Category: Ethan Frome

In Edith Wharton’s Ethan Frome, Ethan is a dark character whos past alters how he looks at life. Some say that his change occurred within himself. His own personal choices have led him to where he is now, but this is not true. People grow up learning from the ones around them. We are all affected by how others act, and we learn and grow from the people around us. Edith Wharton portrays Ethan as a victim of his social and physical environments because he acts differently due to the long winters in Starkfield and social situation.

Zeena is brought into Ethan’s life, and he falls for her because it is winter. Ethan’s dad died, and his mother is sick, so Zeena comes to help. After being stuck in a house with a mother who is mentally unstable, Zeena’s presence fills Ethan with a sense of comfort. The narrator writes, “After the mortal silence of his long imprisonment, Zeena’s volubility was music to his ears. He felt that he might have ‘gone like his mother’ if the sound of a new voice had not come to steady him’ (29). Ethan was close to going crazy himself, but Zeena shows up and fills the silence with her voice. Compared to his mother, Zeena is a shining light in the middle of darkness. Winter is connected to death in the circle of life. Her death is in the dead of winter, contributing to the sense of loneliness Ethan has felt already. After Ethan’s mother dies, Ethan is worried about the isolation that might come out of it, and he was “seized with an unreasoning dread of being left alone of the farm; and before he knew what he was doing he had asked her to stay there with him. He had often thought since that it would not have happened if his mother had died in spring instead of winter” (29). The reason for Ethan wanting to marry Zeena is so that he is not left alone on the farm. The winters in Starkfield are long and hard, and the thought of being alone sends Ethan into a panic. He will cling himself to any sense of life that he can find, which he sees in Zeena.

Similar to Zeena, when Mattie comes to Starkfield Ethan is very fond of her because of the conditions that he is in. Mattie comes to take care of Zeena, who has become ill and frail. Zeena has taken the role of Ethan’s mother and needs someone to take care of her. The narrator writes, “then she too fell silent. Perhaps it was the inevitable effect of life on the farm, or perhaps, as she sometimes said, it was because Ethan ‘never listened’” (30). Starkfield changes people. Zeena came into Ethan’s life as a relief and has now turned into a burden. Ethan is now looking for relief from this burden and finds Mattie. Mattie brings life and happiness to the Frome farm, and Ethan doesn’t want to lose her. Ethan is looking at his family gravestones and thinks, “I guess we’ll never let you go, Matt… we’ll always go on living here together, and someday she’ll lie there beside me” (21). Ethan is falling for Mattie because he hopes that she will help bring him out of the perpetual winter. Once he realizes that he will never get out of Starkfield because of Zeena, he tries to drag Mattie in so she can continue to make him happy.

Ethan, Zeena, and Mattie now live together as a product of Ethan’s attempts at happiness. They are all miserable and live a dreary life. When seen from afar, Ethan “seemed a part of the mute melancholy landscape, an incarnation of its frozen woe, with all that was warm and sentient in him fast bound below the surface” (5). Ethan has been stuck in Starkfield for so long that he has become part of it. Starkfield is a snowy, cold town with no character or life, just like Ethan. Everyone in the house has lost a part of themselves because the wintery Starkfield sucks the life out of you. Mrs. Hale, a resident of Starkfield, describes the Frome’s situation. She says, “if she’d ha’ died, Ethan might ha’ lived; and the way they are now, I don’t see there’s much difference between the Fromes up at the farm and the Fromes down in the graveyard; ‘cept that down there they’re all quiet, and the women have got to hold their tongues” (77). The smash-up occurred in the winter and changed Mattie forever. She has now evolved into what Zeena was like when she came to help her, and what Ethan’s mother was like when Zeena came to help. Mattie is now in a state worse than death; she is living death. The only difference between her and Ethans ancestors in the graves is that they’re quiet, while Matties moans can be heard throughout the house.

Ethans past and current environments has affected his actions. He just wants to be happy, but his past haunts him. Peoples environments around them can change their thoughts, feelings, and actions. Similar to Ethan Frome, it is important to take into account ones background and history before coming to a conclusion about who they are.

Particular events in a person’s life can shape who they are as a person and their irrational decisions later on in life. In the novel Ethan Frome, author Edith Wardon takes the reader on a journey through the development of each character. When a married-man named Ethan Fromegets tangled up in an affair with his wife’s cousin and caretaker, his life becomes complicated.

