or cultural backgrounds. This strategy helps in fostering diversity and equity in education (Tozer and Senese 400).

Selection of children for gifted and advanced learning programs is done based on individual learning capabilities. However, it is important for this school to understand that different people have different learning capabilities and styles, which must be incorporated in the selection of children who are scheduled to be incorporated in the gifted and advanced learning programs.

For instance, Ornstein, Levine, and Gutek confirm that Latinos and Africans who have experienced lesser assimilation of their cultures into the American cultural mainstream learn better through group-oriented learning programs (83). This observation may reveal their lesser involvement in gifted and advanced learning programs at this school, especially upon considering it uses the American approach to teaching and learning, which is highly individualistic.

This claim suggests that students encounter challenges within the school that deploys an individualistic model of teaching. Therefore, a possible solution to identify talent and giftedness of African-Americans and Latinos to facilitate their better involvement in gifted and advanced programs at this school involves adopting evidence-based cooperative strategies of teaching (Ornstein, Levine, and Gutek 113).

Children develop their experience in schools depending on the capacity of the education systems to comply with their learning styles. Social science research suggests that learning styles among children also differ based on their gender. For instance, quoting Mahers research conducted in 1987, Banks and McGee confirm that the inquiry model that is typically deployed in social sciences is mainly male in construction (10).

Thus, applying such an approach in the selection of children into gifted and advanced programs translates into less inclusion of some children from the female gender. While resolving this challenge, incorporation of feminist pedagogy in learning in school settings is important.

Banks and McGee inform that the pedagogy considers different assumptions on the nature of any knowledge that is developed in school settings, implying that it translates into different teaching and learning methods (10). For instance, women consider firsthand experience and knowledge developed through observations incredibly appealing to them (Banks and McGee 10).

This situation makes teaching systems dominated by abstract and out-of-context knowledge that is inappropriate for them. Where such approaches are deployed at this school, the problem of imbalances in the degree of discipline distribution becomes inevitable. Indeed, adopting feminist pedagogy is also beneficial to the male gender since it not only helps foster multicultural education at the school, but also ensures the deepening of males insights (Banks and McGee 19).

Brulles, Cohn, and Saunders assert that when a school records a high achievement, parents and educators create an assumption that all students, including those who score high grades on various standardized achievement exams, equally learn with those who score low grades (328). Winebrenner suggests that high achievers require curriculum that is more challenging than a standardized one that is used in a given grade level (51).

This strategy underlines the importance of curriculum differentiation, enrichment, and acceleration programs to meet the needs of high achievers as the school upholds. However, in a school of this caliber where ethnic tension dominates, it becomes a challenge, especially because such programs are more likely to be dominated by more European and Asian children than African-American and Latino children. In my opinion, such dominance may create a perception that African-American and Latino children are less gifted compared to the European and Asian children in the school.

Responsibility of the American Educators in addressing Race and Racism

A fundamental way of addressing the challenges of predominance of African-American and Latino students in the remedial and regular programs in Kennedy-King Middle School of Long Island New York entails establishing mentoring programs. Mentoring is one of the crucial aspects of gifted programs, which help unveil hidden gifted potentials among multicultural children (Brulles, Cohn, and Saunders 329).

It requires input from educators in the American schools. Mentoring programs need to clear and separate myths from facts. In the school, it is essential to conduct a mentoring program for teachers with the goal of enabling them identify talented and gifted students in an attempt to seek strategies of their development.

Educators have a high responsibility of addressing racism than professionals in other institutions. It may become hard to clear racial stereotypes when they are acquired at an early age. For instance, Skrla and Scheurich assert that children of color and those from low socio-economic families may suffer from slow thinking, which upon normalization, may result in poor performance in schools (235-236). Directly congruent with this claim, in this school, gifted and advanced learning programs are a reserve of some cultural groups.

The school also documents more suspension and reprimand for behavior among African-Americans and Latinos. Schofield highlights the various challenges that students from some cultural groups encounter (3). According to Schofield, the likely challenge of stereotyping some cultural groups hinders the stereotyped students from unleashing their potential due to the creation of a false perception that academic achievement and behavioral challenges are limited to persons of a particular race (13). To resolve these problems, the school needs effective mentoring programs to demystify this myth, which requires a large input from educators.

Mentoring programs depend on characteristics of their target population. Stanley and Brody confirm this assertion by conducting a research, which identifies various considerations for development of mentoring programs for gifted students (94). The researchers report that gifted student programs need to allow students create connections to normalize their passion, achieve in academics, and/or unlock any academic barrier (Stanley and Brody 95). Creating connections through mentoring plans can help in terms of elimination of stereotyping with reference to academic achievement in an effort to motivate potentially gifted students from African-American and Latino ancestry.

Burton reckons that students (girls and boys) possess several common characteristics akin to similar emotional, cognitive, moral, and social development (203). Within each group, say boys, research evidences that gifted boys also share some common characteristics with other groups of non-gifted boys, although they encounter challenges that stem from their exceptional abilities and personality traits (Winebrenner 43). Educators have the liability to identify these differences to adopt appropriate teaching styles that fit each student.

The above claims suggest that Kennedy-King Middle School of Long Island New York educators needs to adopt and spend time counseling in areas that are relevant to the characteristics of different students, rather than over emphasizing behaviors and intellectual capacity. While addressing counseling to the gifted students, the school needs to focus on specific needs of each group of students. For instance, for gifted males (boys), the counselor needs to engage them in the process of counseling, identify their most preferred media, and adopt appropriate helping styles (Burton 212).

Educators are in charge of early development of knowledge and skills in children. Hence, they also have a responsibility to ensure the development of appropriate behaviors whilst clearing the myth of preferences of defiant behaviors, which lead to suspension and reprimand in schools along racial or ethical differences among children as witnessed in this school.

Works Cited

American Anthropological Association. Statement on Race, 1998. Web.

Banks, James, and Cherry McGee. Multicultural education: Issues and Perspectives. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Publisher, 2013. Print.

Brulles, Douglas, Stephen Cohn, and Richard Saunders. Improving Performance for Gifted Students in a Cluster Grouping Model. Journal for the Education of the Gifted 34.2(2010): 327-350. Print.

Burton, Martins. Talk is Cheap: Exploring Alternative Strategies for Counseling Gifted Adolescents Males. Gifted Child Today 35.1(2012): 208-214. Print.

Ornstein, Allan, Daniel Levine, and Gerry Gutek. Foundations of education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2014. Print.

Schofield, Janet. The Comorbid Perspective in Schools: Causes and Consequences. London: Sage, 2002. Print.

Skrla, Linda, and James Scheurich. Displacing Deficit Thinking in School District Leadership. Educations and Urban Society 33.3 (2001): 235-259. Print.

Stanley, Johnston, and Lenard Brody. History and Philosophy of the Talent Search Model. Gifted and Talented International 16.2 (2001): 94-96. Print.

Tozer, Steve, and Guy Senese. School and Society Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. Chapter 13: Diversity and Equity Today: Meeting the Challenge. New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 2005. Print.

Winebrenner, Simon. Teaching Gifted Kids in the Regular Classroom. Minneapolis: Free Spirit Publishing, 2001. Print.

