Category: Ethics

Introduction

Plagiarism is the practice of trying to pass off the words or ideas of someone else as your own. Thanks to the growth of the web, coupled with the explosion of electronic content, one can easily cut and paste the contents of an academic essay and other documents with little regard for quotation marks or even proper citation (Reynolds 2009, p. 201). The wide prevalence of online paper mills means that users can now easily download entire term papers. Several sites give the warning that their services are only meant for research purposes but not many users heed this warning. Some instructors can detect plagiarism on term papers submitted by students by familiarizing themselves with the writing style, vocabulary, and grammar of students. However, this can be a slow and inefficient process, especially when dealing with hundreds of term papers at a time. Thus, plagiarism detection systems become useful. These systems enable teachers, law firms, publishers, and corporations to match the text in various documents in a bid to identify possible plagiarism (Reynolrds, 2009, p. 211). Nonetheless, the submission of students term papers to the Turnitin system for plagiarism detection, along with retention of the same in the archives of the Turnitin database for use in comparing term papers submitted in the future remains a controversial ethical issue.

Plagiarism detection systems

Plagiarism detection systems work by comparing the materials submitted against several databases containing electronic content. Some of these databases include over 5 billion pages of electronic content that the public can access on the internet. We also have numerous pages of published works in electronic form, including magazines, journals, newspapers, and even electronic books. Papers that have previously been submitted by participating institutions for plagiarism detection services also form part of the database. Several plagiarism detection software and services are available in the market but Turnitin is the most popular and widely utilized.

The software has been in the market since 1999 and more than 5,000 academic institutions across the globe use it. Although there is the likelihood that the use of Turnitin service could somewhat infringe on the copyright laws of a student over the essay submitted, nonetheless, the use of the work of a student by Turnitin is still in compliance with the copyright and privacy laws in Australia. Copyright infringement occurs when iParadigms, the firm that owns the Turnitin product, accesses the archived papers of students without seeking their consent first while examining the originality of newly submitted term papers. On one occasion, the firm was sued by four high school students on grounds that it used its archived papers without first seeking the consent of the students. However, according to the ruling of both the court of appeal and a district court, the use of student papers to facilitate the detection of plagiarism is fair and as such, it does not constitute a copyright infringement. On the other hand, although the use of plagiarism detection software is a legal practice, the question of whether this is an ethical act or not, is still debatable.

Ethical issues of submitting student assignments for plagiarism detection

It is important to note that doing a certain activity such as the use of plagiarism detection systems could be legal, but this does not mean that it is an ethical practice. This is because all of us are advised to obey the law lest we are punished. On the other hand, the issue of ethics should be addressed from an individual point of view. For example, several students or institutions would not be comfortable with the use of the software detection systems and instead opt for a system that teaches the culprits the need to avoid plagiarism so that it may not even become necessary to detect the vice. A good example here is the case of a student at McGill University who declined to submit his work for plagiarism detection using the Turnitin service. The student in was opposed to the university policy that required students to submit their work through Turnitin for plagiarism detection, and he challenged the policy with success (Brown 2004; Churchill 2004). Following this incident, we have had mixed reactions from faculty members and students alike regarding the use of the software.

There should be a concerted effort to create awareness amongst the students and faculty members on the need to pursue academic integrity. Also, the faculty members should be pursuing other options to deter plagiarism, other than the use of plagiarism detection software. The key stakeholders at the university, including the administrative staff, teaching staff, student advocacy groups, and librarians should all be committed to promoting academic integrity among the students. Lampert (2004) aptly notes that in the same way that handling academic offenses is usually shared between administrators, the faculty, librarians, and student service officers, in the same way, they should also share the responsibility of educating the student on how to use information ethically.

Ethical issues of retaining papers submitted to Turnitin for plagiarism detection

We also need to question if the practice of Turnitin retaining papers submitted by students for subsequent analysis is ethical. Once a student has submitted his/her paper to Turnitin to check for possible plagiarism, such past papers are retained to act as reference material for checking papers sent in the future. In this case, the students do not derive any commercial advantage from this activity, even as they still retain the copyright to their works (Blake Dawson Waldron, 2004).

According to the ACS code of professional conduct and professional practice, a professional in the IT sector must always observe integrity and honesty in all their professional actions and decisions (Australian Computer Society 2005). While undertaking their professional duties, there are times when iParadigms, the owners of Turnitin may be tempted to deceive their clients and benefit in some way. Nonetheless, the firm should be aware that such gains are only short-term and in the long run, the companys image shall be dented by such actions. The issue of confidentiality is also important because IT professionals should desist from disclosing any information that might have been acquired while undertaking their professional work. The only exception is when consent has been sought from the client. In the case of Turnitin, the essays and term papers submitted by customers are usually retained by the company for use in checking plagiarism in papers submitted in the future by other customers.

The idea of retaining such papers and using them has elicited a heated debate amongst students who are opposed to this move. To them, Turnitin uses their work for commercial purposes and they do not benefit in any way from the ensuing financial gain. In addition, the institutions of higher learning shall have enlisted the services of Turnitin at a fee so that the students can then submit the paper to check for plagiarism. It appears as though Turnitin is benefiting from both the institutions and the students as well, and this is unethical. To clear the doubt of a student, he/she may be informed in advance that indeed their submitted work shall undergo the process of plagiarism detection and that the system would retain copies of the works submitted so that they may be used as source material while conducting plagiarism detection services in the future.