Throughout the novel we see Ethan struggle with his love for Mattie while still being married to Zeena, his wife. Ultimately Mattie and Ethan decide to end their lives in order to be together. Unfortunately, their plan fails leaving them slaves to their own misery for the rest of their lives. Wharton’s novel reflects many elements of Naturalism including showing the environmental aspects that shape the underclass characters and the representation of life as a grim struggle.

The author’s focus on underclass characters helps build depth for each specific person along the course of the story. For example, the narrator describes Mattie as “a poor girl without friends or money” (Wharton 102). From beginning to end of the novel, the reader is able to progressively see more detail as to what Mattie’s life is like as an underclass citizen and gives her a more in depth characterization. Furthermore when describing Ethan, Wharton says that “Frome was poor” (11) and “You’st a poor man’s wife” (100). Both quotes bluntly state that Ethan is and underclass citizen much like Mattie. This is one of the most obvious similarities between the characters. This continuous theme of poverty described by the author characterizes both Ethan and Mattie as the story progresses.

In continuation of the focus on underclass characters, the environment in the story also greatly contributed to their characterization. Ethan’s wife Zeena was surprised with her living situation once married because her “native village was slightly larger and nearer to the railway of Starkfield… on an isolated farm was not what she had expected when she married” (Wharton 97). Zeena was not expecting to live on a farm in Starkfield once married. This shows one difference between her character and Mattie’s. Zeena’s living situation was different prior to marrying Ethan therefore shaping her character as the novel continues. Another example as to how the environment has shaped characters is how the author describes the town of Starkfield.

Wharton says how “after the trains began running nobody ever came by here to speak of” (55). This quote expresses to the reader that Starkfield has been running backwards for a long time. Meaning, the town is very different from any other neighboring town and gives a sense of loneliness and isolation. This gives an explanation for the behavior of Ethan throughout the novel. His soul purpose for staying in this lifeless town is to stay close to his mother while she is ill. The countless cruel winters in Starkfield keep Ethan from his freedom, which can symbolize his loveless marriage.

The author’s portrayal of life as a grim struggle in the novel helps continuously shape each individual character. A big turning point in the novel is when Zeena begins to suspect the affair between Ethan and Mattie, “All I know is… I can’t go the way I am much longer” (Wharton 93). This quote helps show the reader Zeena’s shift in character. This changes her view on her marriage with Ethan and continuously alters her characterization through the end of the novel. Furthermore, at the end of the story the author describes Mattie’s appearance as, “Her hair [is] gray as her companions, her face bloodless and shriveled” (164). Mattie’s aged figure reflects her decisions made early in her life. Her choices to get involved with Ethan infinetly affects the later years of her life, specifically after their failed suicide attempt. Ultimately, the struggles in the lives of the characters drastically change each of them.

The author’s portrayal of the environment, underclass characters, and representation of life as a grim struggle help the characterization throughout the novel. The reader follows the development of main characters Ethan, Zeena, and Mattie as the story progresses. Environmental factors such as the town of Starkfield gives each character a sense of loneliness and poverty. Additionally, the personal life struggles of each character affect their overall development in the story.

In Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex, Oedipus, the honorable and esteemed king of Thebes, bringssuffering upon his people through his unwitting murder of his father. In an ironic sense, Oedipus Rex serves as a precedent for tragic works such as The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Willams and Ethan Frome by Edith Wharton, where the well intentioned actions of a singular character precipitate catastrophic events. The characters Amanda in The Glass Menagerie and Mattie in Ethan Frome unwittingly function as instruments of the suffering of others, giving rise to the tragic vision of each work. Amanda in The Glass Menagerie acts as the source of suffering for Laura through her overbearing devotion to her, while, in Ethan Frome, Mattie torments both the Fromes through her mere presence in their lives. Amanda and Mattie, both primarily kind and optimistic characters, have the least intent to cause suffering, yet ultimately cause the most destruction in each work.

