Category: Ethical Dilemma

Ethics is one of the core components of human society as it regulates relations between individuals and protects them from undesired outcomes. However, the given area remains extremely complex because of the differences in human thinking and approaches that are used to judge about the ethical components of particular situations. For this reason, there are various tools, such as Eight Key Questions (8KQ), that can be applied to different scenarios to determine what is the ethical course of actions and the nature of the problem (Shafer-Landau 43). The utilization of such toolkits also demands the correct analysis of any case to outline the existing controversies and conclude about their possible impact on outcomes.

Cogitating the proposed scenario, it is possible to state that the major controversy lies in the fact that it is unclear whether Holly voted by herself and had an opportunity to show her real opinion or her sister Margaret deprived her of this opportunity because of the complex state of the first woman. Although they both have similar political views and they share the ideas represented by the same party, the case gives rise to controversy as the right to vote is a major constitutional right guaranteed to every citizen of the USA. For this reason, Margarets action can be viewed as a violation of this very freedom and the intervention in privacy.

The situation can be analyzed by using the 8KQ tool. The idea of fairness is applicable to the scenario, as there is no clear understanding of whether Margaret voted correctly (Shafer-Landau 56). The concept of outcomes seems lest important as the given violation might not have a severe effect on people involved in the situation. Responsibilities are also a vital consideration as the volunteers functions include the monitoring of ballots and their correctness. The aspect of character can also be applied to the case as it is central to follow an ethical code to become a better person (Shafer-Landau 51). The scenario also touches upon the idea of liberty, as the right to vote is one of its basic components and should be analyzed when speaking about the case. This concept is also correlated with the idea of rights, as Hollys fundamental rights can be infringed. Another important aspect is that authorities expect the detection of such ballots and their exclusion to ensure credible results. Finally, empathy is hardly applicable to the scenario because of its nature.

In such a way, the most important three questions in the case are related to liberty, rights, and authority. It is vital to act respecting peoples consent and their autonomy. However, in this case, there is a chance that Holly does not know about Margarets decision to vote for her because of the problems with health and the inability to make appropriate decisions. In such a way, the concept of personal freedom and the right to make decisions resting on the available and reliable information can be violated, which demonstrates the existence of an ethical dilemma that should be solved to avoid misunderstandings or undesired outcomes.

The case should also be analyzed by applying the idea of peoples basic rights. The constitution states that every citizen of the USA can vote and demonstrate his/her preferences, which also serves as the basis of democracy and guarantees fair elections. In this situation, Hollys main right can be infringed as it is not clear whether it was her or her sister who used the ballot. It is an important consideration that should be given attention when analyzing the scenario.

Finally, the idea of authority also becomes critically important for the given case. Any elections presuppose the observation of a particular protocol. It means that ballots should be used by voters and cannot be handled by third parties. The authorities expect volunteers to detect votes that do not meet such criteria and report them. For this reason, Hollys case should be viewed as a violation of this rule and the inappropriate use of ballots.

Altogether, having applied the 9KQ tool to the case, it is possible to conclude about the unacceptability of such situation as it contradicts the code of ethics. Margaret violated the major rules, and the case should be reported as an appropriate solution to the problem. From the perspective of rights, liberties, the disregard of this situation might precondition infringement of several important human rights and hurt Holly (Shafer-Landau 51). Regardless of the fact that Margaret is her sister and has similar views, she was not authorized to fill the ballots for Holly, which is the root cause for the emergence of such a dilemma. If it discovers that Holly does not know about this action, her basic rights will be infringed, which cannot be accepted from the perspective of ethics. For this reason, it is possible to conclude that the given ethical dilemma can be resolved by excluding the ballot and asking Holly about this case, along with the provision of recommendations on how to act in the future to avoid such problematic situations.

Work Cited

Shafer-Landau, Russ. The Fundamentals of Ethics. 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2017.

This essay examines the pros and cons of the issue of sale of human organs in the US through the legal, ethical, moral prisms and its interaction with individual freedoms to finally affirm the case for the motion.

The essay first examines the concepts of natural law and legal positivism to conclude that a case for the motion can be better supported by ascribing to legal positivism. The theme is then developed by examining the trends in contemporary views on laws and concludes that contemporary views hold that the state should reduce intrusive laws that affect privacy of individuals that includes the right to sell or buy human organs.

The essay then develops the argument through reference to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the 14^th amendment to the US constitution and the Grisvold Vs Connecticut case.

Inadequacy of the federal law banning the sale of organs is examined next as also a reflection on the law is open to abuse.

The practical necessities of the US people are then amplified as also a reference to the utilitarian outlook on organ sale of the deceased by the relatives. The essay then examines the dangers of allowing the sale of organs and its likely effects.

The essay concludes by stating that legal positivism and contemporary views on legal jurisprudence should form the basis for allowing the sale of human organs in the US.

Amongst the various controversial issues that govern human affairs, perhaps one that has evoked considerable debate has been the issue of sale of human organs. The issue raises a number of legal, moral and privacy issues that in large parts conflict with each other. As per law, sale of human organs is banned in the US. However, many feel that this law is too restrictive and infringes basic individual rights and is impractical. This essay examines the pros and cons of the issue through the legal, ethical, moral prisms and its interaction with individual freedoms to finally affirm the case for the motion.

A balanced legal framework is essential for regulation of human society in any nation state. Laws however belong to different schools of jurisprudence and it is necessary to examine some, such as natural law and legal positivism to determine the case for or against the sale of human organs. Natural law is essentially a law whose contents are set by nature. By extension, many philosophers and theorists extend the meaning of natural law to natural justice and natural rights.

A natural law in its pristine state is a just law. Law however cannot be divorced from morality. According to the overlap thesis, law necessarily has to relate to morality and moral notions as morals form the basis of human interactions. Hence a question of sale of human organs can as per tenets of natural law, of right to life, be considered valid, however the method by which such a right is ensured must be grounded in the morality of the issue.

