Category: Ethics

Aristotles Virtue Ethics

Aristotle in his virtue ethics states that a virtuous individual is someone with ideal traits. These characteristic traits normally come from an individuals innate tendency but should be cultivated. After they are cultivated, these character traits supposedly become stable in an individual.

Moral consequentilaists and deontologists are normally concerned with universal doctrines that can be utilized in any situation that requires moral interpretation. Unlike these theorists, Aristotles virtue ethics are concerned with the general questions such as what is a good life, what are proper social and family values, and how should one live (Bejczy 32).

Aristotle developed his virtue ethics based on three central principles; eudaimonia, ethics of care, and agent based theories. Eudaimonia stipulates that virtues can be seen in the way an individual flourishes; flourishing under this concept refers to ones ability to perform their functions with distinct accuracy (Bejczy 33).

The distinct function of humans according to Aristotle is reasoning, and a worthy life is characterized by good reasoning. The agent based theory places emphasis on the fact that virtues are determined by common institutions people use to label traits in other people as admirable.

According to Aristotles virtue ethics, a virtue like honesty does not necessarily refer to the tendency of people acting honestly, or the classification of the virtue as a desirable trait. Instead, Aristotle purports that the virtue of honesty is predisposed and entrenched in an individual (Bejczy 34). In virtue ethics, therefore, an individual cannot be labeled as honest since he is not cheating, or by observing the honesty in ones dealings.

In addition, if an individual acts honestly because he/she is afraid of being caught, or because he/she thinks it is good to do so rather than recognizing that engaging in a contrary behavior will be dishonest, such as an individual cannot be labeled as honest (Bejczy 35).

The choices made by an honest individual will always reflect the views the individual has regarding truth and honesty. Aristotles virtue ethics is mainly concerned with the questions of what is a good life, what are proper social and family values, and how should one live.

An honest individual values honesty and in most cases will choose to have honest friends, raise his/her children to embrace honesty, and work with honest people. Aristotles virtue ethics also differentiates between continence and perfect virtue (Bejczy 36). Perfect virtue implies that people who are fully virtuous will perform tasks, which they are supposed to be done without experiencing conflict with contrary desires.

On the other hand, people who are continent will struggle to control the temptation of engaging in behaviors that compromise virtue. Another reason Aristotle says can make an individual not attain full virtue is lack of practical or moral wisdom or phronesis.

Practical wisdom enables an individual to effectively secure real benefits and those who possess it will never hide the truth from people who need to be informed even if the truth hurts (Bejczy 37).

Aristotles virtue ethics maintain that people with practical wisdom, understand what is truly advantageous in life, truly worthwhile, and truly important; hence, they have a good life that enables them to experience eudaimonia. For one to experience eudaimonia, he/she must live a life in accordance with virtue.

Eudaimonia has been defined as happiness, flourishing, and at times well-being. However, in the Aristotles virtue ethics, eudaimonia does not imply happiness derived from acquisition of wealth or physical pleasures, as these are signs of a wasted life. According to Aristotle, a good life is characterized by eudaimonia, and possession of virtues enables humans to experience it.

This is because virtues are basically character traits that shield their possessor from bad lack (Bejczy 38). Aristotles virtue ethics is based on the premise that individuals should achieve a perfect character for them to be able to experience happiness that he called eudaimonia.

Moral virtue or excellent character is determined by what an individual performs voluntarily, as opposed to what people do because they have been coerced to (Bejczy 39).

Kants Deontological Ethics

Kants theory of morality is referred to as deontological for various reasons; firstly, Kant maintains that acting in a morally upright way requires that peoples actions should be based on duty. Kant also maintains that it is not the consequences of actions that essentially determine whether they are right or wrong, but the motives of the actor (Wike 149).

Kant starts his deontological argument by claiming that the highest good should be that without qualification and good in itself. What Kant defines as good in itself is something that is fundamentally good and therefore, the concept of good without qualification implies that when something else is introduced to a situation, it does not make it ethically worse (Wike 150).

Kant also dismisses things such as courage, pleasure, happiness and understanding, which are popularly thought to be good because according to him, these things are not in line with the concepts of good without qualification and intrinsically good.

This is because these things have the potential of being turned into bad acts; for example, the terrorists who carried out 9/11 attacks used courage but in a bad way and their actions harmed innocent people. In addition, committing crimes like murder requires courage; for example, a thief may be happy while stealing and understanding can be used negatively to corrupt the way other people think (Wike 149).

Kant defines what good will is through examples, and one of the instances he gives is that involving a foreigner who goes to a shop with a bag of coins. The foreigner does not understand the shopkeepers language and hands him a bag of coins. The shopkeeper in this case had an option of picking extra coins but he did not.

Kant argues that determining whether the shopkeepers behavior was good depends on some factors (Wike 151). If the shopkeeper did not take extra coins so that the foreigner goes back, or recommends his friends, then the shopkeeper is honest but his motives are not good and hence his behavior is not good. The good will according to Kant requires that we act from good motives, duty, or from a sense of law (Wike 152).

Kant then concludes that there is one thing that meets the qualifications to be labeled as truly good, and that is the good will. According to him, nothing in this world humans can think of can be labeled as good without qualification, except good will.

Kant also states that the outcomes of an individuals actions should not be used to determine whether he or she possesses a good will because good outcomes could emanate from actions whose motive was to inflict harm to innocent persons (Wike 153). On the other, hand, bad outcomes can emanate from actions that have good motives.

According to Kant, it can be said that an individual has a good will when his/her actions do not contradict the moral law. When an individual acts in a certain way because he/she is bound by duty to do so, then it can be said that the individual respects moral law. Hence Kant posits that for one to be good, he/she must be righteous (Wike 154).

Kants deontological ethics is based on the concept of categorical imperativism that states that individuals actions should be based on a maxim that allows these actions to become a universal law. Secondly, categorical imperativism requires that our actions be in such a way that we do not treat humans as a means, but always treat them as an end.

This first provision of categorical imperativism dictates that if our actions cannot be universalized, then they are unacceptable, while the second provision emphasizes that we should treat people with respect (Wike 154). Kant developed the principle of categorical imperativism to address some of the challenges and deadlocks in deontological ethics.

For example, Kant dismissed courage and intellect as good acts, and claimed that good actions can only be determined from good will. This makes it difficult to make moral decision especially when faced with conflicting situations (Wike 155).

Benthams Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism as a theory of ethics and morality is based on the principle that human beings have a tendency to seek pleasure while avoiding pain. This is sometimes referred to as the principle of the greatest happiness. Utility, which is the root of utilitarianism according to Bentham, implies that the usefulness of a product will determine what humans are willing to sacrifice, or give up in the course of obtaining it (Troyer 52).

The principle of litigation is concerned with the concept of utility and how it is incorporated in legislative practices. Benthams utilitarianism considers good actions as the ones that produce the largest amount of pleasure, while at the same time minimizing pain. Evil acts are regarded as acts, which produce the largest amount of pain that is not accompanied by any pleasures (Troyer 53).

Hedonistic calculus is a method of determining the moral standing of any action, which was developed by Jeremy Bentham. This method has seven considerations with the first four dealing with sensation. These are duration, intensity, certain/uncertainty, and propinquity. The next two considerations are concerned with means-end relationship and they are fecundity, and purity.

Fecundity means fruitfulness and in a means-end relationship, it determines whether the outcomes of a certain action result in more pleasure or pain (Troyer 54). Purity is meant to determine the quality of an action, for example, if an action results in pleasure alone, then it can be termed as pure. But if brings both pleasure and pain then it labeled impure.

The last consideration in utilitarianism is extent, this criterion requires that we consider the first six criteria and determine the extent to which they apply to the whole population (Troyer 55).

Under utilitarianism, if an action provides short-term pleasure for the majority of people while at the same time hurting one or a few persons, then it is termed as wrong. On the other hand, if the action provides long-term pleasure to most people while only hurting a few individuals, then it is said to be justified or morally right.

The challenge faced by utilitarian theorists is how to quantify pains and pleasures in this theory. Bentham argues that utilitarianism could be used to justify certain laws and policies, especially if they meet the criteria of utilitarianism (Troyer 56).

Benthams utilitarianism disapproves the notion held by right theorists; for example, in America there are different opinions on gun ownership. Those who argue from a utilitarian point of view maintain that guns should be regulated because if they fall in the wrong hands, they are likely to cause harm to the majority by enhancing insecurity.