From a legal perceptive, such a practice could be okay but from an ethical point of view, the practice could elicit a heated debate (Johnson, 2011). To start with, we have students and faculty members who are opposed to the use of plagiarism detection systems. In the same way, some students would be consumed with guilt knowing that their work submitted to Turnitin is being used as reference material to check for plagiarism. Not only is the retention of a students essay an infringement of copyright, but because the company also benefits commercially when the previous papers stored in their database is used as a reference document to check for plagiarism, the fact that submitting a paper with the full knowledge of what to expect is a source of personal guilt, and hence unethical.

Conclusion

The use of plagiarism detection systems by institutions of higher learning has been a controversial activity. On the one hand, there are those students and faculty members who support the practice. On the other hand, there is a smaller group of students and faculty members who are opposed to the use of plagiarism detection software. The legal fraternity has argued that there is nothing wrong with retaining the term paper of a student as a point of reference in detecting possible plagiarism in papers submitted by students in the future. However, we need to appreciate the fact that what is legal may not necessarily be ethical. Some students are consumed by guilt when they knowingly submit their term papers to Turnitin and have such papers archived for later use. Even though they presumably retain the copyright to their work, the fact that their work is used for commercial purposes is a cause for concern to them.

Reference List

Australian Computer Society., 2005. ACS code of professional conduct and professional practice. Web.

Blake Dawson Waldron., 2004. Australian Legal Document. Web.

Brown, L., 2004. Toronto teen wins battle against McGill University over plagiarismdetector. Canadian Press Newswire, Web.

Churchill, L., 2004. Turnitin.com debated. McGill Daily. Web.

Johnson, C. E., 2011. Meeting the Ethical Challenges of Leadership: Casting Light Or Shadow. London: Sage.

Lampert, L. D., 2004. Integrating discipline-based anti-plagiarism instruction into the information literacy curriculum. Reference Services Review, Vol. 32, No. 4, pp. 347-355.

Reynolds, G., 2009, Ethics in Information Technology. Stamford, Mass: Cengage Learning.

The rapid development of information technologies has offered many opportunities to individuals, businesses, and public organizations. However, it has also given rise to many problems such as Internet fraud, privacy violation or data theft.

This report is aimed at discussing the ethical, social, and legal issues related to the use of information systems. In most cases, they emerge when a persons right to privacy is disregarded. The problems identified in this paper require close attention of managers and legislators who must make sure that people know how their personal information can be collected, stored or shared.

Overall, the term information system can be defined as a combination of technologies, software solutions, and procedures that are needed for the collection, storage, and transfer of data (Prakken 38). At first, it is necessary to examine moral aspect of these tools. As a rule, ethical issues arise when businesses or organization use private data without the consent of customers or users. For example, one can refer to the activities of data brokers or organizations that collect information and sell it businesses (Dempsey 250).

Very often, this information can be collected with the help of cookies or data mining techniques that can throw light on peoples interests or values (Dempsey 250). Yet, these organizations do not receive peoples informed consent and customers do know much about their activities. This behavior violates the principles of public or interpersonal relations, established in the community. Moreover, the problem of consent is closely related to the work of medical institutions.

These organizations have to collect, store and share records about patients health (Goodman 59). To a great extent, these activities ensure the effective work of healthcare organizations (Goodman 59). The problem is that this information is very confidential and people do not want it to be accessible to others. It is probable that these records can be made public, and an individual may be able to address this risk. So, the use of information systems can violate a persons rights without his/her consent.

Additionally, it is important to remember about social issues that can be explained by some widespread changes in peoples behavior and their attitude toward such concepts as privacy and confidentiality. First of all, the development of information systems has enabled people to learn more about one another (Stair and Reynolds 392).

For instance, such social networks as Facebook, MySpace, or Twitter enable users to post information about themselves, and it should be available only to their friends or relatives (Stair and Reynolds 392). Nevertheless, this information can be easily used against them. For instance, their postings can be considered by law-enforcement agencies in order to detect people who can pose a threat to the society. This is one of the problems that should not be overlooked.

Similarly, it can be used by people who may want to obtain users emails, phone numbers, addresses, and sometimes even credit card information. Therefore, it is possible to say that information systems have become public, and this situation can imperil the security of peoples data.

It is also important to remember about legal problems that are closely related to the information systems. This issue is particularly important to many businesses that should defend their data from potential competitors (Calder & Watkins 316). This is one of the reasons why these organizations face legal issues and disputes. These problems occur in those cases, companies cannot secure of their patents, the information about their clients, trademarks, inventions or other forms of intellectual property (Calder & Watkins 316).

It should be noted that many businesses depend on the security of their intellectual property, and in some cases, they have to pursue those individuals who could use their intellectual property without the official permission of the company (Calder & Watkins 316). These legal problems can be very expensive and time-consuming for many organizations.

Thus, one can argue that private companies and public organizations should pay close attention to the security of their information systems that should be protected from intruders. The same problems are encountered by individuals who have to make sure that their confidential information is properly protected. In many cases, they have to create a system of passwords that prevent unauthorized access to their information. Provided no precautions are taken, a great number of people can be affected.

On the whole, these examples suggest that information systems give rise to a variety of ethical, social, and legal problems relevant to businesses, governmental organizations, and separate individuals. As a rule, they occur in those situations when a persons confidential information is used by other parties without his/her explicit agreement.

These issues should be addressed by policy-makers, legislators, and the leaders of businesses or public organizations. The most important task is to make sure that the users of information systems should know how their confidential data can be used by third parties. This is the main argument that can be advanced.

Works Cited

Calder, Alan, and S. Watkins. IT Governance: An International Guide to Data Security, New York: Kogan Page Publishers, 2012. Print.

Dempsey, John. Introduction to Private Security, New York: Cengage Learning, 2007. Print.