Legal Positivism on the other hand emphasizes that legal jurisprudence has to look at the Social fact thesis, the Conventionality thesis and the Separability thesis. The first one affirms that legal validity depends on certain social facts, while the Conventionality thesis develops that social facts lead to social conventions that give the basis for legal validity and the Separability thesis essentially states that there is no overlap between notions of law and morality which means that laws should be made without involving moral considerations.

Thus on the question of sale of human organs, the theory of legal positivism dictates that the merits of the case should be determined by its necessity to the US society. A naturalistic view, with its implicit basis on morality may find difficulty in justifying the necessity of allowing sale of human organs.

Contemporary perspective of law shows a steady march of affirming privacy rights over the restrictive stipulations of ancient laws. The contemporary view holds that laws should shed their Big Brother, intrusive nature and respect individual choices and freedoms. The contemporary view also holds that laws must change to reflect the changed moralities of the times and be based on social facts. For example, it is a social fact that homosexuality and lesbianism is no longer held as unnatural by a large section of the US society as also the world. Therefore, archaic Victorian laws that in some countries still hold it to be a criminal offense, should be universally abolished.

Article 3 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948, states that everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person (The UN). The US is a signatory to this declaration and thus it becomes incumbent on US jurisprudence to mold according to the dictates of time. The 14^th amendment to the US constitution states that nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law (Archives and Beschloss 107).

The US Supreme court first acknowledged an existence of an implied right to privacy in the US Constitution in 1965 (Keenan 17). In the landmark Griswold Vs Connecticut (1965), Griswold, The Director of Planned Parenthood Office in Connecticut was arrested in aiding a woman in preventing pregnancy by using contraceptive methods, which at that time in Connecticut was illegal.

The US Supreme court acquitted Griswold on the judgment that the Connecticut law invaded the marital privacy of people, by allowing the law and law enforcement agencies to investigate marital bedrooms for telltale signs for the use of contraceptives (Keenan 18) and thus was unconstitutional. The Grisvold Vs Connecticut case had wide ranging impact on affirmation of individual privacy rights and thus by that extension can form the backdrop for precedence in legalizing the sale of human organs as what a person does with his body is a private matter as long as the actions do not harm the core interests of the state.

Title 42 of United States Code, Section 274(e) prohibits any person to knowingly acquire, receive or otherwise transfer any human organ for valuable consideration for use in human transplantation if the transfer affects interstate commerce (Menikoff 482). This statute allows donation of organs as also reasonable payments for the cost of procedure and incidental expenditure. Therein lays the scope for differing interpretations and abuse of the provisions as what may constitute reasonable payment is left to the judgment of the peoples involved and can easily mutate into a commercial transaction.

The number of people legally awaiting their turn for receiving a rightly matched organ is growing by the year. Waiting for an organ transplant is akin to waiting on the death row; one never knows whether the chance to live normally again would actually come by because of the sheer scarcity of organs caused by obstructive federal regulations. By not allowing open sale of human organs, the authorities throw the door open for organ smugglers who reap immense profits from the sale of the very organs clandestinely.

By not allowing sale of organs, a large number of dialysis machines in the US are always functioning round the clock, denying the emergency facilities to someone else that may be in the dire need of dialysis. From the Utilitarian point of view, why should not the relatives of the deceased benefit from the sale of the deceased organs which in any case the donation centers are doing, who have no familial connections?

The flip side of allowing organ sales is that donations will disappear and the sale of human organs will mirror the exigencies of the market place; viz, sale of the best functioning organ to the highest bidder, which in turn would result in only the rich getting access to the organs with the poor getting nothing. Open and legal sale in itself is open to corruption and human rights violation where people may more frequently be targeted for their healthy body parts and be killed for them.

Having examined the pros and cons of the issue it can be emphatically stated that legal positivism and contemporary views on laws favor the reduction of intrusive laws that infringe individual privacy matters. An open sale of human organs with a government regulated price mechanism may possibly be the best way forward as the moralistic standpoint has clearly outlived its times and the practical, urgent necessities may well make it prudent to allow the sale of human organs in the United States.

Works Cited

Archives, National and Michael (FRW) Beschloss. Our Documents: 100 Milestone Documents from the National Archives. NY: Oxford University Press, 2006.

Keenan, Kevin M. Invasion of Privacy. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2005.

Menikoff, Jerry. Law and bioethics: an introduction. Washington DC: Georgetown University Press, 2001.

The UN. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 2009. UN Website. Web.

Leaders often contend with conflicting situations that compel them to ignore partisan concerns raised by antagonistic groups in order to come to objective decisions. For instance, when a leader has to choose between the right to safety and security of one group and the fundamental liberties of another, an impartial decision is hard to come by. In a situation where the safety and security of a given group of people are at stake, it is standard procedure to overlook the fundamental liberties of the individual or group of people that is considered threatening (Ginsberg, Theodore and Margaret 15). For instance, if one citizen becomes a threat to the safety and security of others, authorities often overlook the fundamental civil liberties of the individual until such a time that the individual is no longer a threat.

Based on the same principle, even if the right decision seems unpopular, the safety and security of the public should always come first. If a nation descends into a state of anarchy, fundamental civil liberties do not make any sense at all (Ginsberg, Theodore and Margaret 24). Therefore, the right to safety and security is more important and should be valued above fundamental civil liberties. This assertion stems from the fact that the primary purpose of the authorities is to ensure the safety and security of the people before they can look into other issues.

In light of the preceding argument, the Nazis should not be granted permission march in the said neighborhood. If they have to march, they ought to do it in a different neighborhood because their opinions will still be voiced. It should be noted that the decision to deny them permission serves to protect them from the residents of that neighborhood. Going by the opinions of most residents, the Jews, who are dominant in the neighborhood, are very hostile towards the Nazis. Any slight provocation could result in a brutal confrontation between the two groups. Therefore, the law notwithstanding, the Nazis do not deserve the permit to march in the said neighborhood. This decision serves the interests of both the Nazis and the residents of the said neighborhood.