Ashcroft, R. T., and Bevir, M. (2017) Multiculturalism in contemporary Britain: policy, law and theory, Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy, 21(1), pp. 1-21, Web.

The article addresses questions of multiculturalism in the UK, emphasising certain historical processes from the Second World War until the modern days. Although the authors work at the University of California, their knowledge of political science and the use of various references demonstrates a thorough understanding of the subject. Ashcroft and Bevir suggest that the previously primarily White population in the UK has changed since WWII and is now characterised by a combination of various cultures and communities. Relevant to the essay question, the article discusses the historical and cultural aspects of decolonisation, British identity, and immigration (p. 5). However, to expand the question, the authors also consider political aspects of multiculturalism. For example, the article mentions the recognition of the need to assimilate British values and traditions for immigrants and ethnic minorities. Overall, the article provides an insight into cultural, ethnic, and racial diversity in the UK after WWII.

Bertossi, C., Duyvendak, J. W., and Foner, N. (2020) Past in the present: migration and the uses of history in the contemporary era, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 47(18), pp. 4155-4171, Web.

Coming from different backgrounds, Bertossi, Duyvendak, and Foner discuss how certain features of the past affect modern debates of migration in several areas. For instance, the article suggests that specific interpretation of the past affects the immigrant-friendly public culture. The authors address the connection between memory, history, and migration with a focus on positive perceptions of immigration. In relation to the essay question, the article states that the concepts of race and ethnicity are produced in connection to memory and history. While the authors mention such connections in the UK, they also include research conducted in several European countries and the US. The article examines history and migration with regard to ethnicity and race, presenting an opportunity to make comparisons between different countries.

Bulmer, M., and Solomos, J. (2018) Why do we still talk about race today, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 41(6), pp. 997-1013, Web.

In their article, Bulmer and Solomos analyse the importance of race and its impact on society. With regard to the essay question, the article discusses the historical process of studying race as a social category since the 1950s. In the UK, in particular, the authors mention the first crucial survey of race and its results. Furthermore, outside the perspectives of the UK, the article raises the questions of collective social identity in relation to race and ethnicity. The authors suggest that while identity is a feature of ones personality, it also characterizes ones social relationships with others. Overall, Bulmer and Solomos have combined several pieces of research, providing insight into modern discussions about race, society, and history.

Frieman, C. J., and Hofmann, D. (2019) Present pasts in the archaeology of genetics, identity, and migration in Europe: a critical essay, World Archaeology, 51(4), pp. 528-545, Web.

Unlike other articles mentioned in this bibliography, this one focuses on the impact of aDNA analyses on discussions of migration and identity in Europe. For instance, Frieman and Hofmann suggest that the remains of a person found in a cave in Britains southwest can raise questions about race and geography. The article implies that genetic research assists in making connections between cultures, such as migration resulting in certain populations bringing innovation to other areas. In relation to the essay, the article describes certain aspects of the indigeneity of British people. While most of this bibliographys articles provide the basis for discussion of ethnicity and race since after WWII, this study presents genetic research on the spread of cultures.

Kamasak, R. et al. (2019) Race discrimination at work in the United Kingdom, International Perspectives on Equality, Diversity and Inclusion, 6, pp. 107-127, Web.

When discussing ethnicity and race, one should analyse the state of discrimination. The article examines race discrimination at the workplace in the UK, focusing on Black and Asian Minority Ethnic (BAME). Related to the essay question, Kamasak et al. analyse historical processes of colonialism in the UK. The article states that despite the UK being a multicultural country these days, its historical legacy still affects society. Furthermore, the authors analyse public debates on ethnic diversity and equality. The article also mentions race riots in UK history and their legislative outcomes. While the article focuses on race discrimination at work, it provides more information on the history and public debates on race and ethnicity.

Platt, L., and Nandi, A. (2018) Ethnic diversity in the UK: new opportunities and changing constraints, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 46(5), pp. 839-856, Web.

The article combines discussion on ethnic minorities in the UK as a country with diverse groups of immigrants. In this bibliography, most of the articles focus on historical processes behind ethnicity and race, but this one provides more information on their current state with regard to culture and identity. For example, Platt and Nandi mention the changes in ethnic minorities as a result of time spent in the UK, such as their educational and occupational profiles. Furthermore, those changes, along with multiculturalism, also affect ethnic majorities. The article shows the outcomes of historical processes on representatives of different cultures.

Schaffer, G., and Nasar, S. (2018) The white essential subject: race, ethnicity, and the Irish in post-war Britain, Contemporary British History, 32(2), pp. 209-230, Web.

Some of the mentioned above articles analyse ethnicity and race, centering on Black and Asian cultures after WWII. However, when discussing such questions in the UK, one should consider the Irish population, who were the largest group to enter post-war Britain. Schaffer and Nasar discuss historical processes in relation to Irish immigrants, race, ethnicity, and identity. The article examines the concept of whiteness and the biases related to it. Furthermore, the authors compare how the government used to treat Irish, Black, and Asian immigrants, such as encouraging them not to follow their past traditions. The article presents more insight into various cultures and the development of discrimination in the UK.

There are so many groups of people, who differ by their race, ethnicity, gender, and age. Each of these groups has its own preferences, interests, and ways of comprehension of this world. In this essay, we will talk about one of the ethnic groups that the general population has rather strong opinions about and about its peculiarities from a neutral point of view. We will talk about African Americans, who should be differentiated not as a racial group, but as a pure ethnic group.

Any ethnic group is considered to be a socially organized group of people that identifies itself by means of some common heritage (Edelman & Mandle, 32). African Americans are those citizens of the United States of America with origins, connected to black population of Africa.

The point is that lots of people prefer to identify African Americans as a racial group. In fact, it is a bit wrong. It is a good example of an ethnic group that even has its cultural content (Ellis, 143). Of course, being an African American is not easy; the history and the way to freedom on this ethnic group are rather sad and prejudiced. The ways, White American treated to these people, and the steps, White Americans took to enslave black people, will be always under a hot consideration.

However, nowadays, there are so many great African Americans, who did a lot in order to develop America, helped it to take the leading positions, and be one of the most powerful countries in the world. Martin Luther King Jr., Condoleezza Rice, Barack Obama, Muhammad Ali, Michael Jordon, and Michael Jackson  all these people are one of the brightest representatives of this ethnic group. Each of them did something useful for his/her country in order to be remembered, be respected, and recognized.

It is necessary to admit that people of color tried to participate in numerous spheres simultaneously in order to achieve good results and use them to achieve better ones. And these great achievements are dated long time ago. Even before the birth of Christ, African Americans were mentioned as one of the best practitioners in the field of medicine (Sluby, 3).

The point is that this ethnical group has lots of own points of view within each sphere of life, which differ from any other group. For example, health. African Americans are regarded as an ethnic group that has much more chances to be affected with HIV or AIDS.

During the times of the Civil Rights war, African American got many benefits from the economical perspective; this is why this ethnic group cannot be called the poorest one. For example, Oprah Winfrey, the media personality, producer, critic, and actress is considered to be of the richest African American people in the world.

Among numerous ethnical groups all over the world, African Americans distinguish by their desire to protect people of the same group, to prove own points of view by means of words and actions at the same time, and to demonstrate that the times when someone could control them has already passed.