In The Glass Menagerie, Amanda causes the suffering of her daughter Laura through her overbearing devotion to her. Amanda only wants the best for Laura, but fails to recognize that what she wants may not be in her Laura’s interest. Amanda becomes the source of Laura’s suffering through her inability and unwillingness to truly see Laura’s true nature. Laura, an extremely sensitive and sheltered person, lets her slight physical defect define and overcome her, crippling her personality. Although Amanda regards Laura’s physical affliction with the attention it deserves, she completely disregards the sensitive nature that Laura has built for herself. Amanda’s own idea of success for Laura largely reflects on her own failure in life; she does not want Laura to end up like her, a single mother carrying the weight of a broken household on her back. Thus, with nothing but good intentions, Amanda puts her entire focus on ensuring a successful future for Laura, although her plan eventually backfires, nearly pushing Laura to her breaking point. Amanda, disheartened by all the failed attempts she has made to coax Laura out of her shyness, expresses her frustration, “I put her in business college – a dismal failure ! Frightened her so it made her sick at the stomach. I took her over to the Young People’s League at the church. Another fiasco. She spoke to nobody, nobody spoke to her. Now all she does is fool with those pieces of glass and play those worn-out records. What kind of a life is that for a girl to lead?” (Williams, 35). Amanda, ever determined to give Laura a bright future, turns to marriage, the only other acceptable option within social constructs for women of the time, to ensure Laura’s success. Amanda overlooks Laura’s emotional disability and vulnerability, just as she had when enrolling Laura in business college, pushing her directly into the arms of a gentleman caller by the name of Jim. Laura opens herself up to Jim, only to have her hopes crushed by his deception, her fragile persona nearly broken, and the chances of her coming out of her shell completely diminished. In such well intentioned acts and dedication to the well being of her daughter, Amanda unwittingly causes her daughter much pain and suffering through the embarrassment and anxiety over her failure in business college and the affliction of a broken heart. Thus, the chances of Laura ever having a promising future, as envisioned by Amanda, are dashed completely by Amanda’s all-encompassing and destructive devotion to her daughter Laura.

Mattie’s mere presence in the Frome household in Ethan Frome brings about suffering in the lives of Zeena and Ethan. Although Mattie is initially brought into the Frome household by Zeena as an indentured servant with no other means of livelihood, she quickly becomes an instrument of Zeena’s suffering. Not until the end of the novel is her role as an instrument of Ethan’s suffering revealed. Mattie’s infliction of suffering upon Zeena is largely reliant on Ethan. Not long after their marriage did Ethan lose interest in Zeena because “when she spoke it was only to complain, and to complain of things not in his power to remedy,” and over time, “he had first formed the habit of not answering her, and finally thinking of other things while she talked” (Wharton, 63-64). When Mattie arrives in Starkfield, however, Zeena quickly notices that Ethan’s attention, of which she had long been deprived, had immediately shifted to Mattie. Mattie Silver, characterized by her enthusiasm and optimism, qualities that starkly contrast to those of the dreary, melancholic characters in the novel such as Zeena, understandably attracts the attention of Ethan. Zeena expresses her knowledge and anguish over Ethan’s strong interest in Mattie when she remarks on Ethan’s newfound habit of daily shaving since Mattie’s arrival. Thus, although not explicitly expressed in the novel, Mattie torments Zeena through her unintentional hold over Ethan’s heart and desires, that for which Zeena yearns.

While Mattie initially serves as the light and warmth in Ethan’s life, her persuasion of Ethan to cause the “smash-up” results in his long term suffering. For nearly 20 years Ethan has suffered in silence, in the desolation of Starkfield and in his commitment to Zeena, but his life is given a new light when Mattie arrives in Starkfield. Ethan finds such consolation and hope in Mattie and sees her as “more than the bright serviceable creature he had thought her. She had an eye to see and an ear to hear: he could show her things and tell her things, and taste the bliss of feeling that all he imparted left long reverberations and echoes he could wake at will” (Wharton, 29). Therefore, Ethan looks to fulfill his long term agony with easily accessible Mattie, only to be devastated just as he had been in his marriage to Zeena. Therefore, when the time comes for Mattie to depart, Ethan is desperate to find a way to escape his confinement in Starkfield and steal away with Mattie. Mattie believes that in offering Ethan a certain future with her and an escape from his circumstance by coasting “Right into the big elm… So ‘t we’d never have to leave each other any more,” she is acting in his best interest, although when their attempt at sucide goes awry, Mattie is to blame for Ethan’s long-term suffering and hardship (Wharton, 143). Ethan is not only left physically crippled by Matties “innocent” persuasion, but he loses the girl with whom he fell in love. Mattie is paralyzed by the accident, and becomes a querulous, whining, and petulant invalid, forever changed by the accident. All hope of escape from his current situation in Starkfield are dashed by the “smash-up,” and Ethan continues to live a life of misery, bound to not one, but two tormenting and harrowing women. It is evident by the end of the novel that Mattie’s inadvertent hold over Ethan serves as the primary instrument of suffering that torments Zeena and destroys all hope of a prosperous future for Ethan.