The decision to deny the Nazis permission was informed by three key arguments. The most compelling argument came from Peter Pfizenmaier. His parents suffered grievous atrocities at the hands of the Nazi regime. In fact, he is well aware that his father died in a German concentration camp under the Nazi regime. His mother on the other hand, narrowly survived because the American forces arrived in time to liberate her. In light of this background, allowing the Nazis to march through Peters neighborhood would subject him to massive psychological torture. In essence, the Nazis would purport to be exercising their freedom, but with no idea of the extent of damage caused to that neighborhood.

The second most compelling argument was by Loretta Jackson, who, as a young girl, witnessed the Klan burn a cross on her lawn. According to this woman, the motive of the Nazis is to subject the residents of her neighborhood to unnecessary mental torture. Authorities should not allow this kind of behavior under the guise of upholding fundamental civil liberties. The law seeks to facilitate harmonious coexistence among people. If anyone attempts to take advantage of the same law to infringe on the liberties of others, they should be discouraged at all costs.

Another compelling argument came from Rabbi Joseph Rabinowitz who has worked in the said neighborhood for ten years. He noted that Jews who had suffered gross mistreatment at the hands of the Nazi regime were dominant in the said neighborhood. All of them moved to America to flee the hatred sprouted by Nazis. Consequently, permitting the Nazis to march through the neighborhood is entirely unpalatable. Besides evoking painful memories that can propagate hatred or instigate brutal confrontations, such a march would rob these people of their peace and harmony.

Work Cited

Ginsberg, Benjamin, Theodore J. Lowi and Margaret Weir. We the People: An Introduction to American Politics. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2011. Print.

Introduction

Lockdown measures are practiced in many regions to control the spread of the COVID -19 virus. It involves restrictions of movement and association in public. Although population health is protected by the set boundaries, several important activities have been hindered. For instance, the ability to socialize, and exercise human capabilities, citizens democratic rights, and access to education have been affected. For these reasons, whether lockdown is ethical is a matter of great concern, which has sparked great debate in most countries.

Lockdown effects

Each person has the responsibility to stop the spread of COVID-19. Working from home, job loss, social distancing, and wearing masks are some of the costs one has to bear for survival in this pandemic period. The aged and people with compromised immunity are more susceptible to the disease while young people are resistant. Lockdown measures apply to all individuals, thus, children and youths endure the cost of health and survival for the sake of others.

Lockdown is effective in breaking COVID -19 transmission and saving the lives of people with long illnesses and the elderly. However, its negative consequences have inflicted more harm than good to others

COVID -19 Negative Impacts

Late detection of chronic diseases and unnecessary deaths have been experienced in most hospitals, this is because patients are afraid to visit healthcare facilities for checkups due to the pandemic.

Individuals on routine examinations such as breast cancer patients have failed to attend the checkups as required and as a result, their conditions have deteriorated while others have lost their lives.

The epidemic has caused an economic downturn since most people have lost their source of livelihood. Lack of jobs has also increased suicidal cases among the youthful generation.

Children who are restricted to their homes due to school closure are at a higher risk of developing mental and physical health issues.

Lockdown causes an economic downturn that has significant impacts on companies such as loss of experienced laborers and offshoring of high-skilled works. In addition, it may lead to closure consequently causing loss of livelihood source, increased unemployment rate, poor mental health, and suicidal thoughts among the youths.

Additionally, remote working have adverse economic effects on small companies, it accelerates profit losses due to lack of supply and demand as well as loss of experienced workers

Discussion

Since COVID-19 does not pose an equal danger to all people, the current intervention is unjust to the youths although it has greater benefits to the society at large.

The utilitarians judgments are associated with egocentric attitudes, it does not identify with humanity.

Each person is valuable, unrepeatable, and unique in the world regardless of their age. Therefore, the lives of the aged should not be compromised by the young and healthy.

My Opinion

Lockdown costs include shutting schools and businesses, overriding peoples rights such as freedom of movement and autonomy, and using government resources to increase hospital beds capacity.

In my opinion, the current lockdown measure cost to citizens well-being overshadows the benefits accrued. Thus, lockdown measures are not justifiable and are ethically wrongful.

People would have practiced what is right by wearing a mask, social distancing, washing hands frequently, going for quarantine when suspecting an infection, and avoiding close contact with the elderly and infirm

Conclusion and Discussion

Since COVID-19 does not pose an equal danger to all people, the current intervention is unjust to the youths although it has greater benefits to the society at large.

The utilitarian judgments are associated with egocentric attitudes, it does not identify with humanity.

References

Branicki, L. J. (2020). COVID19, ethics of care and feminist crisis management. Gender, Work & Organization, 27(5), 872-883.

Gasser, U., Ienca, M., Scheibner, J., Sleigh, J., & Vayena, E. (2020). Digital tools against COVID-19: Taxonomy, ethical challenges, and navigation aid. The Lancet Digital Health, 2(8), e425-e434. Web.

Kahane, G. (2015). Sidetracked by trolleys: Why sacrificial moral dilemmas tell us little (or nothing) about utilitarian judgment. Social Neuroscience, 10(5), 551-560.

Kostoff, R. N., Briggs, M. B., Porter, A. L., Aschner, M., Spandidos, D. A., & Tsatsakis, A. (2020). COVID19: Postlockdown guidelines. International Journal of Molecular Medicine, 46(2), 463-466.

Mills, M., & Allen, M. B. (2020). Notes on cost benefit of COVID19 lockdown. Journal of Applied Clinical Medical Physics, 21(7), 4.

The navy can help individuals cope with ethical dilemmas they will encounter through cultural and historical training. Troops must be aware of the history and culture of the area they operate in to preserve combat efficiency and promote polite treatment of the population (Haskins, 2010). Unacquaintance with culture can heighten the stress of real injury. The navy should promote book and article conversations using professional reading programs, seminars, and videos (Bishop, 2013). Critical historical analysis helps troops comprehend counterinsurgency tactics and make better decisions in highly dispersed operations. The publics opinion of the government, counterinsurgent forces, and insurgents is important to the wars success. Soldiers must treat citizens with respect and communicate their goals via actions and behavior. Even if all personnel have an essential awareness of culture, leaders and units must also access cultural competency.