Goodman, Kenneth. Ethics, information technology, and public health: new challenges for the clinician-patient relationship. Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 38. 1 (2010): 58-63. Print.

Prakken, Ben. Information, Organization and Information Systems Design: An Integrated Approach to Information Problems, New York: Springer, 2000. Print.

Stair, Ralph, and G. Reynolds. Fundamentals of Information Systems. Boston: Cengage Learning, 2011. Print.

Abstract

Smartphones are substantially changing almost all facets of modern life. The use of modern cellphones to record the activities of unknowing subjects covertly is examined in this case studys discussion of moral and ethical dilemmas. This instance demonstrates how regular smartphones have been used maliciously to obtain private data. Moreover, it discusses why restrictions should be placed on teens and childrens smartphonesfocusing on issues such as smartphones adversely affecting their social connectivity. Finally, this case study demonstrates how challenging it is to address the cognitive issue with smartphones because they constantly divert users attention even when not in use.

Ethical Issues that are Related to the Usage of Smartphones

The remarkable rise of smartphones and the rapid adoption of mobile computing are two of the most important developments in contemporary information and communication technology (ICTs). The mobile phone has evolved as a communication device with an endless list of features, such as a navigation system, a personal communications manager, and a gaming console. Because of these aspects, smartphones constitute an excellent topic for discussions on ethics. The ethical issues surrounding smartphones touch on several core concepts and principles.

The ramifications of the smartphones encroachment into every sphere of public and private life raise issues that merit discussion in ethics. The likelihood of mobile phone ringing in any given circumstance, and its ability to impede solitude or focus, have drawn attention to the socially acceptable use thresholds in various public and private locations (Akopova, 2020). This issue brings up more fundamental questions of decency and social propriety. A related and extensively discussed topic is the phenomenon of absent presence, which describes people using phones (Samal, 2019). At the same time, they are socially and physically present in another location but have their attention and focus elsewhere. It is a bigger problem, namely the potential emergence of a culture of constant communication distraction, which would limit peoples access to uninterrupted thinking time at work, at home, and school. It has been asserted that peoples preoccupation with digital relationships causes them to disregard individuals in their immediate social environment.

Specific technical flaws in smartphones present several security concerns. The technological characteristics and very nature of wireless radio transmissions make smartphone communication data susceptible to eavesdropping (Truong et al., 2019). The mobile communications network has rather inadequate default encryption settings for transmitted data. Malware spread through unsecured applications, or software updates is particularly dangerous to smartphones. Unauthorized access via such malware can be used to read confidential information. The fact is that cell phones make it more challenging to preserve your privacy because phone companies keep your data for at least two years (Samal, 2019). If necessary, authorities can access the data stored on your smartphone. Mobile carriers receive millions of subpoenas for user information, whether legal or unethical. Privacy is a fundamental human right and ethical value, yet smartphone usage has undermined it.

Other ethical concerns with telephones include issues of cyber bullying, academic dishonesty, and issues like terrorist strikes. In todays world, children and teens are using cell phones at increasingly younger ages, potentially leading to problems if the proper smartphone etiquette is not emphasized. Teenagers using their phones on campus and possibly even in class has increased, and the problem of cheating with cell phones in class follows (Al-Ghaith, 2021). Students may use their phones to avoid study time and pass exams. Additionally, although not literally, telephones could be used as weapons in attacks like the most recent shooting in San Bernadino. Through smartphones, cyber bullying can take place directly or indirectly. Instances in which the victim is directly involved are referred to as direct cyber bullying; examples include the willful sending of files containing viruses and privacy concerns (Samal, 2019). On the other hand, indirect cyber bullying is type of bullying in which the victim is unaware of the interaction. Examples include impersonating someone, reading someone elses email, and sending embarrassing information via mobile devices.

Why Restrictions Should Be Enhanced in Teens and Childrens Smart Phones

Most adults who are now raising teenagers grew up in an era before personal electronics were commonplace. A household could have a personal computer, but hardly anyone would have a mobile phone they could carry with them (Laudon & Laudon, 2019). In addition, nobody possessed a device that could be utilized to access the internet whenever needed. For the first time, parents must choose when to give their kids telephones and how much time to give them access to those devices. And many parents do not see any justification for restricting teenagers phone use. However, there should be certain limitations because smartphones are thought to harm teenagers.

Internet addiction is a severe issue, especially for young teenagers. As time passes, the teens learn that they want to use the smartphone more and more. It could lead to addiction from being a helpful tool or a source of enjoyment (Laudon & Laudon, 2019). When teenagers can use their phones to call their acquaintances, it is pretty simple to distance themselves from their families. The child or the teen frequently spends more time on the phone than conversing with family members over meals, movie nights, or game sessions. Secondly, most teenagers prefer to communicate with their colleagues online to those in person (Samal, 2019). Teenagers risk never learning how to relate to people in real life if they become overly dependent on their phones. Future significant debilitation may result from the teens lack of necessary social skills.

Thirdly, using a phone when a teen is at school might be distracting. It is elementary to get sidetracked from schoolwork, especially when a persons phone vibrates every minute to alert them to text messages, Snap Chat, or tweets. Fourthly, the lack of regulations on the internet allows children and teenagers to access content they would never be able to view in the actual world (Truong et al., 2019). Because the children have access to the internet on their phones, they may be viewing sites that are not of their age span. A person might not be able to protect them from this unless they take the time to set usage limitations because this is occurring on their phone, which is much tougher to monitor.