Those who argue from the rights perspective maintain that owning a gun is their constitutional right. Another utilitarian theorist mentored by Bentham is John Stuart Mill. Mill disagrees with Benthams approach to utilitarianism based on two issues, which are the nature of pleasures and rights.

Bentham argues that humans will always seek pleasure while avoiding pain; however, Mill disputes the idea of seeking pleasures for their sake, and categorizes pleasure into two: that is, higher and lower pleasures (Troyer 57).

Higher pleasures are based on intellect, and in this regard, Mill argues that it is better to be a Socrates who is dissatisfied rather than a satisfied fool. Lower pleasures are based on appetite and Mill maintains that it is better to be a dissatisfied human being that being a satisfied being (Troyer 58).

This implies that contrary to Benthams opinion that humans are always seeking pleasure while avoiding pain; sometimes humans can avoid pleasure and endure pain especially if they consider such pleasures to be low end pleasures.

On rights, Mill opposes Benthams notion that the rights of the minority can be foregone if an action brings long-term pleasures to the majority. Mills argues that in ensuring the security of the majority, rights become the greatest good (Troyer 60).

Conclusion

Aristotles virtue ethics argue that morality should be based on an individuals ideal traits that are internalized as opposed to observing outward actions or the consequence of his/her behavior. Kant on the contrary argues that for an individual to be considered morally upright, then his/her actions should be based on duty. Mills maintains that if an action provides long-term pleasures to the majority, then it is morally upright.

Works Cited

Bejczy, Istvan. Virtue ethics in the middle Ages: Commentaries on Aristotles Nicomachean Ethics, 1200  1500. Leiden: Brill, 2008. Print.

Troyer, John. The Classical Utilitarians Bentham and Mill. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishers, 2003. Print.

Wike, Victoria S. Kant on Happiness in Ethics. Albany: Albany State University Press, 1994. Print.

Introduction

Moral philosophy, otherwise known as ethics, fundamentally assesses the principles of moral judgment and sheds light on problems linked to equality, justice and rights (Sahakian and Sahakian 32). In its core, ethics systematically tries to set apart good from wrong.

The field is split into three categories, which are meta-ethics, normative ethics and applied ethics (Olson 343). Meta-ethics covers the theoretical meanings of what makes actions wrong and others right (Kelly 160).

Normative ethics explain the practical ways that can be used to arrive at a moral deed and applied ethics tries to explain how moral actions can be achieved in particular situations (Sahakian and Sahakian 32). All these methods of understanding the moral standing of an action were developed by different scholars, but who all found a point of harmony, to link all their findings.

The blues, in their origins helped in exposing the injustices that were perpetrated against the African Americans during the years of slavery and later segregation arising from racism. Over time, this genre of music has provided an appropriate platform for the release of frustration and has also provided some sense of support to help deal with the trauma, pain and suffering.

As such the blues is inherently a genre of music whose grounding is the distinction between right and wrong. It is the kind of music whose lyrics were derived from reality and whose impact would well be felt by all and sundry. Sometimes, the persons at whom the expressionism of the genre was targeted got the message and it even sunk in to allow them make some crucial changes in the way they carried themselves.

This change, depending on the person, would either take a more acceptable moral stance or would go the other way and reinforce the unfortunate deed that the singers were trying to deter them from.

This essay seeks to explain the history of the blues in view of the ethical issues that surrounded its propagation. To this end, a number of articles as well as books will be used to offer a background to the topic, with some of the theories raised by scholars of ethics used to offer insight into why some developments took a particular course.

The essay seeks to conclude that the blues and ethics are two inseparable fields, and that one can be used to adequately explain the other.

The blues and ethics

The blues are said to have first started in 1890s but the first published version of the blues came in 1912. The main reason as to why this genre of music was not given particular attention was because of the escalating racism at the time and the low level of literacy among Americans of African descent.

At the time, the blues were not given attention as worthwhile music, because of the association with African Americans. The composition of this music mostly happened in cotton farms where the African Americans worked as handy men for their white counterparts.

The African Americans, having been forced to take up these jobs, sang their hearts out as they worked, in the hope that they would obtain peace of mind, through the distraction of music. This numbness shield went in line with Stoicism, the field of ethics started by Epictetus, who posed that the greatest good that one could achieve was satisfaction with their state of life and a peace of mind.

Working in the cotton fields was by all standards difficult work, and bearing in mind that the workers who picked up this job were either forced to work with no pay, or for very little pay, they had to come up with creative ways of beating the somberness of their situation. Singing served this purpose well.

This function also best describes hedonism, which holds that the greatest ethic is the maximization of pleasure and the reduction of pain. The positive effect of singing the blues was noted in the productivity of the singers, because the act of focusing their minds away from their current problems, enabled them to work longer hours.

As the blues grew into a popular genre of music, the more educated and well-resourced section of society, almost entirely represented by the white Americans failed to take interest, as they still considered it music for the African Americans.

The thought of having it written or recorded did not cross their minds as it appeared that doing this would be giving the African Americans some sense of power and authority. This went in line with consequentialism, a category of ethics which posed that the consequences of a given action will determine whether or not it can be classified as moral.

At the time, the white Americans were considered superior human beings and the thought of them seceding power to the African Americans was by itself a psychological impossibility. Through deontological ethics, scholars can point out the motivations that led to the white Americans acting in that particular way. The power was gratifying and any method of maintaining a hold on it was subsequently welcome.

Between the 1920s and the 1950s, as the genre grew and established a presence amongst music genres, the themes also moved from cries for emancipation to smoother entertaining tunes. This goes in tandem with the ethical theories established by pragmatists such as Charles Sanders Pierce and William James, which suggested that moral correctness was a function that developed gradually and over the course of a lengthy period of time.

As such, the blues after having achieved their original purpose of short term consolation moved on to achieve another purpose, which was entertainment. It is this role that made the genre gradually attain acceptability in the musical society.

This led to more musicians adopting it for experimentation, and with time new products were born out of the blues. This growth finds meaning in the field of evolutionary ethics, which concludes that actions usually have a point of origin, which can be well traceable over a certain period of time.

The moral agent that is the blues, especially in its origins, can well be used to explain the forces that drove the individuals who partook in its growth to involve themselves in it.

This is a function of virtue ethics, a field of moral philosophy that was fronted by early philosophers including Aristotle and Socrates, amongst other great philosophers, of Greek descent.

Aristotle in his studies, came up with a theory which he appropriately named self-realizationism, which holds that when an individual becomes aware of his full potential, then he will conduct himself in such a way that he utilizes the potential to his level best.

It is this self-realization that led the African Americans to consider exploring the blues as a way of deriving pleasure rather than a way of protesting against the injustices of society only. As a result, singers cropped up and specialized in the genre, a process that eventually led to the adoption of elements of the form of music for use in more mainstream genres.

Conclusion

This essay had sought to identify the point of convergence between ethics and the genre of music that is the blues. To this end, the origins of the music type was taken for analysis with the play of ethics over the period that the genre was developing used to offer insight into why some developments took a particular course.

It has been seen that all points of the rise of the music genre had a specific ethical factor, which explained the consequences of the actions of the people. The targeted conclusion has been arrived at, with the discovery that the blues was used as a form of finding solace for the African Americans, most of whom served as slaves in cotton farms owned by their white counterparts.

It has also been concluded that the music scholars of the early 20^th century did not give particular attention to the study of the blues, because most of them considered the blues low-class music and that giving it scholarly attention would lead to the lower-class citizens getting some authority which would strain the master-slave relationship that had for a long time guaranteed the societys stability.

It has been seen that all decisions by the founders of the blues and the repressive conclusions by the members of society who found it offensive, were all inched on trying to find some ethical direction.

Works Cited

Kelly, Eugene. The basics of Western philosophy. USA: Greenwood Press, 2006. Print

Sahakian, William and Mabel Sahakian. Ideas of great philosophers. USA: Barnes and Noble, 1993. Print

Olson, Robert. Deontological ethics. London. Collier McMillan, 1967. Print.

Introduction

Ambiguous sex has become a major social and ethical issue for entire societies and professional practices therein. The concept of ambiguous sex stems from the relation of sex and gender, whereby, it is argued that ones sexuality is not a representation of his or her gender (Diamond & Beh, 2012).

In other words, a person with female genitals does not necessarily have to be female in gender; rather she can be socialized to be male in gender. To shed more light on the sex ambiguity, Diamond (2002) defines the term sex as the anatomical structure of the genitals, and gender as the adopted or imposed psychological and social condition. Such distinctions imply that use of sex and gender as synonyms is wrong.