It is not very difficult to find some common themes with the representatives of this ethnic group, as they are always eager to listen and present personal vision of the situation. To my mind, it is high time to forget about the prejudice and pride that was demonstrated to this ethnic group by the representatives of other groups and think how to improve this world together, without fear and wars.

Works Cited

Edelman, Carole and Mandle, Carol, L. Health Promotion throughout the Lifespan. Elsevier Health Sciences, 2005.

Ellis, Donald, G. Crafting Society: Ethnicity, Class, and Communication Theory. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999.

Sluby, Patricia, C. The Inventive Spirit of African Americans: Patented Ingenuity. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004.

Introduction

The United States is a host to many varied cultures and is considered the worlds super power with developments that are envied all over the globe. The countrys democracy has undergone various changes over the years. It has also made several steps towards peace, and equity, among other principles of its foundation. However, this was not achieved in a day; in fact, it took several decades of civil wars and conflicts, among other problems to realize the American dream.

The country boasts of varied culture that arises from immigration. Every year, it receives people from other countries as immigrants. This has improved its credibility in the world. Some of the ethnicities that live in the United States include, Native Americans, African Americans, Chicanos, Asian Americans, among others. These ethnicities did not find it easy settling in the country.

They went through various obstacles such as discrimination, among others. This led to conflicts that spurred acts of atrocities. The strategies employed to fight against racial discrimination included political participation, armed resistance, legal system, and economic participation, among others. This paper will therefore explore each of these ethnicities, their most effective along with the least effective strategies employed in fighting against racial discrimination, as well as the evidence (Baugh 133-146).

Native Americans

These were indigenous people found in North America by the European colonialists. They lived in areas such as Alaska, Hawaii, among others parts. The community was composed of various tribes, ethnic groups and States. In most cases, these communities are referred to as Indians or American Indians.

The largest of these tribes included Apache, Iroquois, Navajo, Sioux, Cherokee, among others. In the last 500 years, the community encountered discrimination and wars with European populations. These were mainly because they had encroached on their Native lands and also tried to displace them. In the process, most were killed; some assimilated, and others removed. In the 19^th century, the communities were granted citizenship after several treaties and wars.

During United States fight, for independence against British, Native Americans sided with the latter hoping that they would help them avoid land seizure. This later backfired as the British handed over their land to Europeans. They also sided with Southern States during the civil war. George Washington later helped in restoring them as citizens with rights to vote even though they were not given the opportunity to govern themselves (Colin 34).

African American

These are black Americans who were largely from the African continent during slavery. They were also known as American Negroes. It is quite important to note that this term is usually employed when refereeing to people with African ancestry (sub Saharan Africa). The majority of these communities were descendants of victims and survivors of slavery era.

They faced several problems as they fought for freedom, these included slavery, racial segregation, reconstruction and civil rights movement, among others. This community forms the second largest racial community in United States, only second to Whites. They formed part of the American military conflicts during civil wars. In addition, the community has been active in politics ranging from Martin Luther to Rice and the countrys current president Obama, among others (Baugh 133-146).

Chicanos

These are United States citizens of Mexican descent. This term was used widely during Mexican movements and was aimed at fighting against racism in the 1960s. The community is said to have lived in the United States as early as 1848, even though they are sometimes considered as the latest of immigrants, to arrive.

This is mainly because some of them crossed over and joined with indigenous American Mexicans. The war against mainstream whites between 1846 and1848 in New Mexico among other parts, left many casualties on Mexicans and attributed to their bitterness towards federal government. Their movement was also formed to help fight for affirmative action, immigration rights, globalization, among other issues (Toro 1).

Asian Americans

These are American citizens with origins from peoples of Asia. They were first referred to as Orientals and this displeased them as they considered it a colonialist term. In this regard, they adopted the term Asian Americans, as a way of identification. They benefited from elimination of the Hart-Celler Act, which had restricted them from moving into the United States.

This development led to increased influx from Asia. Asian Americans are now estimated to have the highest attainment of education in United States. Moreover, they also form some of the best-paid employees in the country. Their fight against racial discrimination was also difficult as they fought against acts instituted to exclude them. These included among others, Asian as well as Chinese exclusion acts (History World International 1).

Areas in which they have been most effective when fighting against racial discrimination

These communities faced several challenges in their quest for equality and citizenship as well as acceptance in the American society by mainstream whites. This was achieved through many ways that included political participation, armed resistance, legal system, and economic participation, among others.

Native Americans

Native Americans fought for their rights to own ancestral land in the United States. However, this failed as they lost the battle to retain that land. In this regard, the most effective way of fighting against racial discrimination was through political participation.

African Americans

African Americans have had a long history of civil rights activists, conflicts as well as politics. In this regard, the most effective way of fighting against racial discrimination was through political participation.

Chicanos

The Chicanos fought to govern themselves but lost to the federal government. In this regard, the most effective way of fighting against racial discrimination was through political participation.

Asian Americans

Most Asian communities immigrated for jobs in the 19^th century. This helped empower them economically. In this regard, the most effective way of fighting against racial discrimination was through economic participation.

Areas in which they have been least effective when fighting against racial discrimination

These communities used various means to fight against racial discrimination, some of which caused many casualties and was least effective. These were:

Native Americans

Native Americans had their own culture, which was anti-western. Therefore, in their quest for recognition, they fought against mainstream whites and lost. This was therefore the least effective method of fighting against racial discrimination.

African Americans

African American used several means to fight for freedom and racial discrimination. The least effective way of fighting against racial discrimination was through legal system.

Chicanos

Chicanos believed that they had the right to govern themselves; the least effective way of fighting against racial discrimination was through armed resistance.

Asian Americans

Asian Americans came as laborers at the coast. The least effective way of fighting against racial discrimination was through the legal system.

Evidence

Throughout the history of fight against racial discrimination, various occurrences ranging from conflicts to political participation proved to be either the least or most effective way of fighting racism. These were as follows:

Native Americans

These were the indigenous people found in North America by the European colonialists. They suffered from racial discrimination in the 1700s when slavery was a racial caste. This led to various wars in response to this, as they tried to protect their land and culture. Infightings also led to their downfall as some groups were assimilated.

This proves why use of armed resistance was the least effective. On the other hand, their ways of governing was widely adopted by United States Presidents like Benjamin Franklin, among others. In addition, wider political participation allowed them to reduce racial discrimination through George Washington. Political participation was therefore the most effective (Colin 34).

African Americans

These black Americans were largely from the African continent during slavery. They faced several problems as they fought for freedom, these included slavery, racial segregation, reconstruction and civil rights movement, among others. Like Native Americans, the law was against freedom to African Americans who were racial castes.

The least effective method was through legal system since their position as slaves was in law until reconstruction period and civil right s movements. The most effective way was through political participation, which has enabled them to improve in leadership (Baugh 133-146).

Chicanos

This community lived in the United States as early as 1848, even though they are sometimes considered as the latest immigrants. This is mainly because some of them crossed over and joined with indigenous American Mexicans.

Their least effective method of fighting racism was through armed resistance as they were excluded and displaced from their land. This was also witnessed in Texas. On the other hand, their most effective method was through political participation in the Chicano movement that kept pushing for equality since 1960s (Toro 1).

Asian Americans

The Asian community benefited from the elimination of Hart-Celler Act, which had restricted immigrations from Asia. This led to more influx of Asians. Currently they are estimated to have the highest attainment of education in United States.