Additionally, banning teen and kid devices promotes communication. A child is more inclined to talk to and answer questions from their parents when they cannot hide behind their phone. If youngsters believe they can always take out their phones and tell their peers about what is happening, they will not feel the need to go to their guardians with their worries (Akopova, 2020). Teenagers will frequently start talking to the parent concerning their requirements instead of only reaching out to others outside the family if the guardian restricts their use of their phones. Finally, limiting teenagers phone use helps parents assert their authority. Teenagers who do not believe their activities have repercussions will frequently act out and engage in riskier behaviors to obtain their parents attention. A straightforward method to assert your authority as the rule maker is to set limits on how much time kids can spend on their phones, establish clear ground rules, and ensure those rules are obeyed.

Why the Issue of Cognitive Skills Cannot Be Solved in the Use of Smart Phones

Smartphones and other portable media players have improved their capacity to supplement or even replace specific mental processes. The devices may be used for various cognitive purposes and to satisfy many of our emotional urges. They can be used as appointment calendars, maps, phonebooks, gaming devices, internet portals, and tip calculators. While these technologies have enormous potential to boost welfare, their continued presence may have a cognitive cost. Sensationalist titles such as Are Smartphones Making Us Dumber? Support the claim that reliance on cellphones and related technologies boosts our ability to think and recall (Laudon & Laudon, 2019). The problem of cognitive skills with smartphones is difficult to fix since, despite user efforts to ignore them, smartphones can potentially disrupt sustained concentration.

How smartphone technology can severely interrupt or obstruct ongoing physical and mental work may be its most visual and noticeable impact on peoples daily lives. It might be helpful to categorize smartphone interruptions as either endogenous or exogenous. When users thoughts turn to smartphone-related activities, they experience endogenous interruptions, which manifest as an otherwise uninvited urge to start using the device. These cognitive costs primarily affect individuals with the highest smartphone dependence (Truong et al., 2019). When continuous goal-directed tasks are not regarded as rewarding, these endogenously motivated attention drifts may result from a need for more immediate pleasure. Once the focus has been diverted to the smartphone for one purpose, users frequently continue using it for unrelated tasks, lengthening the interruption. Furthermore, according to specific statistics, interruptions are likely to be more harmful to finishing the main task the more information a person encounters during one.

When an external trigger draws a users attention, exogenous interruptions happen. It frequently involves a notification from the smartphone. The use of a smartphone may also be influenced by external factors, such as seeing someone else using one or being reminded of a task that can be done on a smartphone. In one recent research, the philosophers discovered that, even when someone did not take the time to read the warning, exposure to smartphone alerts significantly reduced productivity on a concurrent attention-based task. It suggests that the participants ability to focus on the main task was diminished by just sound or vibration that conveyed the notification. The philosophers proposed that the signs led to the emergence of task-unrelated thoughts, resulting in a subpar performance in the primary activity (Truong et al., 2019). Moreover, even being physically aware of a cell phone can impair an individuals cognitive functioning.

According to research, phone use is slightly disruptive when performing demanding tasks. The adverse effects of cell phones on attention are particularly problematic when attention is required for safety, such as when driving when inattentive. The impacts of texting on driving abilities have been studied extensively over the past 12 years using driving simulations or closed tracks (Laudon & Laudon, 2019). A meta-analysis of this research found that almost all studied indicators of unsafe driving are affected by texting (Truong et al., 2019). Through the case study of smartphone interruptions, it has been indicated that individuals are adversely affected. Hence, this has an indirect induction to their cognitive skills where research has outlined it hard for individuals to ignore their smartphones when close to them. The analysis indicates it is hard to solve the issue of cognitive skills; however, it can be a remedy by accomplishing some tasks off the phone.

References

Akopova, M. (2020). Influence of smartphones on students attentional processes. Vestnik Universiteta, (6), 167-172. Web.

Al-Ghaith, W. (2021). Emerging applications on smartphones: The role of privacy concerns and its antecedents on smartphones usage.International Journal of Computer Science and Information Technology, 13(2), 43-65. Web.

Laudon, K., & Laudon, J. (2019). Management information systems (16^th ed., pp. 1-656). Pearson.

Samal, S. (2019). An investigation into the factors influencing the adoption of smart phones-TAM.Journal of Advanced Research in Dynamical and Control Systems, 11(10), 373-379. Web.

Truong, J., Labhart, F., Santani, D., GaticaPerez, D., Kuntsche, E., & Landolt, S. (2019). The emotional entanglements of smartphones in the field: On emotional discomfort, power relations, and research ethics.Area, 52(1), 81-88. Web.

Overview

The core of the ethical issue is that a particular software engineer has to make a decision to release software that did not go through all the necessary quality control checks, in order to be one hundred percent certain that there will be no catastrophic errors that will occur when already deployed.

The stakeholders are the investors of the company; the employees and staff; software engineers; the hospital staff and health professionals that will use the said software, as well as the patients of the hospitals. By looking at pertinent information the software engineer has two options.

The first one is to release the product even before it has passed the stringent quality control test required to determine that nothing can go wrong in the operational phase. The second option is to inform clients that there will be a delay in the deployment of the said software.

Ethical Theories

Applying the Kantian theory of ethics the software engineer will have to inform the stakeholders including the investors of the company and the clients that there will be a delay in the launching of the product. They will not be able to use the product because more tests are required to determine if the software will not negatively affect the lives of patients when it is already made operational.

Using the rule utilitarian approach the head software engineer will have to choose between two options and it hinders on the stakeholders that will be most affected by the action. Thus, the software engineer can say that since the bugs are only minor, then there will be no significant problems that may arise in the future.