Professionally, members of the medical profession are charged with the responsibility of offering psychological guidance to people with ambiguous sex, helping them have a sex change if they so desire, and helping them deal with their new found identities once the sex change has been done.

In some cases, professionals in the medical field have even had to contend with legal processes where they have been accused of giving the wrong kind of advice, and allegedly leading their patients into making the wrong decisions. Such was the case of Alan Flinch, who applied to have sex reassignment surgery when he was 21 years old.

His sex change had been conducted eight years earlier enabling him to live as a woman; he however claimed that he should not have been allowed to make such a transition and blamed the psychologists who had diagnosed him as a transsexual and who had advised him to undergo sex change for his predicament (Goodenough, 2008ⁱ). Flinchs decision to reverse the sex change is an example of the draw backs that people with ambiguous sex and the medical professionals who attend them have to face. A similar scenario was reported in the United Kingdom (Bohon, 2012ⁱⁱ). Such scenarios underscore the importance of informed consent as a condition for making the sex change. It would be advisable for children to understand the effect of undergoing a sex change, both in the short term and in the long-term.

The drawbacks of sex change notwithstanding, people with ambiguous sex should be the ultimate decision makers on whether or not to have the sex altering surgery. Additionally, people who make the decision to change their sex should not be discriminated against based on such a decision. If anything, they should be treated as equal members of the society.

Even after sex change has been made, other ethical issues arise such as what was portrayed in the documentary titled The Southern Comfort.ⁱⁱⁱ The ethical issue in the documentary arises because two dozen doctors refuse to treat Robert Eads who is suffering from ovarian cancer, and hence it becomes a certainty that he will die. Notably, the doctors are worried about the effect that treating Eads would have on their reputation and are seen to contravene the do no harm principle of the medical profession.

Following the documentary, one gets the impression that the medics are more concerned about their reputations and have little regard to relieving pain in Eads, thus posing even more questions regarding the ethical nature of their conduct.

Arguably, patients (regardless of their sex or gender) do not just receive treatments because they demand for the same. Additionally, it is understandable that physicians or people in the medical profession do not have an obligation to deliver healthcare that is unlikely to benefit the subject patient (American Medical Association (AMA) (2012a^iv).

In Eads case however, it is seems that the doctors simply refused to offer him medical attention on account of his sex-change. Ethically, a physician has a duty to do all that he or she can for the benefit of the individual patient (AMA, 2012b^v). As indicated by Cancer Monthly (2012), each stage of ovarian cancer can be treated with even the most advanced cancer (stage IV) having a 1-5% 5-year survival.

The moral and ethical issues in focus

Making Eads the focus of this section, it is worth noting that he had the right to a sex exchange, because after all, he was not forced into it and he did what he thought suited him best. The moral and ethical issues in how the doctors denied him treatment are however questionable especially if one is to consider that they feared losing patients on treating him.

Under the current anti-discrimination laws in New England for example,  no one deserves to be harassed or discriminated against based on someone elses idea of appropriate male or female gender identity (GLAD, 2011, p. 3). Yet, it appears that the doctors denied a patient medical attention based on the imposed self or societal beliefs that a woman should not and cannot change their sex.

Just as a transgender person may be denied employment or other social services based on his/her non-conformance to social expectations, it can be argued that Eads was denied medical attention for similar reasons.

Unfortunately, the denial of medical attention meant that Eads had to die and this is arguably tantamount to denying a person some life-saving service. Morally, medical professionals should do everything within their powers to preserve and/or enhance the quality of a patients life (American College of Physicians (ACP), 2012).

If the principles of medical ethics as illustrated in figure 1 below were to be considered, the two dozen doctors who refused to attend Eads would fare badly in all the four principles. In relation to beneficence, it could be argued that whatever the doctors did or said did not benefit the patient.

According to Simon (2008), the principle of beneficence states that the possible benefits of treating a patient must outweigh the associated risks. It is also evident that the doctors did not respect Eads autonomy, since they did not respect his wishes to have specific treatment.

By so doing, they were judging him on something he had done in his past and can therefore be said to having disrespected his rights to self-determination. Further, it appears that the doctors went against the principles of justice by discriminating Eads based on his sex change. According to Simon (2008), healthcare should be given to patients based on need, and any health care provision based on color, creed, class, wealth or even sex should be considered as an injustice committed against an individual.

Conclusion

As noted in the introductory section of this essay, ambiguous sex poses both ethical and moral issues to professional, most especially in the medical profession. As argued in this essay however, a person who undergoes sex change does so, based on his/her right to self-determination and should not be discriminated against because of the sex change.

Additionally, professionals in the medical professional should always uphold the four ethical principles namely beneficence, non-maleficience, autonomy and justice when handling patients. The identified principles will no doubt act as the much needed guide whenever ethical issues arise.

In conclusion, it is worth reiterating that sex change is an individual decision, which should be respected by professionals and non-professionals alike. However, such decisions should only be made when one is fully informed and conscious of the implications it may have in future.

References

American College of Physicians (ACP) (2012). ACP ethics manual sixth edition. Web.

American Medical Association (AMA). (2012a). Opinion 2.03- allocation of limited medical resources. Web.

American Medical Association (AMA). (2012b). Opinion 2.035  Futile care. Web.

Bohon, D. (2012). San Francisco to offer free sex reassignment surgeries to its uninsured. The New American. Web.

Cancer Monthly. (2012). Ovarian cancer. Web.

Diamond, M. (2002). Sex and gender are different: sexual identity and gender identity are different. Clinical Child Psychology & Psychiatry, (Special Issue in Press): 1-26.

Diamond, M., & Beh, H, G. (2012). The right to be wrong- sex and gender decisions. Web.

GLAD. (2012). Transgender legal issues- New England. Gay & Lesbian Advocates & Defenders, Boston, MA.

Goodenough, P. (2008). Sex change clinic faces inquiry, lawsuit. Cnsnews. Web.

Simon, D. (2008). Ethical issues in palliative care. Oxford Journals InnovAiT, 1(4): 274-279.

Notes

1. See Goodenough (2008) for more about the sex-change clinic that Flinch attended and the controversies surrounding it.
2. See Bohon (2012), who reports that Charles Kane reversed his sex change stating that what would have helped him before the sex-change surgery was counseling and not the altercations made on his body.
3. The Southern Comfort is a documentary whose main character is 52-years old Robert Eads who made a woman to man sex change. He however develops ovarian cancer and comments that the disease (or the ovaries) is the last part of him that was female, and incidentally, it was the same part that was killing him.
4. See Opinion 2.035- futile care as published by the American Medical Association (AMA) (2012).
5. See Opinion 2.03- allocation of limited medical resources as published by AMA (2012, para. 1).

Ayn Rand supposes that ethical egoism is very much needed in the world, as it will be more beneficial for an individual, which will lead to a better functioning society. Rand defines objectivism and states that it is the best option but the reality has proven that egoism does not work and people should form cooperative relationships.

Objectivism is a view of life and governing that is closely tied with ethics and egoism. Ayn Rand has written several works that display her opinion in this relation. In ethics, Objectivism holds that man exists for his own sake, that he must neither sacrifice himself to others nor sacrifice others to himself and that his highest moral purpose is the achievement of his own happiness (Rand, 2009).

The second part of the quote is very true. Every person must use their individual efforts and abilities to find their way in life and govern themselves. But at the same time, people have been forming unions and partnerships to help each other throughout history. It is hard to deny something that has been so natural and unavoidable for so long.

People depend on the community, understanding and lenience, as well as forgiveness of others. If people existed only for their own sake, everyone would become greedy and selfish, using others in ways they saw fit and abusing any human rights.

The government and the functions of society are another major point that must be addressed. Any society needs to have some form of order to prevent chaos and loss of control. In the old days, people used to have local governments that focused on a small group of people which led to a better understanding of the groups needs, unique to the conditions and general environment present.

Modern government is greatly centralized and this creates inability to see the real demands of the society. The view that This country is not a democracy. It was established as a republic, which means a system of free, representative government, limited by the principle of individual rights (Rand, 2009), might cause even greater problems.

Ayn Rand believes that people should have their own say in the way business is conducted and economy is run. But then, business and trading will focus on the ever increasing needs and desires of an individual who will use the system without governance and find ways to gain more than give away.

An economy that favors select few will not be able to support the whole society, the welfare of people will decrease and the amount of social programs will be minimal. The system can be compared to a religion where people cannot foresee everything by themselves.