Their attempts to mitigate racism through legal system were least effective as the acts defended Asian and Chinese exclusion (Wong 25). The most effective method of mitigating racial discrimination was through economic participation, which made them superior in education and pay (History World International 1).

Conclusion

United States is a home to various cultures of the world. This is due to influx of different communities, which started over 500 years ago. Among the communities that live in United States include, Native Americans, African Americans, Chicanos, Asian Americans, among others. These communities did not find it easy settling in the country. They went through various racial subjections in the hands of mainstream whites. This led to several conflicts that caused high numbers of casualties.

The strategies employed in fighting against racial discrimination included political participation, armed resistance, legal system, and economic participation, among others. Most of these communities realized their dreams through political and economic participation, while those that opted for armed resistance lost in many occasions as was seen in Native Americans and Chicanos, as well as African Americans (Toro 1).

Works Cited

Baugh, John. The Politicization of Changing Terms of Self Reference among American Slave Descendants. American Speech. Vol. 66, No. 2, 1991, pp. 133-146.

Colin, Calloway. Native Americans First View Whites from the Shore. American Heritage. Spring 2009.

History World International. ASIAN AMERICANS. World History center. 19.07.2011. Web.

Toro, Luis. Chicanos as a Racialized Minority. The University of Dayton School of Law. 31.12.2010. Web.

Wong, Sau-ling. Asian America.Net: Essays in Ethnicity. Nationalism and Cyberspace. Routledge University Press.

Introduction

Recent analysis of international affairs paints the picture that the world is embroiled in age-old ethnic conflicts. Proponents of this notion contend that people from different ethnic groups harbor deep hatred for one another, and are only restrained by modern civilizations.

They predict that, in the future, either the modern states will break up into smaller ethnic groupings or great civilizations will rise against each other (Gurr 43). However, the general agreement is that modern regional conflicts can be attributed to cultural differences and affective ties of tribal groupings.

This notion does not foresee a situation where diverse people can coexist. In fact, most ethnic conflicts do not result from ethnic diversity; rather, these conflicts are often fueled by the struggle for power and scarce resources such as land. This implies that in talking about ethnic conflicts, the assumption that ethnic identities are age-old and unchanging may be misleading.

In other words, contrary to this assumption, ethnicity or race is a creation of contemporary politics that denies some people opportunities and gives others access to resources and power (Gurr 44). Cultural or religious differences have not, by themselves, resulted in ethnic conflict. Moreover, in modern times, culturally different people have learned one anothers cultural behaviors and have even intermarried, hence blurring contrasts between ethnic groupings.

Contemporary Situation of Ethnic Conflicts

In modern times, there is a common notion that ethnicity is age-old and often presents itself as ethnocentricism particularly in governance. In Eastern Europe, the current conflicts portray various ethnic groups as having strong nationalistic tendencies, which can only be suppressed by an autocratic government.

In contrast, in the Western world, the American melting pot suggests ethnicities are fast disintegrating while Eastern ethnicities must be suppressed by the autocratic leadership (Gurr 118). In former Yugoslavia, the Bosnians, Croats, and Serbs are different ethnic groupings, which, historically clashed from time to time over resources. However, due to intermarriages, the differences between these currently warring communities are actually so small.

The Bosnians, Croats, and Serbs all speak Italian language and have coexisted in peace for a long time. Although these ethnic groups profess different religions-Serbs being mainly Orthodox, Croats being Roman Catholic and Bosnians being predominantly Muslim-still, each ethnic group comprises of considerable numbers of each religion. This, coupled with high rates of intermarriages, has blurred the differences between these groups.

Therefore, it is clear that the cause of the current Balkan wars is not fueled by ancient religious and ethnic differences, but rather by the contemporary politics, which rally individuals around nationalistic ideologies. In this regard, ethnicity is packaged as nationalism in the pretext of gaining access to resources, land, and power.

The Serb and Croat leaders advocated for a right to self-rule in nation states. Serbs on their part wanted to expand outwards and include other ethnic groups (Horowitz 77). Croats on the other hand held a different nationalistic ideology, which promised to keep out non-Croats. In this view, different nationalistic ideologies are factors that fuelled the massacre of Serbs during the Second World War and in the 1990s.

The Effect of Colonialism

The origin of ethnic conflict in Eastern Europe is different from that of Africa. African violence is not fueled by conflicting ideologies, but rather by ancient warfare between tribes that was propagated by the colonial powers (Horowitz 51).

Ethnic conflict in Africa can be defined by four factors, namely; membership ties in a group, prejudice towards non-members, fear, and expectations about resource allocation. Ethnicities produce affection for in-group members, where the members prefer their own and exclude or discriminate against non-members (Gurr 87). Often, discrimination arises because of these strong in-group ties and loyalty.

Usually, people have a positive social relationship with in-group members. A close relationship exists between the positive feelings between co-ethnics and the prejudice or fear for ethnic strangers. According to Horowitz, contemporary politics breed fear and prejudice, which ultimately determine political behavior, (91).

In contemporary politics, politicians often use fear and prejudice against out groups when seeking support from members of their race or tribe. In the United States, whites predominantly hold a social aversion to participation of blacks in mainstream politics. This stems from learned racist practices in the south. Past voting trends in the US, white voting behavior reflect an aversion towards blacks.

In the African case, ethnic conflict, in the political perspective, is a product of the struggle over power and resources. True, in earlier decades, Africans identified themselves with their ethnic identity, or lineage. However, as people migrate to far places seeking for employment and trade opportunities; ethnic or racial identity has become less important (American Anthropological Association Par. 8).

Now, the conflict is rarely caused by ethnic differences but a struggle for scarce resources such as land, water and pastoral land. The colonial system determined that each person belonged to a particular ethnic identity within the colony. This meant that each had to belong or show loyalty to a particular African group.

This was not restricted to Africa: in India, the British Empire promoted the Hindu nationalism where people identified themselves as either Hindu or Sikh. This later transformed to distinct ethnic groups after independence. Other cases include the Maronites in Lebanon, Moluccans in Dutch and Karens in Burma where colonial states created groupings, which they christened as either ethnic or religious groups.

Nevertheless, in modern times, the need for political autonomy, resources, jobs, and better livelihoods has become the new frontier for ethnic conflicts. Thus, age-old tribal loyalties have become less significant as people strive to attain better socioeconomic status.

Ethnic Diversity and Conflict

It is often assumed that ethnic diversity is the cause of ethnic conflict and political instability. To the contrary, ethnic diversity has less to do with tribal or racial conflicts. In ethnically diverse countries such as Indonesia and Pakistan, less inter-ethnic conflicts have been experienced compared to countries such as Somalia, Yugoslavia, and Rwanda that are relatively less ethnically diverse (Glenny 78).

This indicates that ethnic diversity does not breed ethnic conflicts, but rather relationships of people relative to power that cause local conflicts. A good example is Indonesia. Indonesia is known for its suppression of political activism in East Timor (Glenny 85). This cannot be classified as an ethnic conflict, as the country has over three hundred ethnic groupings with distinct language and religion. In fact, the recent ethnic conflict has much to do with the struggle for control of local resources, specifically oil and gas resources.