This will negatively affect the position of the investors that anticipated the launching of the product. On the other hand if the clients outnumber the investors then the software engineer will not release the product knowing that more people will be affected in case of major problems that will arise.

Using the act utilitarianism will force the software engineer to halt the launching of the software because he will come to realize that more people will be upset if indeed the software proves to be problematic. This means that the investors and the people working in the software company are less in number when compared to the clients that will be potentially affected using the said device and software.

ACM Code

According to the Association of Computing Machinery Code of Ethics, there are so many things that has to be considered with regards to this issue. First of all the company must adhere to the idea that their organization must contribute to society and human well-being (ACM, par. 1). This means that the company must consider the quality of their product before they release it to the market.

The ACM Code also says that the company must avoid harm to others. The said software was not yet properly tested and therefore using the ACM Code, the company must not release the product yet. The ACM Code also stated that the company must be honest and trustworthy. The head software-engineer must tell the clients that expected delivery date is impossible because further tests are needed.

Finally the ACM Code says that there is a need to strive to achieve the highest quality, effectiveness, and dignity in both the process and products (ACM, par.1). There can be no dignity and effectiveness if the company will not divulge the problems that are inherent in the said product.

The software engineer responsible for making the decision to release the product or not is standing on shaky ground because he cannot prove without doubt that the software will work under different types of conditions and be assured that it will not fail during times of crisis when it is most needed.

Software Code

In the Software Engineering Code of Ethics and Professional Practice it has been made clear that the software engineer must only approve if they have well-founded belief that it is safe, meets specifications, passes appropriate tests, and does not diminish quality of life , diminish privacy or harm the environment (Software Code, par.1).

The software engineer in this case cannot give the assurance that it is entirely safe and will not diminish the quality of life of the clients. The software-engineer is not yet knowledgeable about the extent of the problem and if there is indeed a bug that can create significant problems for hospital staff.

The same code also says that it is the duty of the software-engineer to disclose potential problems to the clients. He must tell them the problem and therefore it is not possible for them to release the product ahead of schedule. A through test is needed and the software-engineer must continue to maintain communication between the company and the clients. They must be updated as to the reason of the delay and to tell them the progress of the evaluation and testing. These things must not be hidden from clients.

Summary

If the software-engineer will decide to release the product then there is a possibility of failure. Since he did not inform the hospital management, staff, and health professionals regarding the potential problem in the said software then the moment a crisis will hit then the software-engineer will lose credibility. But there is more than that, the problem in the software may be significant then it is possible to endanger the lives of the patients.

If the software-engineer will come out into the open and explain the problems then this action will negatively affect the investors and the owners of the company. They will have problems when it comes to expected profit. They will realize that instead of making money they may have lost some.

It will be a terrible blow to the image of the company. However, if there is something seriously wrong with the software and they still decided to release it then they were not doing their jobs. This will result to litigation. Thus, it is better to lose face for a while and announce that there is a need to assess the integrity of the system.

Works Cited

ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct. 28 Feb. 2011. Association for Computing Machinery. 2011. <https://www.acm.org/about-acm>

Software Engineering Code of Ethics and Professional Practice. 28 Feb. 2011.

Association for Computing Machinery. 2011. <https://www.acm.org/about-acm>

The incident described by the engineer working at Eight Mile Road plant demonstrates the imperfection of functioning of the indicator of the state of a pressure relief valve. Such situation can lead to serious complications, including fuel damage if the reactor operates at full power. My boss claims that the memo I have written cannot be passed on. Therefore, I need to obtain the official memo from my engineer colleague from the plant, but he promises to write it only in two months.

Various stakeholders will be affected by my decision. Besides me, other nuclear engineers, employees at Eight Mile Road plant and other nuclear plants, the members of the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the public living near the plants, and the nuclear industry will be impacted by my further actions. In addition, my decision can have long-term effects on the environment.

According to The Atomic Energy Act of 1954, protecting the health and safety of the public while developing and using nuclear power in production and utilization facilities is considered the national interest (16). Energy Reorganization Act of 1974 also emphasizes the necessity to enhance environmental quality and assure public safety (233). Therefore, as a nuclear engineer, I am obliged to work according to the interests discussed above and make professional decisions guided by the fundamental laws in the nuclear industry.

As a nuclear engineer, I have a duty to follow the engineering code of ethics. As an employee of the company, I have a duty to contribute to the profitability of the enterprise I am working for, prevent possible problems related to improper functioning of reactors it produces, and follow the rules accepted in the firm. As a member of society, I have a duty to take all necessary actions needed to prevent the situations putting a serious threat to public health, the welfare of people, and the safety of the environment. Duties based on engineering code of ethics mostly coincide with the duties I have as a member of society and appear to be the most important ones.

I can consult peers, mentors, and superiors to make the most appropriate decisions. I would consult my boss to ask for a piece of advice what can be done and how to behave so that my duties are fulfilled.

The first possible course of action includes seeking for the methods of affecting the engineer colleague to receive the official memo as soon as possible, without waiting for it for another few months. Another possible course of actions includes waiting for the official memo for few months and taking further actions only after it is completed.

The first course of action will let me fulfill all of my duties, as it enables me to follow the ethical code of an engineer, follow the rules of my company, ensure the safety of nuclear plants, and protect the society from possible health and environmental issues. The second course of actions will enable me only to stick formally to official rules of the company but can lead to unexpected incidents at the plants using reactors built by my company.

The first variant of the course of action appears to be the best, as it corresponds to ethical values of any engineer, employee, or a member of society and will help me to fulfill all of my duties to the company, nuclear industry, and society.