The society requires someone with resources that are much greater than those of an individual, to overlook the order, create laws and prosecute any unfairness. The fact that governance and mutual understanding are much needed parts of humanity is confirmed by the reality of the world. People have enough time to help themselves, their relatives and loved ones, as well as strangers.

Ayn Rand names several benefits of objectivism and egoism which are valid and logical but the circumstances of the world have shown a different side of the matter. Cooperative efforts of a large amount of people have proven stronger and more lasting than those of one individual.

Reference

Rand, A. (2009). Objectively speaking: Ayn Rand Interviewed. M. Podritske & P. Schwartz (Eds.). Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.

Introduction

A research must have a researcher, research tools, participants and an audience. This paper explores various ethical considerations that must be followed when seeking consents from participants.

Philosophical and Historical Background

Consent is a permission given to researchers to involve participants in a research process. This consent may be written or verbal depending on the nature of the study and the relation between the participant and researcher (Kim 2009). Philosophers believed that research consent is essential in all research involving human beings since it makes all parties concerned to be aware of the processes involved in the study.

This is based on previous attempts to conduct research without the consent of participants which led to complications (withdrawal of participants, insufficient cooperation and hostility) during the study (Comstock 2013). These challenges necessitated the need to develop ways of ensuring participants obey the agreement signed before the study started. Therefore, participants were compelled to play their roles until when the process is completed.

Ethical Issues in Articles 3.1-3.5

Article 3.1 explains that researchers must seek the participation of other people in the research by requesting them to be involved. This means that the researcher must not use force, manipulation, propaganda or gifts to persuade participants to agree to take part in the research (Comstock 2013).

Most research processes take a lot of time and this may force participants to withdraw from the process. This has serious effects on the outcomes of the research if the participant is forced to sit through the whole process. Therefore, it is necessary to obtain voluntary consent from the participant before commencing with the research.

Participants that volunteer to participate in research usually provide credible information in terms of accuracy and reliability. However, when a participant is forced to take part in a study the person may offer false information which will affect the research (Kim 2009).

However, this act should be amended to give the researcher the ability to determine the level of volunteerism and also use incentives to ensure sensitive information is collected from the participants. Gifts can play important roles in influencing the response from participants.

This article also states that consent can be cancelled and the participants to terminate their participation and withdraw their contributions in the research at anytime. This provision identifies the possibility of having various challenges that may interfere with the ability of the participant to provide useful information to the researcher. Issues like diseases and attitude are not easily predictable and may occur when the research is at a crucial stage.

Consequently, the researcher cannot insist that the participant must continue taking part in the research since this will be dictatorship. However, these acts should be amended to ensure participants withdraw from the research only when there is an inevitable and logical reason.

Article 3.2 demands that researchers should provide all information to participants to enable them to make informed choices regarding their participation in the research. This is an ethical consideration that ensures participants are aware of what is expected of them and thus they prepare physically and psychologically for the future events regarding the research.

It is important for the participants to know what the research will involve, its aims and objectives and the period the research is expected to take. This ensures the research does not interfere with other personal programmes.

Article 3.3 advocates for the need to maintain consent throughout the study and provide participants the data relevant to the ongoing project and consent. This part plays significant roles in ensuring participants are aware of their roles in the research. In addition, it guides the researcher in maintaining essential contact with participants (Shamoo 2009).

New research issues cannot be raised during the research process if they were not included in the initial stage. Therefore, this contact ensures the researcher and participants maintain the focus of the research by working within the terms and conditions agreed by both parties (Comstock 2013). However, this article should be amended to include unforeseen eventualities that may force the researcher to adjust terms of engagement.

Article 3.4 highlights the need to notify the participant of any incidental events or findings that may be discovered during the study. This issue must be addressed properly to avoid raising suspicions regarding the terms of engagement agreed earlier (Kim 2009).

However, the researcher must conduct an elaborate review to minimise the possibilities of discovering any material or issue during the research. The presence of many discoveries during the research exposes the researcher and participants to tensions and this interferes with the outcomes of the research.

Article 3.5 states that the research cannot begin unless the researcher obtains consent from the participants or their third parties. This means that the above processes must be exhausted before the study commences (Macrina 2012). This provision ensures the researcher and participants reach an agreement before they get down to work. However, this article should specify the time required to reach an agreement between the researcher and participants to avoid wasting time in unnecessary negotiations.

Conclusion

Research is a complicated activity that requires proper planning and implementation of various procedures. A research is as good as the methods and approaches employed in collecting information, analysing and presenting it.

A good research can be distorted by poor recording or presentation of the data collected. In addition, a poor research cannot attain its goals no matter how well the results have been recorded or presented. Therefore, there must be logical agreements between the researcher and participants to ensure the research achieves its goals.

References

Comstock, G. (2013). Research Ethics: A Philosophical Guide to the Responsible Conduct of Research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kim, S. H. (2009). Evaluation of Capacity to Consent to Treatment and Research: Best

Practices in Forensic Mental Health Assessment. New York: Oxford University Press.

Macrina, F. L. (2012). Scientific Integrity: Text and Cases in Responsible Conduct of Research. New York: ASM Press.

Shamoo, A.E. (2009). Responsible Conduct of Research. New York: Oxford University Press.

Introduction

Notably, the current global developments are influenced by the aspects of communication, partnerships, and information distribution. Contextually, free expression/speech can be defined as an individuals right to communicate his or her ideologies devoid of any legal, political, or social hindrance.

For example, In Saudi Arabia, freedom of speech is under the protection of Shariah laws; nonetheless, its implementation and fortification are yet to turn up (Karlekar, 2008). Globally, media ethics, law, and free expression correlate in various aspects. People have the right to access information and express themselves freely as indicated earlier. The establishment of mass ethics and law has occurred to enhance the development of sovereign and eminence media as well as information content.

This is a crucial provision when considered critically. This paper discusses the aspects of freedom of speech and censorship in regard to media ethics and law. Additionally, it provides literal examples to support the alleged issues regarding free expression. It is vital to agree that free expression or speech is a critical provision in the current world; nonetheless, its establishment, implementation, and protection are still negligible in the current media ethics and law.

Major Arguments

As claimed, free expression and responsibility are both significant factors in regard to media ethics and laws (Anokari, 2004). However, there is a major disparity of opinions as to which side the society needs to incline to it. This is a great challenge to all media communicators.

Probably, it could be a media personality trying to exercise freedom while destroying the reputation of an individual for a beneficial purpose, or the top management of an advertising organization contemplating over a suitable creativity bounds in relation to an anti-abortion advert that could well upset feelings on either side on the subject and at the same time be able to draw the attention of several people.

In these circumstances, should the superseding value be free expression or should the media agency take other issues into consideration and avoid exploiting their freedom fully? This is a topic that has raised questions and arguments in many discussions (Freedomhouse, 2012). In diverse contexts, media freedom and expression are analyzed while taking media ethics and laws into consideration. This is conventionally applicable in various countries.

For example, the first amendment of the federal laws provides for the free expression to every individual, and this offers the mass media houses with ethical freedom to make their own resolutions on whether to be responsible or not (Yalof & Dautrich, 2002).

However, if their resolutions are viewed as constantly irresponsible, more often than not, the consequence has been an increase in public or even government pressure to limit media freedom in support of increased media responsibility. This is an impending challenge for the news media, though it is already taking its effects for advertising and entertainment industries, which are currently being controlled more compared to news media.

However, most researchers approves that freedom and responsibility are both significant aspects for proper functioning of mass media in the society (Cohen-Almagor, 2001). Mass media and press freedom was encroached in the U.S following the 9/11 attacks on the world trade center and Pentagon. The intrusions were supported and effected for the sake of national security probably most outstandingly in the USA patriot Act of 2001.

Even though comparatively few individuals opposed these changes at that time, more disapproval has been voiced after some time and additional examination has raised alarms about the major values vulnerable to national security concerns. Between 2005 and 2006, some alterations were made in the law, though criticizers persisted to express apprehension about the laws destruction to the freedoms of expression.

Restricting the free expression, even during periods of war, is detrimental to national security since it weakens the democratic process, which necessitates the free expression. It is the foundation of democratic privileges and freedoms (Dennis, 1989).

Another example is that in Saudi Arabia, the Media and Communications Shariah (a legal provision) has limited structures that legally protect the free expression (Laanoi, 2009). It is imperative to agree that most countries have established viable policies to govern and promote the aspects of freedom of speech.