Navy members routinely teach and learn from one another in the field. Due to this, a few soldiers from each platoon or company might have a tremendous effect on the organization by receiving language or cultural training (Popa, Cojocaru & Toma, 2019). Using cultural expertise, such as human terrain teams, in the context of counterinsurgency operations can help forces discriminate between reconcilable and irreconcilable groups. By supporting troops and units in knowing their environment, cultural awareness helps them to conduct warfare ethically. They can utilize this enlarged information to help them determine how to use force discriminatorily and seek alternate conflict methods.

Strong leadership is the common denominator in all these measures to protect the moral integrity of troops and units. Keeping soldiers psychologically ready in the face of complicated situations is a top priority for the commanders. Leaders are given authority and should have faith or confidence in their soldiers (Jennings& Hannah, 2011). Effective communication is essential since when a soldier is on a mission, they have to be aware of the importance of their task and how their leader intends to accomplish this aim. To motivate their troops, senior leaders must set the right tone and provide a consistent message.

Applied ethics education cannot protect troops and units against disintegration caused by combat stress. Challenging, realistic training instills confidence and teamwork and acts as psychological armor against fear and psychological anxiety during combat. The breakdown resulting from battle stress cannot be prevented by ethics instruction in the field. There is a terror in the hearts of soldiers who have never been in combat before. In the counterinsurgency setting, an overreaction that affects innocent bystanders and jeopardizes the counterinsurgents aim might result in a passive response. In the event of a combat encounter, soldiers who have only been trained in traditional combat operations may be prone to respond with all of their weapons at their disposal. Counterinsurgency activities, however, may necessitate the unnecessary loss of innocent life, which is not in keeping with the mission. As long as the soldiers are being taught, they should be evaluated not just on their ability to defeat the enemy but also on their ability to defend innocents while using weapons with tact and discernment.

The navy may gain from its attempts to strengthen its moral culture. To do this, they must first ensure that their members recognize that they are, first and foremost, members of their navy force then members of the communities. Be conscious of system expectations and behaviors that may unintentionally promote unethical behavior, such as perceived pressure to cheat (Banerjee, 2019). Their training and education should be utilized to encourage conversation and to learn about ethical concerns. The navy soldiers can be engaged in moral training and education through compliance and competence instruction and knowledge and understanding instruction.

References

Banerjee, A. (2019). Understanding ethical behaviour towards better institutional functioning in the Armed Forces. Journal of Defence Studies, 13(4), 1-22.

Bishop, W. H. (2013). The role of ethics in 21st century organizations. Journal of Business Ethics, 118(3), 635-637.

Haskins, C. (2010). A practical approach to cultural insight. Army Combined Arms Center Fort Leavenworth KS Military Review. Web.

Jennings, P. L., & Hannah, S. T. (2011). The moralities of obligation and aspiration: Towards a concept of exemplary military ethics and leadership. Military Psychology, 23(5), 550-571.

Popa, C., Cojocaru, C. L., & Toma, A. (2019). Study case on navy cadets crew profile regarding diversity management on board training ships. Scientific BulletinMircea cel Batran Naval Academy, 22(2), 101-109.

The morality of the newspaper columnist breaking her contract relies, largely, on the legality of her breaking the contract. If it is legal, however, the utilitarian perspective will support the action. The pleasure/harm from the action between both companies competing for the columnist will balance each other out, and the columnist will derive the most happiness from a larger salary (Pels, 2020).

From a Kantian perspective of categorical imperatives, the breaking of a contract would largely be seen as an unethical action. Since the imperative suggests projecting the action on everyone to determine its value, a situation where everyone breaks contract whenever they are offered a slightly better option would make the world a less pleasant place to live in (Pels, 2020). Therefore, the action would be seen in a negative light.

Finally, virtue ethics would not support the decision of breaking the contract on the grounds of loyalty. The concepts of holding true to ones word and doing what was promised are at play here (Pels, 2020). Switching over to another company so soon after being hired just to receive more would be seen as greedy as well as disloyal and, therefore, unethical.

In this scenario, the answers are influenced by how dangerous the heart murmur is. If it is a sign of a serious disease, then, from a utilitarian perspective, the doctor should inform the patient about the heart murmur. Should the pilot fail to report to his company, the doctor would have to deliver the news herself. The lives of many people and the potential harm caused would far exceed the retirement benefits of one person (Pels, 2020).

From a Kantian perspective, the doctor should maintain her silence. Kants categoric imperative values the long-term consequences of doctors violating their patients trust to be far above the chances of one plane crashing (Pels, 2020). The former may have far-reaching effects on how much patients divulge to their doctors, causing greater damage in the future.

From a virtue perspective, the answer would also be in favor of keeping the patients trust, but for different reasons. Mutual trust is a virtue, and the doctor should not assume the patient to be a dishonest man. She should trust that the pilot would be honest enough and report to the company on his own. Besides that, the doctor should keep true to her word, thus practicing another ethical virtue.

All three theories are in a relative agreement on this dilemma. From a utilitarian viewpoint, the individual taking extra days off is causing problems and unhappiness in a great number of people in order to achieve his own happiness (Pels, 2020). The amount of distress exceeds the amount generated; therefore, it is unethical.

From a Kantian perspective, the employees actions are also seen as unethical. If everyone were to treat their work in such an irresponsive manner, coming and going as they see fit, companies and businesses would have a much harder time keeping their obligations (Pels, 2020). Employees and managers would have to stay overtime all the time to make ends meet, making such irresponsibility unethical.

Virtue ethics do not support this sort of entitlement as well. In a working environment, trustworthiness and reliability are important virtues (Pels, 2020). Many people, both in the office and outside (the customers), are counting on the individual in question to do his duties. Failing to do so is a sign of laziness, which is an ethical virtue that should not be practiced or cultivated.