I would ensure good cooperation with my boss and the administration of Eight Mile Road plant to ensure the proposed course of action. The broader implications of my actions include improvement of the system of delivering memos and eliminating its flaws related to the lack of appropriate regulations guiding the situations that need urgent actions and solutions.

The analysis of the laws, stakeholders, and duties related to the discussed situation reveals that employing the first course of action appears to be the most effective solution. Such conclusion is based on the ability of such actions to let me follow the laws, ensure the satisfaction and absence of the violation of rights and interests of the stakeholders, and fulfill my primary duties. As a nuclear engineer facing the necessity of taking appropriate actions that will eliminate the identified flaws in the functioning of reactors produced by my company, I need to consult my boss to discover how I can speed up the process of completing the task of writing an official memo by the engineer colleague. I need to inform my boss about all details of the information I have attained from the engineer colleague and explain the potential danger of leaving this problem without attention. Informing my boss about the risks related to the issue will encourage her to seek for urgent efficacious solutions.

Together we will have an opportunity to find the methods of influencing the engineer colleague and stimulating him to write the required memo as soon as possible. Such course of actions will help to ensure that my company does not face serious problems related to improper functioning of its production in the nearest future. Therefore, in such way I will fulfill my duties as an employee of the firm. Besides, such solution will help to ensure the safety of public health and environment, as the inappropriate functioning of nuclear plants can result in extremely dangerous consequences putting a huge threat to the health of people and the state of our environment. Therefore, by employing this course of action, I will fulfill my duties to society. Ensuring the safety of nuclear plants, as a part of duties I have as an employee working in the nuclear industry, will also be effective if I apply the discussed solution. Further improvements in the system of dealing with memos related to urgent problems will also be enhanced by my solution as it will encourage the administration to reconsider the current rules and eliminate the flaws.

The effectiveness of my solution will be promoted by the fact that it corresponds to the basic ethical standards any professional working in any field should strive to follow. Fairness, as one of the main ethical values, will be ensured by the discussed solution as it is free from favoritism, self-interest, or preference in judgment (Carroll 140). By employing the mentioned course of action, I will avoid the possibility of behaving unfair caused by the inclination to avoid accepting full responsibility for dealing with the situation and being active. People often avoid being active in complicated situations as long as there are no formal orders to do it. The alternative course of action is based o such behavior. However, though the boss does not oblige me to search for the urgent solution, I need to be active to be fair in terms of my professionalism and human values. Being honest with my boss and informing her about the specifics of the situation on my own corresponds to ethical standards. In the case my boss does not show much interest in dealing with the situation, I have to inform the higher administration about the situation. Small initiative in such situation demonstrates the lack of fairness, as the potential consequences of the absence of actions taken to deal with the problem can result in serious threats put to lives of people by improper functioning of nuclear plants.

Works Cited

Carroll, Archie. Business Ethics: Brief Readings on Vital Topics, New York: Routledge, 2009. Web.

Energy Reorganization Act of 1974, as Amended. Nuclear Regulatory Legislation. Washington, DC: Office of the General Counsel U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2013. 229-263. Web.

The Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as Amended. Nuclear Regulatory Legislation. Washington, DC: Office of the General Counsel U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2013. 7-228. Web.

The ubiquitous electronic connection is a frequently discussed issue in the contemporary world. It goes without saying that rapid technological development increases productivity in modern society as well as the speed of life. At the same time, the ubiquitous electronic connection creates a number of negative impacts on the people, workplaces, and relationships.

Ethical issues arising with the advent of the age of ubiquitous electronic connection

One of the biggest issues brought out by the ubiquitous electronic connection is the problem of privacy. In the contemporary world, the majority of individuals own mobile devices that connect with the Internet and have the capacity to spread private information about their users and make it accessible to everyone. For example, a mobile application called Viber tends to synchronize with peoples Google Plus accounts, which possess the information about peoples locations, so speaking to someone on Viber one may involuntarily inform other users about their location. Being tracked constantly by other people is a rather unpleasant experience that occurred along with the development of ubiquitous computing.

Issues arising with a turned on and tuned in the workforce

Constant connectivity at the workplace has occurred around 2004-2006. Initially, it was extremely helpful because it provided an additional way of communication for the professionals. Emails and messengers started to be widely used by business organizations and offices. As social networks appeared constant connectivity of the contemporary society turned into a big problem. A large number of workplaces suffered the reduction of productivity due to the constant distraction of the employees at the offices. Peoples dependence on social networks, news portals, and online communication slowed down their working process. The managers addressed this issue, introducing policies designed to limit the use of social networks at the workplace. Besides, heavy use of the internet created more stress for society members. Today, most of us cannot last a day without checking emails or logging on to various social networks.

Articles dealing with ethics and social media

The first article is The Ethical Challenges of Social Media, it explores the challenges presented by social media in such aspects as integrity and recruitment at the workplace. The employees use of social networks on behalf of a company can undermine the reputation of the organization and hurt corporate ethics. As for recruitment practices, many organizations are known for monitoring the candidates online, which leads to an invasion of peoples personal lives (The Ethical Challenges of Social Media, 2011).

The second article is Privacy in Ubiquitous Computing by Langheinrich. This paper views privacy and security as equal issues. In other words, endangering peoples privacy, the producers of applications and devices also put their customers in danger, as their security weakens when their personal information and content becomes accessible to strangers (Langhenrich, 2009).

The last article is Location privacy in ubiquitous computing by Beresford. The author notes that location awareness in digital devices has become popular only recently as this information is highly useful for pervasive computing due to its capacity to provide heavier automation (Beresford, 2005). This way, human interaction with computers is made deeper and more aggressive.