However, full implementation of such laws is yet to occur in some countries due to prejudicial laws and dictatorial regimes embraced in such countries. Due to Arabian cultural and legal provisions, mass media organizations still experience some restrictions regarding the types of information that they can release to the public. At some points, it is noticeable that the government has not protected the provisions of freedom of speech as expected by the law.

It is imperative to highlight the aspects of censorship in some countries. This should occur in regard to media ethics and laws that govern such provisions. For example, the incidences of censorship are still evident in Saudi Arabia despite oppositions from the human rights lobby groups and other activists.

Nevertheless, the situation has been changing gradually to accommodate modern implications of communication and freedom of speech as demanded by the international community. Under the Shariah provisions, mass media organizations have their operations challenged in Saudi Arabia. Despite the absence of adequate instruments to implement legal provisions protecting the freedom of speech, the current Saudi Arabian media Act (2007) has well-orchestrated structures in regard to this (Puddington, 2008).

Structures exist to ensure that every Saudi Arabian enjoys his or her right to information and free expression. Internationally, the country has adopted Article 19-20 of the ICCPR (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights), which allows everyone to hold diverse ideologies on contentious issues. ICCPR also promotes free expression and other related provisions. Precisely, Saudi Arabia has established credible policies to help in promoting the aspects of freedom of speech and mass media rights.

However, there are no adequate instruments to help in the implementation of the set laws. It depends on how the government and other concerned entities perceive some information in regard to public utilization (Martinez, 2012). The government or media outlets might perceive some information as damaging, sensitive, or inconvenient to the public hence endorsing stringent censorship as a protective measure.

Various countries and private organizations have different ways through which they can impose censorship on some speeches and information before distribution them to the entire public. In numerous contexts, censorship defies the principles governing the freedom of speech. It endorses unconstructive restrictions to communication provisions hence hindering free expression.

Conventionally, free expression is a global prerequisite embraced in various countries. It is crucial to notice that everyone has a right to self-expression; however, most countries have not adopted this provision (Kersch 2003). Globally, various countries have tried to adopt the provisions of freedom of speech.

Nevertheless, the degree of implementation varies considerably due to differences in constitutional provisions, vast impunity, and governments commitment in ensuring that citizens attain the needed freedom of speech. Concurrently, mass media organizations experience varying legal challenges while executing their duties. This varies from one country to the next (Puddington, 2008).

Normally, people should enjoy the right to information and free expression as indicated earlier. Conversely, some governments and other authorized bodies have been practicing censorship in order to suppress the freedom of speech and public communication provisions.

This is evident in some countries that have not realized the importance of freedom of speech. Precisely, the current Shariah of Saudi Arabia has hardly protected the aspects of freedom of speech and media freedom as indicated earlier. This is a critical provision in the context of free expression.

It is imperative to agree that freedom of speech is a critical provision in the present world; however, its establishment, implementation, and protection in Saudi Arabia are still at their infancy. Mass media and freedom of speech correlate in various contexts. It is crucial to consider this provision in regard to constitutional implementation. Various countries have hardly established, implemented, and embraced freedom of speech as demanded by the law.

Mass media outlets are still struggling to attain full autonomy in regard to free expression and access to vital information. Nonetheless, the new media laws embraced by some countries have created critical provisions to enhance the aspects of free expression. Conversely, censorship (in the mass media) is evident in various contexts. Most governments and private organizations have tried to suppress freedom of speech based on varying reasons.

In other contexts, some citizens and media workers can hardly exploit their right to express themselves efficiently or even participate in communal decision-making. This mostly occurs if they lack ethical ideologies or when they are not able to express opinions freely. Thus, free expression is very significant for a persons dignity and participation, responsibility and democracy (McQuail, 2003).

Damages to free expressions, in most cases, go together with other damages, especially the right to freedom of relationship and assemblage. Freedom of the press is possibly as significant to democracy as the freedom of speech with the present impetuous into the convolutions of the information age.

These two freedoms safeguard people while expressing their ideas and views and the capacity of news and information channels to offer residents with the information they require not only rule themselves but also to use their votes prudently. Certainly, the First Amendment also defends communications of far lesser significance but even so remains the core of the American democracy (Wells, 1997). This is a vital provision in the context of free expression.

Another notable example is that in the year 1974, Chief Justice Warren Burger, while writing for a supreme court, pointed out that the First Amendment (in the American context) provides for a free press but do not need a responsible press. This was part of the dismissal of Florida law by the Supreme Court, requiring newspapers to offer a precise response space to political candidates whom they had criticized on their newspaper pages.

This decision represented the view of individuals who believed that free expression should never be jeopardized even in the service demanding accountable usage of that freedom (Trager & Dickerson, 1999). Obviously, providing such degree of freedom to the media results into substantial distress in some sections of the society, and occasionally, to potentially challenging or even risky situations.

However, there is no difference from the dangers accepted by adopting democracy as preferred form of government. In a self-governing society, individuals have the final power to resolve and they hold that power even if large section of people considers their resolutions to be wrong. The remedy for wrong resolutions is to join the political fights and influence adequate number of people to make appropriate resolutions in the future (Nikoltchev, 2005).

Ethical considerations are also a threat to First Amendments on media freedom. However, ethics influences should never be allowed to wear down freedoms of expressions and press. The best situation will involve integrating both free expression and responsibility in exercising that freedom.

Even though human nature will continuously want to misuse guaranteed freedoms of expressions, it should be viewed as a cost of carrying out business in an environment where individuals value the right to express themselves freely, which must be protected.

Conventionally, ethics incorporates core values and principles that guide execution of activities in various settings. The values are crucial in ensuring the realization of accurate results and quality performance in the media. Media professions and activities have ethical standards that participating members are expected to conform to with diligence.

The standards are set to foster sanity and facilitate execution of activities with utmost decorum. As noted, ethical principles are critical in the context of free expression. That is, the guidelines advance sanity and the realization of factual results.

Ethical standards in the media settings require reporters to practice fairness, display subjective respect, exhibit confidentiality, and formulate structured methods of communication. This is to enhance social coherence and build a strong relationship between individuals and media houses. This is a critical provision in the context of free expression.

Basically, code of ethics is guiding principles and values that guide reporters in their daily activities and enhance their quests for free expression. The ethical standards are set with an aim to ensure acquisition of credible information from the respondents. For example, the acts of arrogance or lack of respect to respondents by media practitioners is detrimental when exercising free expression (Warburton, 2009).

This explains the reason for the development of viable ethical principles in the context of media ethics and law. Considerably, the identified code of ethics, include fairness, respect to human dignity and confidential management of information. Researchers should exercise equality ideals when engaging the participants.

The ethical codes of engagement are identified based on the medias judgment of their relevance in steering the planned activities. Reporters and media players should hold the capacity to foster social integration and mutual understanding that is significant in aiding the realization of reliable free expression. This ethical principle forms the most important section that is quite valuable to researchers.

This is to foster viable free expression that is characterized by absolute consistency. In this regard, the media should exercise fairness and justice when conducting the study. Respect to human dignity forms a formidable ethical value that media players must display. Respect for persons requires reporters to understand the subjective nature of respondents and their capacity (Gelber, 2011).

It entails operations without disregard to individuals decisions and protection from integrity risks. To attain effective and qualitative results in various studies, media players should respect human dignity. That is, they should embrace their decisions and protect their interest since everyone has a different opinion on any issues.

Respect earns trust and secures excellent interrelations between the researcher and the respondents. Contextually, the media players are expected to employ respect as foremost principle to foster the media ethics and law. Contextually, this will avert possible resistance from the potential respondents thus forming a critical provision in various aspects.

Conclusion

Free expression/speech refers to an individuals right to communicate his or her ideologies devoid of any legal, political, or social hindrance. This is a critical provision in the context of media ethics and law. The establishment of mass ethics and law has occurred to enhance the development of sovereign and eminence media as well as information content.

This is a crucial provision when considered critically. Free expression is a global prerequisite embraced in various countries. It is vital to notice that everyone has a right to self-expression; however, most countries have not adopted this provision comprehensively. Globally, various countries have tried to adopt the provisions of freedom of speech.

Nevertheless, the degree of implementation varies considerably due to differences in constitutional provisions, vast impunity, and governments commitment in ensuring that citizens attain the needed freedom of speech.

Principally, code of ethics is guiding principles and values that guide reporters in their daily activities and enhance their quests for free expression. The ethical standards are set with an aim to ensure acquisition of credible information from the respondents. This is a critical provision in the context of free expression.