The subject of morality of gossiping depends on the theory applied to the case. From an ethical perspective, the practice is only unethical if it causes harm (Pels, 2020). If the gossip in question is harmless and does not result in the persons reputation being tarnished, then gossiping is considered a good thing, as it facilitates happiness and conversation.

From a Kantian point of view, however, gossiping is deeply unethical. The theory does not differentiate harmless gossip from harmful and states that if all people talk behind each others backs, it will result in an erosion of trust (Pels, 2020). Such a long-term perspective would harm society and the individual, therefore, gossiping should be avoided.

Virtue ethics view gossiping as an unethical practice as well. It promotes two unvirtuous actions, these being slander and laziness, as gossiping can hardly be considered a meaningful conversation, instead of constituting a waste of time (Pels, 2020). In addition, it is often considered unvirtuous to discuss a person that is not there to defend themselves or give context to their previous words and actions.

From a utilitarian point of view, there is nothing wrong with adjusting the resume to ensure she will get the job. Retail is not a position that requires great skill, and the chances of her causing any damage to the company by having a bit less experience than it is needed are low. At the same time, getting the job will generate great amounts of happiness, therefore the action would be deemed ethical (Pels, 2020).

Kant would disagree with that assessment of the situation, however. According to his theory, if everyone lied about their credentials in order to achieve their ends, the world would be thrown into chaos (Pels, 2020). Such lies should be avoided to maintain a stable and ethical society.

Virtue ethics also consider lying to be morally wrong, though less strictly than Kant. Some lies may be deemed acceptable if they are done in pursuit of another virtue (Pels, 2020). Therefore, a case could be made that Helen would be justified in lying if she thought nobody else could do this job better than her. Given its unlikelihood, however, the action would remain unethical.

Reference

Pels, P. (2020). Embedding ethics. Routledge.

Introduction

The case of Hannah and Adara entails an ethical dilemma related to the appropriateness of a therapists breach of privacy and confidentiality when deciding the clients best interest. In this case, the counselor will work with a student from a diverse cultural background who prefers her issues handled with a lot of privacy and confidentiality. Adara is a young Muslim girl who feels excluded from her school community due to her cultural and religious background. Given the complexity of the case and its representation of larger multicultural concerns that negatively impact the clients psychological well-being, this case analysis offers a solution that prioritizes the counselors problem with the students cultural values, religious and customs, beliefs, and political preferences. A school counselor should demonstrate and maintain the highest level of integrity to protect the rights of Adara, who represents the Muslim community. Therefore, Hannah must ensure that the young Muslim student is treated fairly and appropriately. In this case, her professional standards and other resources will allow for enhancing Adaras feeling of belongingness and relief of her psychological concerns.

The issue involving Hannah and Adara is not an isolated case in contemporary society and relates to larger societal problems. Indeed, according to Chin et al. (2020), ethnic and racial discrimination in general and social rejection, in particular, constitute a common reason for depression, anxiety, and stress in marginalized groups. Adaras case mirrors social phenomena where most people have found themselves at the crossroads of multiculturalism because of different races, ethnic groups, religions, and cultural affiliations with the people they interact with. Many people have had suicidal thoughts because of belonging to cultural or religious groups that they felt were not dominant in their areas (Chin et al., 2020). For example, Adara tells Hannah that she wishes she was dead, which illustrates her frustration with the social rejection she experiences daily. Nonetheless, despite her willingness to obtain help from a professional, she prefers Hannah to handle her issues confidentially.

Applied Ethical Principles and Standards

When dealing with ethical dilemmas in a practice setting, counselors must follow standards of care and basic principles of professional conduct. According to the American Psychological Associations (2017) ethical principles, psychologists must comply with beneficence and nonmaleficence, fidelity and responsibility, integrity, justice, and respect for peoples rights and dignity. A counselor should be committed to enhancing professional and scientific knowledge of human behavior and interactions.

Since privacy and confidentiality are basic human rights, Hannah must respect them. In other words, the therapist in the case study must not disclose private information about her client to third parties. In this case, the Muslim girl was unhappy because Hannah did not respect confidentiality issues requiring personal information not to be leaked (Petrini et al., 2017). As a psychologist, Hannah should protect the rights of the Muslim girl with religious and cultural particularities that make her a vulnerable member of society, given her minority status. Confidentiality is critical, so the girl can communicate openly and sincerely when sharing her concerns. If the psychologist keeps sharing Adaras information in sessions, it will jeopardize the clients trust and safety.

Moreover, responsibility and integrity should be the fundamental principles when dealing with Adara. Indeed, Hannah must strive to be objective and establish a relationship of trust with Adara since the client does not seem to trust the psychologist due to the breach of confidentiality manifested through the disclosure of private matters to third parties (Petrini et al., 2017). Presently, Adara seems to be having issues with trust and requires a trustworthy person beside her. It is relevant for Hannah to know her scientific and professional responsibilities before the Muslim community, particularly Adara. Living in the USA is a challenging experience for the girl due to the problems in cultural fit and socialization. As a psychologist, Hannah should uphold professional conduct and standards to ensure justice and integrity prevail when dealing with the Muslim girl. For example, psychologists must promote truthfulness, honesty, and accuracy when dealing with issues around their clients.

The principle of nonmaleficence might be controversial in this case due to the understanding of harm to the client. In particular, Adara experienced some problems, particularly when she discovered that her perceived confidential information was leaked to her parents (Abuhammad et al., 2020). Therefore, the counselor must ensure that the Muslim girl does not experience psychological harm during the sessions. Thus, everything she conveys should not be leaked to third parties to ensure she trusts the people she shares information with. In this case, Hannah must ask whether her actions harm Adara in one way or another, whether by commission or omission. The practices and actions of a healthcare provider should always be correct and in the patients best interest to avoid adverse consequences (American Psychological Association, 2017). Hannah is more responsible for coordinating care correctly to ensure Adara receives the best attention to her problem.