In both The Glass Menagerie and Ethan Frome, a predominantly cheerful and optimistic character with no intent to cause suffering, brings tribulation to other characters of the novel. These characters, Amanda in The Glass Menagerie and Mattie in Ethan Frome, possess a certain lack of awareness in how they act that torments those to whom they are closest. Amanda fails to recognize her daughter Laura’s fragility, who suffers under her mother’s overwhelming and destructive devotion. Likewise, Mattie serves as an instrument of both the short term suffering of Zeena and long term suffering of Ethan through her unintentional seduction of Ethan. Through no fault of their own, the suffering these characters unwittingly inflict upon others drives the tragic vision of each work.

Reading great literature can teach a great deal about aspects of life that we are unaware of. In Sharon Olds’ poem “The Victims”, In John Updike short story “A&P”, Edith Wharton novel Ethan Frome, we are given views of characters struggling with various emotions. Like anger, fear, resentment, bitterness, society values and loss of individuality. Letting people to be the causes of all these emotions tend to affect their own life making decisions and choices. Because, all they know is what it is like to have you thoughts messed with. Not having the power in them to do what they please and control their own life.

In Sharon Olds poem “The Victims” it starts off by the speaker revealing the hate they were taught towards their father. Showing that they were taught no respect and wish the worst upon him. They constantly refer to the father by word “You” at the beginning of the poem. “When Mother divorced you, we were glad…. ” (Line 1). These lines show that having a deadbeat father whose bad choices gave a happy and rewarding feeling to his kids. The mother putting all these thoughts into the kids caused them to be unable to build their own feeling towards him. All they knew was to hate, be angry, and resentful. Suddenly in the second half change occurs, where they start referring to him as Father, and start having pity for him. From thinking the mother and children are victims, she changes it to feeling sorry for the father, and him being the victim. Showing that growing up they weren’t able to express their true feelings about him. Now realizing that the mother filled them with negative feelings towards the father. Struggling with individuality in this case because the kid only knew to be drawn to reject his father’s mistakes. Now later in adulthood the kid realized that all the bums out on the street were probably in the same situation as the father. Realizing that society doesn’t value these bums just like they were taught growing up.

In the short story “A&P” by John Updike, it starts off by three girls in a grocery store only wearing bathing suits and catching the eye of 19 year old Sammy.

In the short story Ethan Frome by Edith Wharton, Ethan is a man who had gone through a lot of events in life that caused him setbacks. Living in an unhappy world where he pleases everyone but himself. Frome studied physics in college and would have succeeded as an engineer. But having a sick mom back at home, and a family farm to run, he thought it was his responsibility to head back home and take charge. Only leading to the beginning of his miserable life. After the death of his mother, Frome married a girl named Zeena. Zeena had helped take care of Ethan mom all throughout her sickness. Her being around during a hard time made Ethan fall in love with her. Especially after such a tragedy the thought of being alone scared Ethan. Eventually being the cause of a miserable marriage. Zeena soon herself became ill, which was the reason Mattie her cousin came to live with them to help out around the house. Mattie is young and attractive women. When Mattie came around she brought light to Ethan miserable life. Soon Ethan and Mattie fell in love with each other. Zeena eventually caught on and prevented them from being together.

Ethan had so many opportunities to leave Zeena for Mattie. He never had it him to make such choices. He could have easily sold the farm and ran away with Mattie. He even thought of just leaving by writing a letter to Zeena. But of course he doesn’t have it him to do such a thing. He starts thinking about how Zeena would be left with nothing. Also how it would be unacceptable in his society to do such a thing. His overthinking thoughts show how Ethan has lost his individuality throughout his years in Starkfield. He not letting himself live how he wants because he is always thinking of others and social approvals. When Ethan and Mattie took the last sled ride together, Mattie got into Ethan head about committing suicide. Mattie thought that if they crashed into a tree, they would both escape together. Being another example how Ethan isn’t able to control his own life. Rather than doing things that would make his life better, he endure pain for the lack of individuality. Now dealing with the consequence of being stuck paralyized with Mattie, being taken care of through Zeena.