References

Anokari, N. (2004). Mass media law and ethics: Ethics and law for journalists. Port Harcourt [Nigeria: Ano Publications Co.

Cohen-Almagor, R. (2001). Speech, media and ethics: The limits of free expression: critical studies on free expression, freedom of the press and the publics right to know. Basingstoke: Palgrave.

Dennis, E. (1989). Media freedom and accountability. New York u.a: Greenwood Press.

Freedomhouse (2012). Free expression. Web.

Gelber, K. (2011). Political Culture, Flag Use and Freedom of Speech. Political Studies. 60(1): 163179.

Karlekar, K. (2008). Freedom of the Press 2007: A Global Survey of Media Independence. New York, NY: Freedom House.

Kersch, K. (2003). Freedom of Speech: Rights and Liberties under the Law. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.

Laanoi, S. (2009). The Saudi Arabia Media Act 2007. Web.

Martinez, E. (2012).Field Theory, Cultural Capital, and the First Amendment: Two Paradoxes in the Legitimation of News. Law & Social Inquiry. 37(1): 5888.

McQuail, D. (2003). Media accountability and freedom of publication. Oxford [u.a.: Oxford Univ. Press.

Nikoltchev, S. (2005). Political debate and the role of the media: The fragility of free speech. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publ.

Puddington, A. (2008). Freedom in the World 2008: The Annual Survey of Political Rights & Civil Liberties. New York, NY: Freedom House.

Trager, R & Dickerson, L. (1999). Free expression in the 21st century. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Pine Forge Press.

Warburton, N. (2009). Free Speech: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Wells, A. (1997). Mass media & society. Greenwich, Conn. [u.a.: Ablex Publ.

Yalof, A. & Dautrich, K. (2002). The First Amendment and the media in the court of public opinion. Cambridge U.K: Cambridge University Press.

Scientific experimentation is the source of significant discoveries that can be attributed to modern technological advancement. Ethical consideration was an important aspect to scientific work, especially when it involved potentially harmful procedures such as testing the outcome on human beings or any other animals.

Nicholson and Carlisle are the scientists of 19^th century, who are responsible for discovery of electrolysis while Ken Warwick is a modern day scientist responsible for creating cyborg that integrates human and artificial properties.

Both scientists tested the outcomes of their scientific work on themselves and sometimes on close relatives. Based on the form of self experimentation, there are no significant ethical differences between the two categories of scientific work.

Nicholson and Carlisle developed a voltaic cell using salt solution, zinc and copper as electrodes and generated a continuous stream of electric current similar to that which had been emitted by mechanical generators (Calvert, 2002). The current was discovered to cause electric shock when tested on the person.

In this case, these two researchers tested the effects of the current on their sensory receptors leading to inference that electric current causes sensory change to all receptors except olfactory cells responsible for smell. They later used the same knowledge to develop electrolytic cell that was used to split water into constituent elements: hydrogen and oxygen (Calvert, 2002).

Kevin Warwick is the professor of computer technology who has performed experimentation to test how the human body would integrate computerized information and how the information would affect response to the environment (Warwick, 2002).

In the first experiment, a silicon chip was surgically inserted above his wrist joint and was used to monitor movement and operate items without necessarily using fingers (Warwick, 2002). In cyborg2.0, a nerve tube was connected to his median nerve fiber and used to transmit nerve impulse to external objects such as an electric wheelchair.

In another procedure, a similar nerve tube was connected to his wife Elina and used to monitor how thoughts and emotions could be transmitted form one person to another through electronic means, such as internet (Warwick, 2002).

In both experiments, results are tested on self-exposing of the researcher to possible risks, which could include death. Informed consent without coercion is a major ethical consideration for any science based on medicine experiment (Gorski, 2011). The volunteers have the right to accurate information of the risk they are taking and how it is going to be managed and fill consent forms.

In this case, the research has access to optimal information on their experiment projects, hence their consent is based on rational evaluation of the possible risks. False or deluded information is unethical and there is no justification even if the outcomes are thought to be harmless (Gorski, 2011).

When Nicholson and Carlisle agreed to test the electric current on their senses, they were already aware of the shock effect and that it could potentially damage effectiveness of the organs thereafter (Calvert, 2002).

In a similar way, Ken Warwick is an informed academic well-aware of the possibility of the body rejecting to recognize foreign objects, such as the tube (Warwick, 2002). He had taken rational thinking into the possibility of the brain failure to integrate sensory data from unfamiliar sensory receptor.

Ethics requires that the decision is based on rational reasons and leads to reasonable results, and the volunteer should have the competence to make that decision (Gorski, 2011). Disclosure of information and comprehension of the information are necessary alternatives.

Participation should be voluntary and not controlled on induced circumstances. It is unethical to target vulnerable group, such as persons with disabilities, prisoners or minority groups, based on racial consideration (Gorski, 2011).

Utilitarian ethical theories support the fact that there is only one principle in ethics, which is the matter of utility. The outcome should produce optimal balance for value and disvalue for all people affected. Nicholson and Carlisles work has led to discoveries that are currently developed to generate electric energy under minimal pressure, such as the case of dry cells and acid accumulators (Calvert, 2002).

This energy is clean and does not lead to air pollution as indicated by the absence of effected on the olfactory cells. There is increased awareness about the green migration and electric energy is an element to this phenomenon. Though the researchers had taken a risk on self-experimentation, the outcome resulted in useful information in electrochemistry, therefore, making their practice ethical (Gorski, 2011).

On the other side, Warwicks self-experimentations may attract debate on the ethical value since they involve greater risk of introducing foreign nonliving objects into the body through surgical operation (Warwick, 2002).

According to this ethical theory, the end justifies the means and promotes the greatest good for the majority involved (Gorski, 2011). For anything to be ethical, it should lead to the most useful outcomes. The fact that Warwicks experiment was successful indicated that it was possible to transmit neural information from one part of the body to external objects (Warwick, 2002).

This can be developed to improve mobility for people with disabilities, especially in the cases of amputation, but only for those who have residual sensation on other parts of the body.

The external nerve may be incorporated in the parenthesis for close to normal operation. The risk involved in cyborg2.0 experiment is huge, but the outcome has potential of benefiting majority, therefore, it has good ethical boundaries (Gorski, 2011).

In conclusion, it is fair to state that there are no significant ethical differences in the two sets of self-experiments. Informed consent and utilitarian ethical consideration were implemented. Technical differences exist since there procedures have various location with Nicholson and his partner limiting their test to external organs while Warwick has involved test that monitors internal organs, especially the nervous system.

References

Calvert, J. B (2002) Electrochemistry. Web.

Gorski, D. (2011) Ethics in Human Experimentation in Science- based Medicine. Science- Based Medicine. Web.

Warwick, K. (2002) The Next True Step Towards True Cyborgs? The University of Reading. Web.

Introduction

Technological advancement has increased the usage of computer applications. Computers are increasingly being used to perform various tasks. The increase in usage of computers, as a consequence, has increased the demand for software development. Many software development companies and individuals have come up. Unlike in the past where software development was a reserve of a few, today there are many software developers all over the world. The availability of many software developers has consequently changed the way computer applications are developed. Many software development companies are increasingly using offshore software development. Software development outsourcing is on the increase with many small-scale software development companies coming up in such countries as India. Although viewed as a means of cutting the cost of software development, offshore outsourcing of IT projects can raise various ethical issues. The paper reviews ethical issues in international software development and tries to propose possible solutions.

Growth in outsourcing Practice

Outsourcing has been on the increase in the recent past. Technological advancement especially in information technology has contributed to the increase. Many industries such as accounting, legal, writing, and software development have benefitted from outsourcing. Through outsourcing, organizations can access various services without having to employ permanent individuals to offer the services (Gold, 2004, p. 17). The major motivation for outsourcing has been cutting costs. Many organizations have been motivated by the amount of money they can save to outsource some services. Apart from cost-cutting, organizations are motivated to engage in outsourcing by the ability to access various services that they require.