Alternative Solutions

Several alternative solutions might be considered, namely the adherence to culturally sensitive therapeutic measures, engaging in professional cooperation with other counselors, and negotiating family therapy options with the client. Firstly, culturally sensitive therapy might empower the client to handle her marginalized status as her strength (Chin et al., 2020). Possible ramifications of this solution might be the integration of Adaras cultural heritage as an empowering element, which will ultimately reduce her suicidal intentions. Secondly, the engagement of other counselors will allow for a multitude of opinions on the dilemma and help Hannah find a relevant approach to the problem (Petrini et al., 2017). A possible ramification for this solution might be the emergence of a multifaceted individual approach to the client with the following improvements in her well-being.

Thirdly, integrating family therapy for a minor might be a relevant solution for gaining support for Adara. Since a decision to include parents in sessions would be consensual, this solution would comply with the principles of care and benefit the client in the long term (American Psychological Association, 2017). In such a manner, to address the ethical dilemma, a counselor should strictly comply with the principles and standards of ethical conduct and incorporate cultural sensitivity, multi-professional teamwork, and family therapy.

The issue involving Adara requires a course of action, and Hannah should handle it with compassion and understanding and avoid the ethical dilemma of privacy, trust, and confidentiality. Therefore, Hannah must understand that Adara is going through a challenging time because of having to face the challenges of multiculturalism and religion (Chen et al., 2020). Therefore, Adaras behavior might be unpredictable and require the therapist to understand (Abuhammad et al., 2020). There is no need to breach privacy and confidentiality involving the Muslim-American girl. Being compassionate will also help because it will assist the girl in recovering from the depression that she is presently experiencing (Tegegne et al., 2022). Hannah should encourage the client to do things that will help to overcome the problem confidentially.

Since the client has expressed a desire to die, which is suicidal in some way, there is no need for the psychologist to panic about the issue. Therefore, the psychologist should know that the girl is at risk of dying because of her problems. However, there is no cause for alarm as the psychologist should address the issue with a lot of calm to ensure that Adara benefits as much as possible. Being suicidal is very common in contemporary society, and nothing is new (Tegegne et al., 2022). Therefore, not panicking will help Hannah to come up with the best solution possible. Hannah should ensure that Adara knows she is dealing with a professional psychologist who will handle the issue to the best of their ability (American Psychological Association, 2017). Confidence is vital in this case as it will assure the Muslim-American that all is well even when faced with many challenges.

Research

Multiple research studies have been conducted to investigate ethical issues in counseling and might be used to support the proposed solutions and course of action. A survey by Abuhammad et al. (2020) conducted among nursing professionals found that patients rights are fundamental and should not be violated by disclosing sensitive or private information to third parties. Therefore, respecting personal life and privacy is essential in providing care. This research study was based on a cross-sectional design involving an online survey in June 2020. The study involved 800 nursing professionals who agreed to participate in the survey (Abuhammad et al., 2020). The outcome demonstrates that there is a need for professional nurses to learn a confidentiality and privacy course before they start working in the healthcare environment. When applied to the analyzed case, the appropriateness of this research is manifested through the emphasis on human rights prevalence over other conflicting considerations arising in care practice.

Privacy breach dilemmas are also commonly addressed in academic literature. Indeed, in the study by Tegegne et al. (2022) involving health personnel, it was found that respecting patients privacy is critical. This research methodology was an institutional cross-sectional study involving 410 health professionals (Tegegne et al., 2022). This study showed that healthcare personnel have a limited attitude toward patient confidentiality and privacy but have essential knowledge about it. Respecting the privacy and confidentiality of a patient is relevant to any health professional. The knowledge and practice of privacy and data sharing among patients are critical in the modern healthcare system. In this case, Hannahs decision-making might be explained by her limited favorable attitude toward her clients confidentiality and privacy and insufficient knowledge about these principles. Every professional must observe a patients confidentiality and privacy are legal and ethical responsibilities. Respect for privacy and confidentiality is the foundation of care excellence.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the analyzed case study demonstrates the ethical challenges experienced in healthcare. Hannah is a psychologist tasked with providing professional therapy to patients like Adara. Therefore, understanding biomedical ethics is critical when dealing with Muslim Americans. The young girl feels unsafe and excluded at school when she discovers that the confidential information she shared in therapy was deliberately reported to her parents without authorization or approval. Although the girl has suicidal thoughts, she does not wish such information to get to third parties. Therefore, Hannah needs only to offer professional advice and desist from informing third parties about what a patient like Adara is experiencing to safeguard privacy.

References

Abuhammad, S., Alzoubi, K. H., Al-Azzam, S. I., & Karasneh, R. A. (2020). Knowledge and practice of patients data sharing and confidentiality among nurses in Jordan. Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare, 13, 935942.

American Psychological Association. (2017). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. 

Chin, D., Loeb, T. B., Zhang, M., Liu, H., Cooley-Strickland, M., & Wyatt, G. E. (2020). Racial/ethnic discrimination: Dimensions and relation to mental health symptoms in a marginalized urban American population. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 90(5), 614-622.

Petrini, C., Gainotti, S., Morresi, A., & Nanni Costa, A. (2017). Ethical issues in uterine transplantation: Psychological implications and informed consent. Transplantation Proceedings, 49(4), 707710.

Tegegne, M. D., Melaku, M. S., Shimie, A. W., Hunegnaw, D. D., Legese, M. G., Ejigu, T. A., Mengestie, N. D., Zemene, W., Zeleke, T., & Chanie, A. F. (2022). A cross-sectional study of health professionals knowledge and attitude towards patient confidentiality and associated factors in a resource-limited setting. BMC Medical Ethics, 23(1), 1-10.