Ethnic diversity can sometimes affect national integration in most nation states. However, some countries often succeed in fostering national integration while others fail. It all depends on the social cohesion policies implemented.

In countries such as Rwanda and Burundi, where one ethnic group has been dominating over the others, avoiding ethnic conflicts requires concerted efforts to enhance national healing and reconciliation (Horowitz 86). Often systems where one or two major groups polarize regional politics are less stable compared to systems where smaller groups have an equal chance to participate in national politics.

An example is Malaysia where politicians established an all-inclusive political coalition that strengthened ties between diverse ethnic groupings, i.e. the Chinese communities and Malay people. In contrast, in Sri Lanka, the Sinhalese people formed a government, which, however, split into two ethnic factions, Tamils and Sinhalese, resulted in ethnic conflict.

Political systems can also be modified to accommodate diverse ethnic groups and prevent ethnic tensions. In Nigeria, for instance, after the Biafra war in 1965 a new political system that curved the country into 19 states comprising of the major ethnic groups, Hausa, Igbo, and Yoruba, was implemented (Horowitz 119).

The states comprised of multiethnic coalitions, which helped to foster cohesion and avoid ethnic tensions. However, competing political interests resulted to excessive fragmentations, and subsequently the recurrence of ethnic tensions. It is apparent that negative stereotypes, prejudice, and fear of members of other groups are effects of contemporary political choices made by leaders.

Conclusion

Contemporary ethnic conflicts are not based on ancient cultural or religious differences. In fact, studies have established that ethnic diversity does not necessarily lead to ethnic conflict. The competition for resources causes ethnic tension and violence. In addition, political choices made by the leaders often cause intergroup tensions. Hence, leaders who develop perverse nationalistic ideologies cultivate hatred, which eventually breeds ethnic violence.

Works Cited

American Anthropological Association (AAA). Statement on Race. 1998. Web.

Glenny, Misha. The Fall of Yugoslavia. New York: Penguin, 1992. Print.

Gurr, Ted. Ethnic Conflict in World Politics. Boulder, Colo: Westview, 1994. Print.

Horowitz, Donald. Ethnic Groups in conflict. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999. Print.

Different countries and societies are made up of people with diverse cultural or even linguistic backgrounds. This makes them plural societies. However, because of this plural nature certain issues with regards to race and ethnicity are bound to arise.

According to Knight, (1996) race and ethnicity are essentially historical and intellectual constructs. They were coined at a specific period in time and place in particular circumstances. Mccallum posits that it, therefore, becomes impossible to understand the concepts of race and ethnicity without first understanding their history (1999). But, depending on political and intellectual forces, they evolve and their definitions change. Consequently, Knight posits that for this reason, it could be that how race and ethnicity are defined in modern-day times is probably not how they were defined when they were initially coined (1996).

Accordingly, Knight opines that race and ethnicity are closely related to identity, power,psycho-cultural and psycho-cultural needs. They are used by particular groups in society as a way through which they can define others or themselves. The issues of race and ethnicity gained ideological importance back in the enlightenment period in the 18^th century. By the 19^th century, political discussions were connoted with the language of race. Ethnic plurality and state formation seemed to be conflicting. To the nationalists, a political state was supposed to represent people who not only lived in one locality but also shared a common identifiable ethnicity. This European definition of nationalism was not only racist but also exclusionary. It sought to deny political independence to people who had a non-European, background. This had important ramifications. To the Latin American countries that wanted to secure their independence, the non-European ethnic groups that were part of them proved to be major hurdles. To this effect, it was not surprising that the Afro American and the indigenous Americans were not considered to be part of the newly independent states, despite their large numbers. They were eventually included in the new states but only because there was no other way out. Also, because the positivists thought they would ultimately be eliminated by the technical age being what they referred to as inferior while the Social Darwinists were convinced that they would naturally fail to survive. By mid 19^th century, ideas on race were already hardened. Moreover, the Europeans now had a different perception of the world. According to Knight, this was best illustrated in the writings of the Cuban nationalist who was at the forefront in the agitation of political independence. While the majority of the population was comprised of African slaves, the Europeans though few were still more influential (1996).

Issues on race and ethnicity are different in Latin America compared to say North America. In Northern America, people from different races and diverse ethnicity have been assimilated thus the formation of one complete Northern American society. The reverse is true for Latin America. According to Knight, although some assimilation has taken place in Latin American society, to a large extent, people are still distinguished socially from each other based on their appearance. Thus, in Latin American countries, social divisions have been based on the ethnic pluralism therein. This has had important social and political ramifications in particular countries. For instance, for years Brazil has been characterized by discrimination based on ones race and ethnicity. However, it is important to note that despite race and ethnicity issues being of concern in countries such as Brazil resulting in the ethnic consciousness of those affected, there has been no political instability. This is because the politics of the country do not play the race or the ethnicity card to gain popularity and ultimately power (1996).

By all standards, Brazil is considered to be a successful economy. It is a country that is rich in resources. Still, Brazil also experiences what Hamilton, Huntley, Alexander, Guimaraes, James, and Rienner consider as backwardness. Racial inequality is widespread in Brazil, even though by law there is the absence of racial segregation (2001).

Hamilton et al, opine that there are two distinct racial groups in Brazil. The black African dark-skinned Brazilians and the Mulatto. This then forms the basis of racial separation. For instance, the black Brazilians live in the urban shantytowns known as the favelas or Mocambo where they lack the most basic social amenities. The native Brazilians are even worse off with some falling victim to activities that can only be considered as genocide carried out by the white Brazilians in an attempt to make Brazil an all-white society. What sets Brazil apart from other countries does not lie like the social injustices therein, rather in what is referred to as the ideological dance of deception. On the surface, the different races in Brazil seem to be living in harmony, that racial inequality seems inexistent. As far as inequality is concerned, race and ethnicity are the major determining factors. There are wide differences among the various racial and ethnic groups. Case in point. Blacks are three times poorer compared to whites in the regions of Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paolo. Also, blacks earn way much less than whites, with 26% earning less than minimum wage. The African (black) Brazilian women represent the feminization of poverty. While black men earn more than their black female counterparts, white women on average earn more than the black men in Brazil. The same goes for education, with frequent dropouts from school so that they can work, black Brazilian children end up less educated than their white counterparts. The implication of this is that their literacy levels are much lower than those of the white. Only about two-thirds of the African Brazilian children are fortunate enough to get a basic education. Thus, the black African Brazilians seem to be experiencing the brunt of racial and ethnic discrimination. The problem could lie in the fact that Brazil was the last Christian country to abolish slavery back in 1888. Conversely, steps were never taken to integrate the former slaves and their descendants into mainstream society. (2001) This is the major factor in their exclusion from society. Hamilton et al, opine that African Brazilians were many which proved to be a threat to the political elite. To curb the threat, the elite in the talk of national unity established Africanity and blackness to be anti-Brazil. These sentiments are still widespread which is why African black Brazil experience racial and ethnic discrimination (2001). Black men are excluded from well-paying gainful employment since they were termed as incompetent, unruly, and dangerous. All this serves as the setting of the inequality and discrimination that affects African Brazilians to date.