Outsourcing in Software development

There has been an increase in offshore software development in the recent past. An increase in software development outsourcing is evidenced by the increase in IT Business Process Outsourcing companies. IT BPOs companies have been on the increase in almost all parts of the world. IT services outsourcing is an important economic activity in such countries as India. Offshore software development has been motivated by various benefits. The major motivation for software development outsourcing has been the ability to reduce the cost of IT projects. Apart from cost, the scarcity of professionals has been motivating organizations to opt for outsourcing software development. IT projects are usually involved and require a long duration of time to complete. Organizations have been using software development outsourcing companies to reduce the duration of time required for software development. Despite the various benefits of software development, there are various ethical issues that are involved. Some ethical issues constitute ethical issues affecting the outsourcing industry in general. Other ethical issues evolve from the process of software development; ability to meet software objectives, compromise on quality, use of illegal software, data privacy, and intellectual property rights.

Ethical Issues in Offshore Software development

Software development has emerged to be an important activity in modern times. Computer applications are being used in the provision of many services and the performance of very important tasks. Computer applications are used in organizations to manage the operation, manage data, and other tasks. Computer systems are also used in managing sensitive data or running sensitive operations such as financial, security, and health system (Sahay, Nicholson & Krissna, 2003, p. 79). Because of the importance of computer systems, care is required in developing IT Projects. Some IT projects however fail. The main reasons for failure include the inability to meet project objectives, bad planning, technological challenge, poor project management, and incompetence of developers (Nindel-Edwards, 2008, p. 6). The major cause of failure, however, is when the objectives of a project are not well specified at the beginning of a project. Poorly specified objectives can be led to the development of software that does not serve the intended objectives, leading to a waste of resources and time.

Software development is usually an involving task that requires considerable time and effort. Designing and developing an IT project require competence and dedication from the software development team. The high demand for software applications has led to an increase in the number of software development outsourcing companies. The companies receive orders for the development of either a whole IT project or the development of some modules to a project. The outsourcing companies are usually under pressure to deliver products within short time frames.

Apart from the time frame, outsourcing companies are under pressure to keep software development cost down for them to remain profitable. Under this pressure, outsourcing companies are likely to lower the quality of service and be involved in unethical practices.

Quality

Quality is an important factor in software development. IT projects are expected to be of high quality. The software should be able to perform its intended functions. The quality of an IT project is depended on the amount of dedication from developers. The developers must dedicate enough time to IT projects for them to be able to come up with an application that performs as intended. To produce quality services developers must have enough time to understand project specifications and be able to plan on how to achieve the objectives. The developers need to understand what their applications are supposed to perform before starting their project (Nindel-Edwards, 2008, p. 8). This means that the project development cycle has to be adhered to in order to produce quality work. This, however, is not always followed in offshore software development.

Offshore software development can lead to lowering of quality. Outsourcing software developing companies are under pressure to deliver services within a short time frame. Besides, most outsourcing firms are tempted to pick jobs that are beyond their capacity to deliver. Time limit tempts offshore software developers to lower quality. The companies are more concerned with meeting strict deadlines other than ensuring quality. Failure to dedicate enough time to an IT project can have various implications. It can lead to programs that do not meet project specifications and thus fail to perform intended. Offshore software development may lead to some security issues being comprised. Failure to dedicate enough time and resources to security faults being left in an application. In addition, some offshore software developers fail to give testing and debugging the importance that they require. Production of software that is not adequately tested may compromise software users and lead to high losses.

Substandard projects can compromise important aspects of an organization. Poor programs would imply that organizations would not be able to accomplish their intended objectives. Substandard projects would also compromise the quality of services provided by an organization. Failure of a substandard program may have a very high pecuniary effect on an organization especially when it affects an organizations customers. Bugs in an IT project can lead to highly negative implications for an organization (Nindel-Edwards, 2008, p. 7). Errors can lead to the loss of sensitive data to a company. Failures resulting from errors can lead to severe negative effects especially when an application is used in sensitive areas such as in health care.

Use of Illegal Software

Offshore project development tempts developers to use unauthorized software in their development. Offshore software developers are involved in the development of software under various platforms (Gold, 2004, p. 61). Because of the strict timetable and need to reduce cost, some software developing outsourcing companies can be tempted to use pirated software or fail to comply with licensing requirements. Some offshore software developers are individuals with low resource capacity. Thus, they are more likely to give in to using inauthentic software.

Use of Reverse Engineering Technology

Pressure to deliver IT projects within a short duration of time temp offshore software developers to use reverse technology. This involves decompiling a software application to access source code (Kehal & Singh, 2006, p. 67). Reverse engineering brings about ethical issues on infringement copyright. Offshore software developers are tempted to use this technology in order to meet deadlines of avoiding tasks involved in developing software from scratch. Reverse technology can lead an organization to legal battle leading to loss of a lot of money through litigations.

Professional Competence and Integrity

Software development outsourcing companies and individuals have been increasing at a high rate. Unlike in conventional software development companies, there is less control of individuals involved in outsourcing software development. Because of the high demand for outsourcing services and high returns from the services, some individuals can be tempted to be involved in software development d despite not having the required qualifications. There is no clear way of ensuring the professional competence and integrity of the developers. Professionally incompetent developers can compromise the quality and other important aspects of a computer application. Incompetent developers can develop a substandard application that can not only fail to perform as required by also compromise security. Integrity is an important requirement for a software developer. Unprofessional developers may fail to uphold a high standard of integrity leading to high negative implications (Gold, 2004, p. 67-9).

Data Privacy

Data security is an important consideration in IT projects. Some applications are used to perform very sensitive tasks in an organization. In project development, developers are exposed to very important information to an organization. Some of the information, if leaked to a third party, can have very bad implications on an organization (Rashid, 2009, p. 21). Software developers are expected to keep any information on an organization or application secret. They are not expected to unnecessarily share information on their project and are supposed to ensure that the security of an organization or computer system is guaranteed. Offshore software development can open doors for security threats. Some offshore developers may fail to guarantee security because of incompetence, hurry, or malicious motives.

Poor working environment

The poor working environment is an important ethical consideration when choosing an outsourcing company. Some outsourcing companies use exploitative human resource practices in their service. Employees work for long hours with little returns.

As the main motivation for outsourcing is to cut costs, many outsourcing companies are set up in places where there is a low cost of labor (Flatworld, 2010, par. 5). As a consequence, outsourcing companies are tempted to offer low wages for services that they would have paid highly in other places.

A solution to Ethical Issues in Offshore Software Development

Offshore software development is a major sub-industry in the IT industry. Software development outsourcing can help to satisfy the high demand for software. Ethical issues in international software development, however, are a threat to the growing industry. Ethical practice in software development can have very severe effects. Errors in applications such as health systems can even be a threat to life. To overcome the ethical issues, there is a need for regulation on software development outsourcing.

International software development has been developing at a high rate. Initially, India was the main country that was mainly involved in software development outsourcing. Today, many countries are involved in software development outsourcing. Many software development outsourcing companies are small and cannot able to regulate themselves. In some cases, individuals are involved in development making it hard to ensure ethical practice.

Ensuring ethical practice should be viewed as a collective duty by all stakeholders in the IT industry. There should be an international framework to regulate software development outsourcing. Although some countries such as India have developed frameworks to ensure ethical practice on outsourcing software development, many other countries do not have any framework. International regulation is the only possible way of ensuring ethical practice in every part of the world. The international regulation could be operated in form of certification.

Software development outsourcing companies that meet set international ethical criteria would be certified.

Certification will make it easier for an organization to identify ethical outsourcing companies to outsource their It projects.

Conclusion

International software development has become very important in the IT industry. Software developers in modern IT projects come from various countries with different cultural backgrounds. Software development outsourcing has especially become an important option for IT projects. Software development outsourcing help in cutting the cost of IT projects. Although international software development has various benefits it raises various ethical issues. Some ethical issues include lowering quality, use of illegal software, reverse engineering, and employees exploitation. To overcome these ethical challenges, it is important to have international regulations. International regulation in form of certification can ensure high-quality outsourcing products and contribute to growth in the IT industry.

Reference List

Flatworld. 2010. Ethics of Outsourcing. Web.

Gold, T. 2004. Outsourcing software development offshore: making it work. CRC Press, London.

Kehal, H. & Singh, V. 2006. Outsourcing and offshoring in the 21st century: a socio-economic perspective. Idea Group Inc, New Delhi.

Nindel-Edwards, J. 2008. Ethical Issues in the Software Quality Assurance Function. Communications of the IIMA. Vol 8. No1.

Rashid, A. 2009. Software Engineering Ethics in a Digital World. Computer. Vol. 42 No.6 pp. 34-41

Sahay, S., Nicholson, B. & Krissna, S. 2003. Global IT outsourcing: software development across borders. Cambridge University Press, New York.