The Lifeboat case describes an incident where four sailors were stranded in the middle of the Atlantic. They had run out of food, were starving, and decided to kill one sailor for the survival of the rest. The remaining three sailors were rescued and tried in the court of British law and argued that they did not commit murder out of premeditation. They stated that it was a necessary action for the survival of the group. This case provides an interesting ethical dilemma that must be examined in detail.

Ethical Decision

The Question of Morality

Anyone would understand the sailors feelings of desperation and natural instinct to survive. The dilemma presented in this case is the issue of the possible survival of the majority. Effectively, the captain decided that killing was permitted under certain circumstances. The main question is whether the sailors were justified in their efforts to sustain themselves by murdering a fellow sailor in such dire circumstances.

Considering the Sailors

The young cabin boy who died, Richard Parker, was sick from seawater. His health was already compromised, which made him an easy target and made the other sailors comfortable with the idea of murder. In their mind, his survival was already less likely compared to the healthy rest of the group. Captain Tom Dudley, who decided to kill Parker, proposed the idea of drawing lots to determine who would die. However, it was denied by the other sailors, and no lots were drawn. The sailors in the lifeboat were all on the brink of starvation. To them, the murder of the cabin boy was a matter of survival.

The cabin boy, however, was completely helpless in this situation. Not only was he ill, but he was also the youngest and the least experienced in the group. He was the least important in terms of status among his crewmates. His life was taken without any draw or consent, which makes this case an ethical dilemma. Also, the captains decision to sacrifice his cabin boy could be considered selfish because it is doubtful that he would be willing to sacrifice himself for his crew. Moreover, the groups survival was still not guaranteed after the murder because the rescue may not have been coming. The efforts of the captain could have been in vain if the government had not found them or were too late.

Alternatives

Instead of killing the cabin boy, the sailors could have considered other alternatives. The most obvious one would be to abstain from murder and try to survive through other means, such as focusing on gathering food from the sea  fish, birds, and seaweed. This alternative makes it less likely that all the sailors survived, but it is a more moral option that does not involve the murder or cannibalism of a sick and weak crew member. This alternative relies on the notion that the cabin boys life is sacred and not something worth sacrificing, even for the lives of others.

Another alternative that they could have followed is the lot draw. This way, it would have been more likely that the rest of the crew survived while still sacrificing one member. If the sailors willingly decided to participate in the draw, the murder would have been fairer. Fairness in this alternative is the idea that all the sailors would have an equal chance of survival, which would be 75%. The murder of Parker would not have been such a morally reprehensible action too. However, the likelihood that the cabin boy would have survived is still less than the rest because of his illness. If a sailor other than Parker was killed and the young boy still died due to sickness, his death would have less meaning.

Lastly, Parker could have voluntarily given up his life for the rest of the group. This alternative would be more peaceful, making it more of an assisted suicide rather than homicide. The cabin boys self-sacrifice would be considered heroic and make the sailors actions less immoral. However, the consent option could still fall under scrutiny because there would be no way to verify these claims later in the courtroom.

Decision

Based on my moral principles, I believe the decision to take the cabin boys life was wrong. Like any other sailor, Parker had the right to live, no matter how weak his health was. The survival of the group should never come at the expense of one of its members. The sailors had no right to take the life of another based on their perception of his value to the group. If I were on the jury making the decision of whether or not the surviving sailors were guilty, I would vote yes. The approach I used to make this decision is The Rights Approach.

Reflection

Ethics and Life

The course Ethics and Life covered many different moral topics and dilemmas that interested me. Philosophy is a very abstract and introspective science, which is hard to grasp, but I felt I gained a good understanding of it after the course. Environmental, development, deontological, and teleological ethics allowed me to assess my own moral standards that allowed to analyze the Lifeboat dilemma. Western ethical traditions were very interesting because they explained the origins of the morals upon which our society was built.

Application

My learnings will be very useful in future career paths I might take. For example, suppose my job will be in an office setting. In that case, the lessons I took will be useful in settling disputes between colleagues and making major management decisions involving people. Moral issues at work are far more common than most believe. Deciding what would be best for the majority of the community or one single individual requires knowledge of ones moral standards and ethics.

Ethical principles exist in every profession to dictate acceptable practice and promote professionalism. Social workers are often presented with ethical dilemmas in their duties that demand competence in the ethical decision-making processes. While it may be tempting to overstep ones mandate in ethical dilemmas, it is prudent to maintain ethical boundaries with clients to earn their trust and promote cordial relationships.

Anticipated Ethical Dilemma

I will be working in a rehab treatment center as a social worker with recovering drug addicts. Building from my experience, I expect to face dilemmas around the principle of self-determination and the importance of human relationships. For instance, I anticipate a situation whereby a recovering addict will maintain their social circle some still abusing drugs. As a paraprofessional, I understand that one way of solving the problem of addiction is to advise the patient to cut links with their former dealers. However, the ethical principle of self-determination gives my client the right to mingle and associate freely.

Relevant Ethical Boundaries to Maintain and Importance

The ethical principles of self-determination and the importance of human relationships give clients the autonomy to make independent decisions and socialize with others unbounded. As a counselor, one of my valued recovery plans is for an addict to stay away from their friends who are still using drugs to avoid peer inspired relapse (Lookatch et al., 2019).. However, as a professional worker, I understand the ethical weight carried by the principle of self-determination. While I could advise the client against socially interacting with their friends, it would be feasibly impossible if the same clients were to go ahead do the opposite. This is because their freedom to take control of their lives and regardless of their conditions marks an ethical boundary that I am bound to respect as per the social worker code of conduct (Naswma, n.d). Therefore, the ethical boundary exists to guide the relationship between my practice as a counselor and my clients right to self-determination.

. Another ethical boundary emanates from the principle of human relationships. Human relationships are vital to addicts as they influence support to enhance the recovery process. However, in this scenario, the relationships are likely to be destructive rather than constructive. Allowing the patient to interact with former friends who still use drugs could negate the gains made in the recovery process. These friends will probably motivate the client to get to drug life again through intentional and unintentional opportunities. As a counselor, I understand these dangers, but my influence is limited. I am obligated to advise the client on which friends to keep and which ones to cut off his network. However, I cannot decide outrightly for my client which circles to keep. Thus, the importance of human relationships sets an ethical boundary that is solidified by the right to self-determination.