According to Telles, Latin Americas indigenous, black and mulatto (mixture of white and black) citizens are the most affected by the problems of underdevelopment. Consequently, he opines that Latin governments should incorporate the race and ethnicity factors in their millennium development goals. This is a sure way of reducing their social exclusion in Latin America by the year 2015. The problem however lies in the fact that the Latin American countries do not have the necessary data owing to their failure to collect it appropriately, sometimes failing to collect it at all. What Latin America needs is for census and national surveys to be carried out that will provide the necessary data (2007).

History and especially migration, colonialism, and even slave trade can be said to be responsible for the formation of plural societies throughout the world. That is, of people with diverse backgrounds living together, for instance in Brazil. This is supposed to be a good thing. However, it has led to the segregation of people based on their origin and even their skin color. the result is that race and ethnicity have become a major issue. Race and ethnicity in Brazil have been used to exclude certain groups of people especially the black Brazilians from mainstream society. It is based on race and ethnicity that the black Brazilians earn less, have access to little or no social amenities. It is also the reason why they cannot access well-paying jobs and their children are school dropouts. The only way out is for the Brazilian and other Latin American governments to include the race and ethnicity factors in the Millennium Development goals. This is the only way that the exclusion of black Brazilians can be reduced by the year 2015. Without this, race and ethnicity will continue to be serious issues.

References

1. Hamilton, Charles V., Huntley, Lynn, Alexander, Neville, Guimaraes, Antonio S.E., James, Wilmot & Reinner, Lynne. Beyond racism: race and inequality in Brazil, South Africa, and the United States. Boulder CO, 2001.
2. Knight, Franklin W. Race, ethnicity and class: Forging the plural society in Latin America and the Caribbean. Waco TX: Baylor University Press, 1996.
3. Mccallum, Cecilia. Race and ethnicity in Latin America. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 5.1 (1999).
4. Telles, Edward E. Race and ethnicity and Latin Americas United Nations Millennium Development Goals. Latin American and Caribbean studies 2.2 (2007): 185-200.

In the modern world of multi-culture and migration has the pertinent value of discussion and the realization that migration, ethnicity, and identity have much in common takes the serious debates towards finding new meanings to it. Migration is the nature of modern man in a global market. Many of the people in the modern world attempt to settle in new territories and such a tendency have great implication to people in the global world environment. Some of these migrations may be permanent while some others are temporary and a variety of reasons such as economic, family, professional, or other reasons can play a central role in such an attempt. It is commendable to be aware of the fact that immigration is the chief basis for the population growth of several nations in the modern world. It can also be seen that immigration of the modern world is highly marked by increasing racial, ethnic, and cultural diversity. As has been the case for the past 50 years, immigration continues to be marked by increasing racial/ethnic/cultural diversity. (Special Section: Psychological Perspectives on Immigration. 2007) It is also part of the immigrant life that they cause the spread of many languages, ways of living, cultures, and world views. The great significance to the spread of all these aspects of ones life including the cultures as a result of immigration is that the world is becoming multicultural at a high speed. There is a great implication to migration, ethnicity, and identity in the modern world with much disturbance and conflicts. From the recent upheavals we have witnessed in the last years, we can only agree that one of the most urgent, political perceptions of our time is the regard for cultural diversity as a positive value crucial to human survival. It is the realization that ethnicity, race and culture, rather than functioning as divisive factors, can contribute to create a rich human situation, multicultural and poly-ethnic, that is beneficial to all. The full acceptance, indeed appreciation, of global diversity will free people from prejudice, intolerance and fear and bring us closer to the basic human ideals invoked centuries ago as liberty, equality and fraternity. (Guillermo). In this background, an analysis of migration, ethnicity, and identity of Chinese immigrants in Australia has great implications which bring about crucial results. Australia is often proclaimed to be one of the most culturally assorted nations in the world, and a cavernous evaluation of Australias immigration history confirms that it is a multicultural society with immigrants from every corner of the world. One may note that Australia is regarded as a country of immigrants which has formally accepted the diversity of its population, evolving specific multicultural policies to deal with this diversity, whatever their merits and demerits. (Bloul 2002). In the given situation, it is most encouraging and fruitful to take up an analysis of Chinese migration to Australia as it covers various elements such as the issues of migration, ethnicity, and identity.

Australian multiculturalism is often regarded as the essential character of the nation. It is essential to understand multiculturalism as the coming together of various cultures that occurred and shown in society, which includes different arts and customs of different race groups. Multiculturalism has its origin from two Latin words, Multus which means many, and Cultura which means cultivation. Therefore, in short, Multiculturalism can be comprehended as many different racial groups with their own culture mixing into one nation and in this meaning, Australia forms a multicultural society. The Australians came from more than one-hundred different country origins which have brought their own cultures. They settled in Australia in order to find a better life. In Australia there exist many different cultural groups. This condition makes Australia a multicultural country, a country with many races, ethnic groups and cultures. The multicultural society has some effects on literature in Australia. There is a multicultural national literature. Since there are many cultural groups in Australia, the Australian government has then cultural policy in Australia in order to control the society and its cultures. So there is a law that will control all the ethnic has its own rights of its culture. (Multiculturalism in Australia). Apart from law and literature, there have been several other aspects of Australian life affected by various cultures. It can be seen that Chinese immigrants formed a huge number of Australian settlers in modern times and an investigation into the migration, ethnicity, and identity of these settlers bring about various essential factors about this life. It can be remarked that recent Chinese migration to Australia&shows how they have grown from being the fourteenth most important origin of settlers in the 1980s to be currently the third largest origin& There is a nexus between non-permanent migrations and eventual permanent settlement in Australia &especially that involving student migration. (Hugo). The issues concerning identity, ethnicity, and migration affecting these Chinese immigrants have been numerous.

Now it is essential to understand that the history of Chinese migration to Australia began centuries ago and it can be noted that the first Chinese settlers rushed to Australia in large numbers to strike gold. It is also seen that most of these were men who had contracted to agents who sponsored their voyages. They faced years of difficult repayments and sent money back to their families in China. Significantly, by the year 1861, there was 7% of Chinese immigrants making Australian population. Once the gold was no more the attraction, these settlers worked as market gardeners or farmhands and some of them began some small grocery stores or fruit and vegetable-hawking businesses in Australian towns. Some Chinese immigrants worked around Melbourne in a mixture of engagements, which included import-export businesses, laundry operations, cabinet making, and medicine. In this background, there began several Chinese religious and cultural organizations, and Chinese New Year celebrations became a highlight in many towns in Victoria. However, Chinese immigration was affected due to the restrictions by the Government policy from as early as the 1850s. It was mainly through the 1901Immigration Restriction Act  often called the White Australia Policy  that significantly hindered the entry of non-Europeans, including the Chinese, were restricted and this included the use of a dictation test. Residency conditions were also strictly controlled. The Chinese community actively protested against prejudice, however, and activists such as Loius Ah Mouy and Lowe Kong Meng highlighted the important economic and social contributions made by members of their community. Finally, policy restricting the migration of non-Europeans was lifted in the 1970s, and trade links with China were subsequently strengthened. Between 1986 and 1991 the China-born population in Victoria more than doubled to over 20,000. This number was largely due to the many Chinese students seeking citizenship and asylum after the repression of student demonstrations at Tiananmen Square in 1989. (Lam 2006). (Chinese Immigration to Australia). (Martin 1998). It will be noted that, in the modern days, most of the Chinese immigrants include professionals such as scholars, doctors, and business investors, and some others are students. This Chinese immigrant community y in Australia today continues the long and proud history of a Chinese community that remarkably contributed heavily to Victorian life.