Kevin Warwick is a cybernetics researcher as well as professor. He is one of the best specialists in this field. He is a professor of cybernetics at the University of Readings, United Kingdom (England). The famous lecturer has been praised for the role he has played in studies related to robotics and the relationship between computer systems and the nervous system in man.

Professor Warwick reportedly instigated the self-experimented pioneer experiments. His experiments entailed linking his nervous system directly to a computer with an aim of assessing the latest technology for probable use with the disabled. His research was described as ground breaking (Warwick, 2002).

The researcher, through his ground breaking set of experiments, was the first cyborg (short form for cybernetic organism). A cybernetic organism means having organic and artificial components, or a human who has some physiological processes controlled or aided by electronic or mechanical devices.

Cyborg takes place when humans literally meet with machines (Warwick, 2002). The professor carried out various studies on himself. One such study involved fixing 100 arrays of electrodes into the nerve fibers of his left hand. The implant was able to bring about artificial sensation through the stimulation of individual electrodes within the array (Warwick, 2002).

Nicholson and Carlisle carried out self-experimentation with electrical apparatus using copper or silver plates, tin or zinc plates, and moisture discs/pieces of card leather.

The self-experimentation entailed testing electrical flow by completing the circuit with different parts of the body including fingers, the whole hand, shoulders, a wound, inserting in ears. These self-experimentation tested electric continuity and its flow with various body parts completing the circuit.

Through the self-experiment, Nicholson and Carlisle showed that the set apparatus carried the strongest electric effect on broken skin or wounds. By inserting the set apparatus in the ears, it demonstrated a shock in the brain. The researchers show the effects of electricity on human body its conductivity thereof.

Apart from the fact that in proving electric conductivity and shock effect thereof in the human body, the self-experiments indicate what merely happens at different levels, and when using different body parts for tests.

Ethically and scientifically speaking, the experiments in project Cyborg have a number of similarities with the self-experiments by William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle. First, the objectives of both experiments seem to be to fulfill some form of curiosity rather than to solve a scientific problem.

Both experiments do not have a clear problem statement that might have driven the professor, Nicholson and Carlisle to carry out the self-experimentations.

The experiments appear as though they are both geared towards seeing what happens when the human nervous system is linked directly to a computer and what happens when different body parts are used to complete an electric circuit respectively. They are both similarly unethical and have equally raised ethical issues regarding the objective of them both.

Secondly, both of the self-experimentations are similar, scientifically and ethically speaking, since they both do not respect the set code of ethics for research. With the research code of ethics, it is considered unacceptable to use other humans or self for experimentation purposes. The two experiments by Warwick and Nicholson and Carlisle use humans and self to perform the tests.

Their willingness to undertake the self-experiments could be due to their keenness to take any route so as to make certain observations for instance Warwicks observation about artificial sensation on his hand and Nicholsons and Carlisles observations of electric shock on various human body parts, even if it requires them to perform the experiments on themselves (Nicholson, 1800).

Finally, the two self-experimentations discussed are similar, ethically speaking. Both experiments expose the human being experimented on, to enormous dangers yet carry little or no benefits to humans.

In view of the self-experimentations above, self-experimentation should be discouraged since they are not adequate scientifically for lack of proper control and subjects who are sufficient to produce results that are meaningful. Although self experiments on humans are seen as really necessary and of great benefit to the human race, the process has been highly criticized (Nicholson, 1800).

Some cases of self-experimentation are usually inclined towards getting the best possible solution to a medical problem or any other form of stated problem. Other cases are done for ethical reasons and at other times, out of probable pure foolhardiness.

Some experiments done on oneself may not occur with an aim of coming up with any answers or solutions, but for exploration. The major part of Professor Warwicks cases appear to be a demonstration to the non-medical academics and the public that the kind of technology he is dealing with is not some scientific dream or fiction, but rather an issue that truly exists.

Nicholsons and Carlisles self-experiments also appear to bend towards more exploration rather than focus on giving solutions to the various identified problems. The two self-experimentations do not bear any significant differences in terms of ethics.

References

Nicholson, W. (1800). Account of the new electrical or galvanic apparatus of Sig. Alex. Volta, and experiments performed with the same.Nicholsons Journal of Natural Philosophy, 4: 179187.

Warwick, K. (2002). I,cyborg. London: Century Press.

Virtue ethics

Virtue ethics is important for engineering the engineered people because it is concerned with the moral sense and not on the market forces that an engineer need in order to be good. Traditional engineering was linked to political and social world, which were tied by the rules of the pharaohs and kings that were non-democratic and repressive.

The need of the engineered persons to be what they wanted was largely determined by the powers the engineered individuals would have after the process. Although this is still the case today, the contemporary engineers have the option of changing jobs based on dissatisfaction of the current job (Moriarty, 2001).

This option was not available for traditional engineers as engineering by then was largely implicit, which made it lack distinction and clarity.

The engineering could not be put under public interest for ethical scrutiny but it was driven by intuition, design experience and estimates that were rough. There used to emerge ethical concerns about the behaviour and character of the engineers at those times. Such engineers were compared with supervisors with sole responsibilities to oversee construction projects (Moriarty, 2001).

For example, slaves could build the pyramids having been engineered by the engineers. However, little is known about the engineers of the ancient times though some of them were of high character. In the traditional engineering enterprise, when analysis is done between the engineer, engineered individuals and the engineering process, the engineer used to predominate (Moriarty, 2001).

The issue of character of engineers should therefore be regarded with importance. Successful engineers should be orderly, good disciplined and predictable in their methods of solving problems. They should also be even-tempered and abiding to the laws (Moriarty, 2001).

Conceptual ethics

Conceptual ethics in the modern era is characterized by procedures, means and methods that are explicit. Renaissance brought about conceptual ethics and proceeded to contemporary times with a gradual change of engineering enterprise into a unique practice, which led to the development of methodology that was clear and distinct (Moriarty, 2001).

Modernist methods were exhibited in practicing of engineering where the engineered individual, engineer and the concept of engineering was able to stand out. The characteristics and features of the process were regarded with importance than the engineers character (Moriarty, 2001).

The act gained more value than the actor did. For example, in the recent times of computer technology the actor seems gradually to disappear. Analysis of the modern engineering indicates that appearance and reality are not always the same. The product, personality, the engineered person and the engineer existed in the background as the whole process tended to the centre stage (Moriarty, 2001).

Modern engineering is a contribution of Rene Descartes, Leonardo da Vinci and Francis Bacon. For example, Da Vinci incorporated science in various ways to help in engineering projects. Leonardo advocated the importance of linking practice and theory in order for the humankind to benefit (Moriarty, 2001).

The methods of Descartes were also largely embraced by the modern engineering. The abstraction notion, dissection and reconstruction from Descartes made the modern engineering explicit (Moriarty, 2001).

Modern methodologies are becoming increasingly fruitful making engineering to be an applied design and science. For example, dissection and abstraction procedures provide basic component in analyzing engineering processes while in synthesis the basics are control and reconstruction (Moriarty, 2001).

Science was brought closer to modernist engineering through analysis procedures that use proliferation. Coherence in engineering resulted from the link between know-what and knowledge with the practice and theory (Moriarty, 2001).

Conceptual engineering linked with modernist engineering in a natural way because both were grounded in a theoretical and general scientific mind-set, which was a characteristic of the worldview of the modernist.

Material ethics

A possible scenario is used to explain about material ethics where all the household goods are networked in such a way that the toaster signals the fridge. The fridge then has bagels containers that sense when the bagels are not there and relay the information to an agent in the internet dealing with shopping list and expenditure accounts in order to balance them (Moriarty, 2001).

This disengages the owner of the house from many commitments, which is the concern of material ethics and focal engineering. Focal engineering is concerned with the good while material ethics aim at the closeness of the good (Moriarty, 2001).

The concern of the material ethics is the material product that results from a system of engineering process, structure and different manifestation of system or network on how the system can serve the good. This helps to explain how engineered products can be used in focal practices. Something focal has the ability to enrich earthly sojourn (Moriarty, 2001).

These habits from the mind and heart bring unity and sense of focus in our lives towards a good society. Engineered products have the ability to orient lives away or towards good (Moriarty, 2001).

For example, when we watch television, we can be inspired to have good or bad character depending on the values of the programs we are watching. Therefore, material ethics examine the moral worth among the engineered to determine the level of engagement (Moriarty, 2001).

Reference

Moriarty, G. (2001). Three kinds of ethics. Fall: IEEE Technology and Society Magazine.