Maintaining ethical boundaries is essential in professional practice as it helps neutralize conflicts. Firstly, setting and maintaining ethical limitations promotes clarity of responsibilities. It helps define the roles of each participating member in an engagement. The boundaries will help me understand where my professional influence should end as a counselor. In addition, ethical boundaries are instrumental defining responsibilities for each party. Ethical boundaries are also crucial in enhancing relationships between social workers and their clients. An addict who feels that they are being accorded their space is likely to corporate because they trust. They might even be responsive to counsel, which would boost their overall success in recovery because of trust. Therefore, there is prudence in maintaining ethical boundaries when dealing with drug addicts.

The Ethical Decision-Making Process

There are six primary steps in the decision-making process to be followed in addressing the created ethical dilemma. The first would be to determine or justify the presence of an ethical dilemma by assessing values against professional responsibilities. The second step is identifying and profiling the involved ethical principles. In the created scenario, the principles of self-determination and the importance of human relationships are affected. The third step is to rank the identified principles in their order of relevance. In the scenario, self-determination is prominent as it affects the clients choice of friends and relationships. The fourth step is to develop an action plan that is professionally guarded without trumping upon clients rights. The action plan would inform the client of the risks of associating with his former friends in the created scenario. The fifth step is implementing the action plan through skillful negotiation and sensitive communication (Naswma, n.d). Finally, it would be prudent to reflect on the outcome of the ethical decision-making process and thus identify gaps for further professional training and improvement.

Supervisor Involvement

There are instances where the intervention of a higher authority is necessary. In this scenario, if my client responds with hostility to my advice, it would be prudent to seek help from my supervisors. A neutral voice would help the client see the rationale behind my advice. Besides, my supervisor has been in the field for a long and has more experience dealing with ethical dilemmas. Enjoining an expert will help diffuse any tension as the client will have more confidence in someone above me. Thus, while I am confident about my experience in handling the issue, it might be necessary to involve a third party.

In summary, paraprofessionals need to be ethically sensitive when working with their clients. Ethical principles guide professional practice by setting boundaries to be observed. In the scenario, a social worker dealing with a drug addict should respect the clients principles of self-determination and freedom to socialize as part of relationship building. However, the paraprofessional should provide edifying counseling to aid the client in making informed decisions.

References

Lookatch, S. J., Wimberly, A. S., & McKay, J. R. (2019). Effects of social support and 12-step involvement on recovery among people in continuing care for cocaine dependence. Substance use & misuse, 54(13), 2144-2155.

Newman. (n.d.). Essential Steps for Ethical Problem-Solving. Web.

Newman. (n.d.). Ethical Challenges for Social Workers in Substance Abuse: Ethical Lapse and Relapse. Web.

What actions do you recommend Rajah take about his concerns with respect to the new one-cent-in-change policy?

There are several important factors to consider in this situation. Rajah should check whether the policy is a part of the overall company strategy or it is the initiative of his regional manager. Rajah might have a better chance to influence the situation in the second case. If his regional boss developed the policy, it would be crucial to establish Laurens motivation for implementing it. Lauren might sincerely believe that this ploy will benefit the company. Another possibility here is that he envisions being promoted if he meets his goals. Rajah should also analyze whether his boss is likely to treat his concerns with respect. Lauren might ignore Rajahs concerns, even if he delivers an evidence-based, convincing argument. He is young, has little experience, and probably belongs to a different ethnic group. All these factors might negatively impact his conversation with the boss.

One strategy Rajah should consider employing is collecting feedback from the cashiers. He can ask them to document every case when a customer asks them to give a penny back and expresses even the slightest dissatisfaction. When he collects enough evidence, he can present the case to Lauren. In doing so, Rajah should avoid accusing his boss of a misdemeanor, as it will reduce his chances of success. If Lauren genuinely wants the company to succeed, he might realize that his policy causes reputational damage to the organization and revert it. However, if he is motivated by a potential promotion, and does not care about the long-term goals of the company, this strategy might prove inefficient. As previously noted, if the policy is sanctioned at the highest level, it will be more difficult to change it. However, if Rajah convinces his boss that this tactic is harmful to the company, Lauren might share his findings with the top management and ask them to reevaluate the effectiveness of the policy.

Explain whether you think Rajah should blow the whistle on his employer.

Blowing the whistle on the employer is not the best solution in this case. Dubrin (2015) states that a problem with blowing the whistle, particularly in a big company, is that your complaint is likely to be ignored (p. 371). Therefore, Rajah should use every chance to resolve the problem without appealing to a higher authority.

What is your opinion of the ethics of the new policy about withholding one-cent-in-change?

Even though Laurens point regarding customers not caring about one penny is reasonable, the policy is unethical. By not giving a penny back, the cashier effectively robs the customer of his money. The only case where keeping the change would be acceptable is when a customer tells the cashier that they do not want it.

Is there a need for ethics training? If so, why?

Ethics training could prove useful in raising awareness about ethical issues among the employees. If the staff is morally conscious, there is a better chance they will protest against unethical policies, and the management of the company will be forced to reconsider those. Ethics training for senior leaders can be useful to ensure they understand the impact of the decisions they make on the company image and workplace environment.

How often should ethics training take place? Why?

Ethics training should take place regularly (for example, once a month) to reinforce positive habits. Moreover, in the modern sociopolitical environment, ethical guidelines might change over time. Therefore, it is vital to ensure that ethics training is relatable and based on current issues.

By having ethics training, what can the employer and employees learn?

They can learn how to distinguish unethical behaviors and prevent those. They can also learn the benefits of ethical conduct for company culture, the public image of the company, employee satisfaction, and so forth.

References

Dubrin, A. J. (2015). Human relations: Interpersonal job-oriented skills (12th ed.). Pearson.