Within the American novella, authors such as Hawthorne and Wharton value the presence of the wilderness in their respective narratives, but to differing levels. The representation of wilderness within the authors’ narratives is used to express the inner most feelings of their characters, whilst being simultaneously presented as a physical threat that shapes the lives of others. Wilderness poses as something to be feared and is characterised in a hostile way, emphasising how some characters are in fact inextricable from the ‘wild’ that surrounds them. The concept of wilderness is ambiguous in itself: it is not an entirely natural concept but more of a human social construction. Its meaning is confused to a point where there is no definitive description, yet when applied to certain aspects within The Scarlet Letter and Ethan Frome, a whole range of interpretations are evoked. The wilderness, in some respects, can be seen as something to be preserved and treasured, whilst also being this obstacle that influences the individual to make bad choices, challenging the society that they find themselves in. We find that the wilderness is, by extension, a part of nature and the natural world, however, this essay will offer a close analysis of both narratives and the kind of wilderness that is present within. We find in Wharton’s narrative that, whilst there are many descriptions that convey the significance of nature and the landscape to the lives and feelings of the characters, Wharton’s gothic writing style illuminates how the wilderness is interpreted as a fear of the unknown and the unfamiliar; enforced through Frome’s incapacity to adjust his life for the better.

Upon reading the opening of The Scarlet Letter we are introduced to the setting of the narrative within Boston, set in the New World. The chapter opens in a mysterious manner which primarily describes the significance of a prison cell surrounded by the natural environment. The foliage around the prison cell acts with agency, growing and spreading over the cell, almost as if it is trying to consume the cell itself and make it part of the natural world. This suggests how nature is acting as a kind of liberating force against the errors of society within the landscape. The prison is even described as this: “black flower of civilised society” [37] connoting a kind of hostility towards what the Old World offers to the new landscape: material comforts, law and order, justice. We find that the wilderness that exists around Boston is almost trying to fight back against this and preserve uncorrupted ideals in the New World. The shrubbery and overgrowth on the prison cell even has: “a wild-rose bush, covered, in this month of June, with its delicate gems […] offer[ing] their fragrance and fragile beauty to the prisoner” [37] demonstrating how nature can offer a sense of comfort whilst simultaneously acting in implied “pity” for Hester; this “condemned criminal”. As a whole, the “black flower” and “rose bush” contrasts Puritanism’s judgement with the forgiving aspect of the wilderness. That being said, the wilderness seems to act in compassion towards Hester, as if trying to break her bonds to a society she wishes to be freed from. This reflects not only her difference towards the other Puritans but the fact that she is one that “roamed as freely as the wild Indian in his woods” [150]. This demonstrates how her appreciation of nature is alike to “the wild Indian” indicating how this comparison proposes that Hester has the same conceptualisation of the landscape. The Puritans’ idea of the wild is something that does not contain the same ideals and values as their own, yet the argument can be made that what they deem is ‘civilised’ is interpreted by the Indians to be entirely unnatural and ‘wild’ all the same. This links back to this social convention of what the wilderness is seemingly defined as, given that it is much more feasible to see that it is the thought of the unknown that is truly mystifying and dangerous. Only through the wilderness is Hester’s mind unshackled; she no longer conforms to the laws of her town. As a result we see that she has changed later on in the narrative, revealed when she is interpreted as a woman now “foreign to the clergymen” [149]. This is expressed further through Hester’s need to escape the pressures of the civilisation she is under, as the woods enables freethinking and freedom, which she would not find under the watchful and intrusive eyes of the town. The wilderness acts as this safeguard to Hester and Dimmesdale, their idyllic homeland to which they can be hidden from Puritan law. It is also the place that they are able to rekindle their love for one another, as here they find the strength and unity they seek. The wilderness eliminates the existence of their lawful world, naturally bringing them together where the town seeks to separate and divide, which is wholly unnatural. When both Hester and Dimmesdale meet in the forest, the text offers this as the pivotal moment in which the rebellious lovers finally agree to flee from their Puritan world. However, this romanticisation within the wild could just be a fulfilment of Puritan belief of the perils that lay in wait in the forest. This is expressed when Pearl refers to “the Black Man […] he [who] haunts the forest” [138-139]. Though we are not given an exact description, Pearl indicates that it is the forest that the Devil owns, and that they are entering a territory that has entirely been drenched in Puritan imagination as a landscape that can corrupt the individual. In this sense then, both Hester and Dimmesdale are buying into the Puritan belief even though they believe they are escaping it. When they flee “the gloom of the earth and the sky [that] had been the effluence of these two mortal hearts, […] vanished with their sorrow” [152] indicates hopeful imagery of their divergence from the Old World into a more prosperous one. Though Hawthorne interweaves the romantic in this, there is the suggestion that Hester and Dimmesdale are abiding to the laws of the wilderness. They believe their escape will bring them solace, but this alludes to the overarching idea of man not being able to form a mutual relationship with both nature and the society they belong to. The essential point within Hawthorne’s narrative is this requirement of finding a balance between society and nature, so that the individual can benefit and progress forward. For characters like Hester and Dimmesdale, this is unachievable due to their isolation. We even see the impacts this has on people like Dimmesdale who becomes “a man sore sick” through the eyes of the physician [102]. He is even described to be “pale”, which suggests Dimmesdale’s refusal to accept his natural affinities, resulting in physical ailments that he develops as the narrative pushes on.