In an analysis of the Chinese immigration of Australia, it becomes essential to understand that the issues relating to migration have been of central concern to the immigrants. There have been several policies that are the direct results of such problems concerning migration. In fact, for many years now, migration has been greatly politicized in Australia. There have been several political parties with different stands about migration and the government has raised its transparency to such a high level that the public is aware of developments and policy directions in migration for the present and future years. It is essential to realize that these issues have been of central concern to the Chinese immigrants in Australia. What happens in the past about migration was its motivation by population and labor needs and family re union. It was later realized that well-educated migrants with skills and experience are able to accomplish better employment prospects and settlement outcomes. Skilled migration has therefore been emphasized. From time to time, governments have examined and re-focused the objectives of migration so as to plan and decide for changes to migration policy. Changes to the requirements and categories will affect the skills and quality of future migrants and hence the future economic developments. (Lam 2006). Chinese immigrants have been one of the major immigrant groups in Australia and the migration issues directly affect their prospects in the nation. As we have already comprehended, Australia has been host to the first great invasion of Chinese people into Australia during the Victorian gold rush of the 1850s. it can be seen that during 1851-1861, half a million immigrants headed to the goldfields of Ballart making it huge immigration to Australia. It was later clarified that the diggers of European descent were suspicious of Chinese culture and resentful of Chinese competing for claims, and their intensity in finding gold. This led to violent anti-Chinese riots on the goldfields, and the government imposing a ten-pound tax on every Chinese entering a Victorian port. In December 1901 the Immigration Restriction Act was passed, to place certain restrictions on immigration and to provide for the removal from the Commonwealth of prohibited immigrants. This act was the cornerstone of the White Australia Policy, and was only abolished in 1973 under the Whitlam Labor government. This Act placed restrictions in the path of non-Europeans wishing to migrate, and included the notorious Dictation Test. This was used as a means to exclude non Europeans ostensibly on an objective, non-racial basis. The effect of all this was to greatly restrict Chinese migration to Australia for many decades. (Chinese Immigration to Australia).

Therefore, the migration issues were largely affected by the Chinese immigrants and this has long implications for the immigrants.

The migration of the Chinese people to Australia has been involving various countries and it can be seen that Chinese people have migrated to Australia from different parts of Asia. The migration of the Chinese to Australia was primarily from Malaysia in the 1970s, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Taiwan in the 1980s, and Hong Kong and China from the mid-1980s to 1993. As a result, the majority of Chinese immigrants to Australia have been from Malaysia, China and Vietnam. There have been several other countries significant Chinese migration to Australia and they are Singapore, Cambodia, Indonesia, East Timor, Papua New Guinea, Taiwan, Laos and Thailand, and Hong Kong. Smaller numbers of Chinese immigrants are from Fiji, The Philippines, New Zealand, Britain, Burma, Christmas Island, Mauritius, South Africa, India, and Japan. It can also be seen that these immigrant groups are the Australian-born Chinese and those of mixed race. Significantly, identity has been a central issue to these Chinese immigrants primarily resulting from cultural background and diversity in immigrant background. Recent studies have found that, in general, despite the diversity in country of origin and socio-economic status Chinese immigrant families in Australia retain something of their original cultural beliefs& Seven of the Chinese group had lived in Australia for less than five years, compared with four in each of the Cambodian and Hong Kong groups and one in the Malaysian group. Four in the Cambodian group and three in each of the Chinese, Hong Kong and Malaysian groups had lived in Australia for six to nine years. Two from the Cambodian group, three from the Hong Kong group and six from the Malaysian group had lived in Australia for over ten years. Nearly the entire Cambodian and Hong Kong group and over half of the Chinese group were Australian citizens& Thirteen different nationalities were given by the four groups for how they identified themselves. The majority of the Hong Kong group identified themselves as Australian Chinese& One of these Chinese people made the following comment I have a complicated feeling and thinking. I am not sure of my identity. I hope I am an Australian but because of racism I dont have a sense of belonging here. When I am back in China I will say I am Australian Chinese. Here the society seems stable, however it is not stable to accept other groups. (Martin 1998). Therefore, it is clear that identity has become a central issue to the immigrants in Australia and this issue has several aspects to be dealt with seriously and minutely. These issues include ethnicity as well.

In conclusion, it is essential to comprehend that Chinese immigration to Australia involves various essential matters, and migration, ethnicity, and identity have formed most of the discussions on Chinese immigration to Australia. There have been several central issues, as evident in this analysis, that need to be focused on in a serious discussion concerning the Chinese immigrant experience in Victoria. These are very essential questions that call for detailed researches and studies which may be followed by efforts to solve the issues faced by the Chinese immigrants in Australia.

Bibliography

GUILLERMO, Alice G. 1995 Global Cultural Diversity Conference Proceedings, Sydney: Arts, Culture and Identity. [Online]. Australian Government. 2008. Web.

Multiculturalism in Australia. [Online]. Australian Studies Center. The People. 2008. Web.

HUGO, Graeme. Recent Trends in Chinese Migration to Australia. 2008. Web.

History of Immigration from China. [online]. Origins. 2008. Web.

LAM, David T (2006). The Economic Impact Of Asian Migrants Under Australian Migration Policy: Abstract. [Online]. Australia. 2008. Web.

Chinese Immigration to Australia. (2008). [online]. Microsoft Office Live Workspace. Web.

MARTIN, Jennifer (1998). Cultural Diversity and Practice with Australians of Chinese Background: Consumer Perspectives. [online]. Changing Families, Challenging Futures. 2008. Web.

Special Section: Psychological Perspectives on Immigration. (2007). [online]. Communiqué. 2008. Web.

BLOUL, Rachel A. D (2002). Being Muslim in the West: The case of Australian Muslims. [online]. Australian Review of Public Affairs. 2008. Web.

In the current reality of the international society built under the influence of the process of globalization, ethnicity seems to matter much less than before; a similar tendency can be explored in Miami as well. This phenomenon of being post-racial can be witnessed on the most varied levels of society including the Presidency and the Supreme Court. This situation can be explained by the fact that there are so many different races and ethnicities mixed both in the global society and in the society of Miami, in particular. However, a closer look at the current situation in the globalized society shows that there exist such areas where ethnicity still matters including making stereotypes, marrying and medicine.

According to Placecia, race matters only to the extent that people in our society are still treated as members of a race. Speaking about the main areas where ethnicity is still important nowadays, it should be stated that making stereotypes is the most significant area where ones race still can be addressed as rather important. Race and Ethnicity argue that stereotyping is undoubtedly a natural process, used by individuals to simplify the world and to make life somewhat predictable (par.32). Concerning this, people seem to view and evaluate others based on ones ethnicity. I am a Latino, and that is why people who meet me for the first have a row of stereotypes about my personality especially about my hot, passionate and explosive nature. All the above-mentioned characteristics are not fully relevant to my personality, and for the reason of such a stereotyped misunderstanding, I am disappointed sometimes. Some sociologists and anthropologists believe that we perform race and ethnicity. It seems that such a saying implicate the idea that the representatives of different ethnic groups have their mentality and temperament. I thought about my behaviour in that way many times, and I must admit it often happens that my conduct does support the stereotypes about the mentality of my people; however, I am a person constantly trying to improve and enrich my personality trying to adopt the best qualities form the other ethnicities, and that is why I cannot agree with the above-mentioned scientists to the full extent.