In conclusion, the ubiquitous electronic connection is both the blessing and the curse of the contemporary world. The advanced technologies have made our lives so much easier than it becomes hard to live without them, which gives the technologies a chance to benefit from the heavy use of mobile devices by modern people.

Reference List

Beresford, A. R. (2005). Location privacy in ubiquitous computing. Technical Report, 612, 8-127.

Langhenrich, M. (2009). Privacy in Ubiquitous Computing. Web.

The Ethical Challenges of Social Media. (2011). Business Ethics Briefing, 22, 1-4.

In todays society, many changes are being experienced regarding information security. It is an understatement to suggest that computing and digital technology have significantly influenced every aspect of human effort. Naturally, such drastic developments raise ethical concerns that computing experts must address. Ethics is a moral code by which an individual carries on with their life. For organizations, morals can likewise allude to the structure one makes for figuring out unethical mannerisms to ensure a proper way of behaving inside ones organization. Digital frequently goes, targeting individual and delicate data (Asokan, 2017). The deficiency of such touchy information may be shocking for ones clients, so people should have total confidence in the people used in safeguarding data. Network wellbeing experts seriously approach sensitive individual information that they are believed to secure and protect. Likewise, staff in these undertakings must have a strong sense of ethics and respect for their clients protection.

The field of data innovation additionally extends and adjusts so quickly that exploring it requires a solid moral establishment. Asokan indicated that there are explicit situations that an employers workers might confront that are hard to foresee (2017). Groups need to sort out what is best for ones clients and the association overall. Consequently, a solid moral centre can act as the establishment that permits representatives to operate to their greatest advantage even in unanticipated circumstances. The different concerns about ethics in computing are well-known. The new spike in the ubiquity of applying artificial information strategies to an assortment of possibilities, for example, has highlighted some ethical concerns. Biases in training data can cause these algorithms to make unjust judgements. As a result, operational research issues include recognizing such causes of unfairness and holding machine learning systems accountable (Asokan, 2017). Similarly, the advent of autonomous systems has raised concerns about coping with the moral ramifications of independent directors. Additionally, it has focused on how society ought to answer individuals whose callings might be delivered out of date due to their deployment.

Comprehending the need for ethics in information security proposes whether data security experts have the essential information, abilities, and practices to make ethical decisions when dealing with digital information. There have been guidelines for computing ethics. As a result, there are undoubtedly initiatives in this direction (Asokan, 2017). For example, in submitted research papers managing the protection of touchy information or weaknesses in sent items, program councils of top data security meetings regularly search for a conversation on moral contemplations. They consistently face the test of convincing creators to uncover datasets in light of a legitimate concern for reproducible examination without imperilling the protection of those whose data was gotten. At all levels of the calling, a deliberate advancement of moral standards is required.

The expanded reception of start to finish encryption by a wide scope of informing administrations suggests that emphasizing social event weaponized weaknesses after end-frameworks has been fruitful. Passive wiretapping will probably not be as successful today as a couple of years ago. Whether an employer lacks clinical experience, an online protection expert answerable for shielding a clinics organization and pivotal information from interruption and attack is straightforwardly associated with safeguarding wiped outpatients (Asokan, 2017). Data security moral worries cant just be appointed to savants and ethicists because such contemplations will unavoidably impact the idea of our work as data security specialists.

Reference

Asokan, N. (2017). Ethics in information security. The IEEE Computer and Reliability Societies.

With the rapid development of the software and computer technologies the necessity to protect intellectual property and raise computer security has sharply grown. In the USA and in many other developing countries of the world any software and hardware can be completely protected according to intellectual property laws existing in the country.

The situation under analysis discloses the idea of software algorithm invention by Joe and commercialization of this product by Stan. From the ethical point of view Stan committed a kind of crime as he stole Joes idea and wanted to make use of it without his partners involvement and participation. Joe, being the inventor rather than business man, is not aware of all details of legal intellectual property protection and could loose any rights for his own inventory idea but for Stans guilt pangs.

The idea of invention was worked out by Joe and could become a commercial product in case entrepreneur Stan and inventor Joe joined their efforts and abilities to create common business. Under the law this kind of inventions can be protected by Stan according to the trade secret law.

Trade secret law is considered to be the best way of intellectual property protection if the invention is software algorithm. It is the most appropriate mechanism for proprietary rights preservation because it can provide the broadest protection form for Joes invention. Stan as a soul proprietor could get a percent form the income.

But is it necessary to stress the fact that there can be some difficulties connected with the intellectual property protection under the trade secret law. The point is that algorithm can be protected under this law in case the following conditions are observed:

• The invention is not widely known to the publicity;
• Software algorithm is preserved the confidentiality and it is considered to be a trade secret;
• The invented product provides the owner with a competitive advantage and beneficial position.

This type of legal security for the invented product of Joe is really important but it provides protection only for the period of time when the algorithm is under the secret and gives advantages in competitiveness.

On the other hand, Stan could use patent protection as a way of product security. The requirements for this type of intellectual rights protection are not so high:

• Novelty;
• Utility;
• Non obviousness.

Joe and Stan should create the trade mark for their software product because it provides very strong level of ownership for the invention.

Thus, the situation analyzed above disclosed the idea that every invention should be protected by the existing law providing security for your intellectual rights for the product; this should be done before sharing the idea as in case with Joe and Stan. The partners are to sign a contract about cooperation in case they are eager to develop and promote the invention together and get profit out of it. To reach success in software business all the mentioned steps are to be observed.

References

Pfleeger, Charles P. & Pfleeger, Shari L. (2006) Security in Computing. 4^th Edition. USA.