Further, another important area where ethnicity still matters is the institute of marriage. By 1980 only one quarter of American-born whites was married to someone with an undivided ethnic heritage identical to his or her own (Race and Ethnicity par.37). Thus, it is evident that the assimilating process continues actively. However, roughly 99 percent of African American women and 97 percent of African American men marry one of their race (Race and Ethnicity par.37). From the last piece of data, the conclusion can be made that ethnicity still means a lot for the institution of the family.

In addition, the specialists on race naturalism may think that in some ways different genetic materials can influence the operating of the human body, and thus require a different treatment for particular diseases especially for such ones connected to genetics as cancer and diabetes. So, racial inherence can be seen as important in the area of medical treatment.

In conclusion, nowadays in the era of creating a new globalized society ethnicity appears to be less important than before. However, it is still rather significant for stereotyping, the institute of marriage and medicine. By 2001 there was an estimated 37 million Hispanic Americans, or nearly 13% of the total population (Alcoff par. 23). Thus, I can believe myself to be a part of one of the most numerous ethnicities in the United States. With regards to my position on the actuality of the racial issue nowadays I would say it still matters but it is less important.

Works Cited

1. Alcoff, Linda. n. d. Latinos and the Categories of Race. n. d. 2012.
2. Placecia, Nathan. n. d. Does Race Matter? n. d. 2012.
3. Race and Ethnicity. n. d. 2012.

The problem of discrimination in the educational setting according to the race and ethnicity factor is very controversial, and researchers are interested in discussing the presence or absence of differences in minority students intelligence and abilities to demonstrate the high academic performance. While focusing on this problem, it is necessary to answer the following research question: Are there differences in students academic performance scores and intelligence based on the factor of ethnicity? The multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) can be discussed as effective to be used in this research because two dependent variables can be measured in numbers and one independent categorical variable (Agresti & Finlay, 2009, p. 20; Huck, 2012, p. 380). The study aims to test the following hypotheses:

H₀: ¼₁ = ¼₂ = ¼₃ = ¼₄, H₀: There are no differences in Caucasian, African American, Hispanic, and Asian students performance and intelligence scores based on the factor of ethnicity.

H₁: ¼₁ ` ¼<sub>2</sub> ` ¼₃ ` ¼_4, H₁: There are differences in Caucasian, African American, Hispanic, and Asian students performance and intelligence scores based on the factor of ethnicity.

Referring to the types of errors, it is important to note that Type II errors are more typical for this research conducted with the help of the MANOVA, although Type I errors are possible.

Methods

For this study, 40 participants are selected with the help of the questionnaire in which college students from one faculty state their age and ethnic or racial background. Thus, 40 male and female students aged 22-23 are randomly selected from 200 college students completing questionnaires. These 40 students are the sample population related to the research. Participants who belong to one student community are assigned to four groups according to their ethnic background: Caucasian, African American, Hispanic, and Asian. 10 participants represent each group.

The independent variable is the students ethnicity which is stated by students with the help of the questionnaire. The variable is categorical, and it is measured in four different ethnic or racial groups such as Caucasian, African American, Hispanic, and Asian according to the nominal scale. There are two dependent variables. The first dependent variable is the students academic performance score which is quantitative and continuous, and it is measured in 0.0 to 100.0 score according to the interval scale. In this case, the performance score is the students grade received after completing the Multi-Disciplinary Test, including questions from different academic disciplines studied at the faculty during the first year. The second dependent variable is intelligence which is quantitative and continuous, and it is measured in IQ scores with the help of the adapted IQ Tests. The used scale is also an interval.

Results

The MANOVA should be used to conduct the research when it is necessary to discuss how one independent variable can impact two or more dependent variables. The MANOVA is chosen for the study because it allows conducting one statistical test for two dependent variables instead of focusing on a series of tests. To interpret the results of the MANOVA effectively and in detail, it is necessary to use posthoc tests when there is a significant F. To discuss the observed significance, it is necessary to focus on comparing p-values. Much attention should be paid to the fact that there is an accepted p < 0.05. It is important to compare p-values characteristic for such DVs as academic performance score and intelligence score. If after running the MANOVA, the Sig. for the DVs is stated as < 0.05, it is important to conduct posthoc tests. There are four groups related to the IV that is why post-hoc tests are necessary to determine the actual source of the signs stated with the help of the MANOVA. When there is no statistical significance, the null hypothesis seems to be supported. That is why post-hoc tests are conducted only when the null hypothesis is rejected to find the source of significant differences in means.

The information obtained from the MANOVA and post-hoc tests are the numerical data representing possible differences or absence of differences in the performance and intelligence scores of students belonging to different racial backgrounds. The focus on differences in means and other measures of central tendency and variability is necessary. The shape of the distribution allows discussing the role of the students demographics. To conclude the hypotheses, it is necessary to compare the performance and intelligence scores of Caucasian, African American, Hispanic, and Asian students. F statistic is necessary to be studied while concluding on the hypotheses. If p < 0.05, the differences in the performance and intelligence scores can be discussed as present and caused by the ethnicity factor (American Psychological Association, 2010, p. 22; Welkowitz, Cohen, & Ewen, 2006, p. 112).

Discussion

The biases and faults are associated with the fact that if students determine their racial or ethnic background incorrectly or they have a mixed background, the results of the research cannot be discussed as accurate. To avoid limitations associated with using the ethnicity factor as the IV in the study, it is necessary to provide students with the opportunity to state their racial and ethnic background accurately, while pointing at the possible mixed origin and without selecting from the proposed options. The limitations of the study area in the fact that the selected students study at one faculty and these results are representative for the students of only this faculty. Furthermore, the content of the Multi-Disciplinary Test and IQ Tests used to measure the variables can also be biased, and this fact can affect the results and the researchers conclusions on hypotheses.

Participants can have different academic backgrounds which can also affect the test results. The limitations can be noted while interpreting the findings. Using the MANOVA, it is possible to conclude the academic performance scores are different for Caucasian, African American, Hispanic, and Asian students. It is also possible to conclude that students with different ethical backgrounds have different intelligence levels. However, the research does not demonstrate how the ethnicity factor can impact the students academic successes in one certain discipline because of being limited by the use of the Multi-Disciplinary Test. The practical significance of the results is in opportunities for educators and psychologists to revise the approaches to working with minority students to enhance their academic performance.

Conclusion

The discussed study is focused on determining differences in Caucasian, African American, Hispanic, and Asian students performance and intelligence scores. The MANOVA is an effective statistical test to be applied to the research to provide accurate results on the presence or absence of studied differences in means.

References

Agresti, A., & Finlay, B. (2009). Statistical methods for the social sciences (4^th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.

American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Huck, S. W. (2012). Reading statistics and research (6^th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Welkowitz, J., Cohen, B. H., & Ewen, R. B. (2006). Introductory statistics for the behavioral sciences (6^th ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.