Vaughan-Nichols, Steve. (2003). Protect Your Business Software. Information Week, NY.

The future that Leon Kass forecasts for the world in his book Life, Liberty, and the Defense of Dignity, is harrowing. In this review, I explore his background, based on theological values and conservative political affiliations. Despite the stigma that these labels carry today, I outline the evident rationale in his arguments, including the methods with which he validates his ideas. I conclude by reacting to his text, on which I am both moved by logic and put off by his biases. Kasss work is concise, and well written, and appeals to our basic sense of humanity and what it is to truly be human, not just physically, but mentally, socially, and emotionally as well. As the chairman of the current administrations Council on Bioethics, he is certainly in a controversial position.

Kass can be considered as possibly biased by a religious value system. Considering his party affiliation his opinions may be inherently conservative, pro-life, anti-artificial insemination etcetera. It is no surprise then, that his approach to this discussion is one of pessimism towards the future. Still, his insight is intriguing and wary of the effects of a society that acts without thinking of long-term consequences; he makes methodical arguments that are undeniably compelling by logic alone, regardless of political leaning. Kass explores the dangerous implications for progress in the field of biotechnology, expressing a fear of the lack of ethics that truly has become pervasive in western medicine and the public at wide. He develops the argument that, though biotechnology seems to provide many answers to many problems, it lacks a sense of humanity. At perhaps one of his most moving and poignant moments Kass asks for a new approach to medicine in which, our awareness of need, limitation, and mortality to craft a way of being that has engagement, depth, beauty, virtue, and meaning.

Kass develops his argument by going through the various so-called triumphs of biotechnology and exposing what he considers the dehumanization. For example, Kass attacks en Vitro fertilization. One of his most gut-wrenching arguments is that we continue to disregard the necessity of intercourse in generating life. He sees the degenerative role of sex in our society as a sign that we are becoming increasingly disconnected from the natural, humanistic aspect of life. This can also be seen in our effort to prolong life at any cost, whether by curing the incurable disease or, more disturbingly, by cloning. The concept of cloning surely goes against all medical ethics that preserve the sanctity of life and mortality.

Kass predicts that the longer we continue down this progressive road in biotechnology, the less human we will truly become if we consider a human to be the natural product of biology and genetics and no test tubes, and miracle science. I find Leon Kasss arguments undeniable and to that end, quite frightening for the future of medicine. Though I believe we should exhaust all possibilities to cure diseases and defects, abusing our ability to regenerate cells and provide quick fixes by cloning seems like an act of hubris. Surely playing god in this way will have catastrophic results. However, I remain wary of Kasss deep religious influence, as with any scholar who bases rational theories on irrational values systems such as religion. Though there are moral reservations about the advancements in science, no real legal boundaries are being crossed in the field as long as human life is not put at risk. And yet, Kasss title virtue, dignity, weighs heavy on the mind, since the future of science and technology surely takes little care in preserving the dignity of the human spirit.

Works Cited

Kass, Leon. Life, Liberty and the Defense of Dignity: The Challenge for Bioethics (2004). Encounter Books.

Analogical reasoning is a means of processing information that relates the familiarity between new and understood concepts and then uses those similarities to comprehend the new concept. After the process, either certain actions are accepted or the differences between the two scenarios are identified. It is a method of inductive reasoning since it seeks to shade more light on what is true, as opposed to deductively reasoning the fact of something. It is vital in advancing the frontiers of knowledge (Boelcke, 2009, para. 1).

The uses of analogical reasoning in computer ethics have many benefits. The reasoning method is in line with moral standards. If you believe that it is morally not acceptable to break the bank and steal money, you should equally consider it wrong to steal someones personal computer. This aspect of reasoning enables the application of what is deemed to be morally wrong in society and relates it to computer technology.

Analogical reasoning enables one to come to terms with the gains or outcomes of each action done in computer technology. Suppose you arrive early one day to work to complete an urgent research work required for presentation by your boss by noon, unfortunately, you find the saved file corrupted and inaccessible. What would you do? The chances of you recovering the file before the deadline are slim. You may consider duplicating data from previously done works, but this may lead to unauthorized access to someones intellectual property and possible infringement of the companys policy. Not accomplishing the work in time may also put you in trouble. In such an ethical dilemma, you will have to reason analogically in weighing the advantages and disadvantages of your next course of action.

On the other hand, involving in analogical reasoning has dangers involved. One of these is being too oriented toward the similarities between different situations without recognizing their significant differences. A superb example is a hacker, who in his or her thinking, seeks to demonstrate justice by finding errors in a computers software or operating system. The social norm is that anyone seeking access to information without prior permission has been deemed a lawbreaker. In this regard, the innocent hacker is branded names as a thief or a con.

Analogical reasoning fails to draw the thin line between pleasure and business. For example, a company employee may wish to notify his or her boss on holiday about the progress of the company and does not mind demonstrating professionalism in sending the notification. The employee may fail to adhere to grammatical standards or correctly format the finished text.

The advent of the internet has made the world to become a global village. Over two hundred countries utilize this innovation. The computer age has brought the problem of global ethics. If a country wishes to protect its freedom of speech on the internet, whose rules are they going to use? The earth is witnessing discussions of ethics and values that are not limited to one geographical location. Countries may soon be forced to come up with universal laws to curb cybercrimes since they are not limited to any geographical location.

In summary, analogical reasoning lacks advantages and disadvantages when used in computer ethics. This is because it enables careful assessment of both sides of the coin before coming up with a concise route to take.

Reference

Boelcke, A (2009). What is Analogical Reasoning. Web.