After meeting with Hester, Dimmesdale cannot help but feel that: “The pathway among the woods seemed wilder, more uncouth with its rude natural obstacles, and less trodden by the foot of man” [161-162]. We see a strange change in attitude to Dimmesdale’s perspective of the forest as he now seems to envisage it in a hostile way. His attitude sinks back into the Puritan mind-set of viewing the wilderness as the proposed idea of what it was believed to illustrate. It is through his leaving of Hester and Pearl in the forest that this sense of isolation from society sinks in further, as he even indicates that he is in a state, both physically and mentally, where he cannot separate himself from the civilised world. The narrator draws attention to “the clergyman’s health, so inadequate to sustain the hardships of forest life” that his very being would only “secure him a home only in the midst of civilization and refinement; the higher the state, the more delicately adapted to it the man” [161]. Dimmesdale insinuates the impracticality of living in the confines of the Indian wilderness in New England. Their want to escape the laws of their society are largely instigated by their sinful actions, yet where the forest is deemed as a safe haven to their crimes, they accept that the modern world is far more “eligible”. Such a meeting could not have taken place within their society as they would have been caught and punished, making the forest the perfect area to discuss their plans. However, this links to this detrimental effect of prioritising either nature or society over the other. They cannot live in the wilderness as they fear they will struggle to survive and be found, yet it is the only place they are able to meet in secret. They cannot bring themselves to give over entirely to nature as they find that they can live out their lives within Bristol. This confirms how there is no exclusive want for one or the other, nature or society, and Hester and Dimmesdale are the prime communicators in that giving in to one or the other would inevitably harm them. A dependency on both is what is needed to reach some kind of equilibrium, but this is a balance people like Hester are incapable of finding, leading to her eventual isolation. The same can be said for Rodger Chillingworth, a physician whose intellectual ability in medicine is informed by Indian remedies used in the wild. His isolation comes from an inability to empathise with the other characters, which reveals him as a man dictated by his own intelligence, resulting in his disregard for the feelings of others. In this regard, Chillingworth becomes out of touch with his own humanity and so is unable to strike an emotional connection with the natural world that surrounds him. His own needs are prioritised and so he uses the medicinal power of the herbs provided by the wild to elicit in his patients a sense of trust: “He was known to be a man of skill; […] gather[ing] herbs and the blossoms of wild-flowers […] like one acquainted with hidden virtues in what was valueless to common eyes” [90-91]. Chillingworth is placed in a position of power, mostly because of his “skill” that has been tailored in recognising the flora of the New World, which people are unfamiliar with. The wilderness helps in his deceptive efforts which arguably disassociate him with the beauty and fertility that the natural world represents. Chillingworth decays over time and requires the vitality of others to live on in order to achieve his end goal. In this sense then, he becomes a leech, and instead of attempting to provide substantial care with the skill that he possesses, he feeds off the misery of Dimmesdale. He is a man who consumes the life of others for sustainability, rather than working to provide life, as nature does.

This sense of wilderness changes within Wharton’s narrative as, in Ethan Frome, the reader meets the titular character and quickly learns that he is one who has “been in Starkfield too many winters” [34]. We later learn this is due to his moral obligations, such as his father’s death and Zeena’s apparent illness. The narrator even brings our attention to “the storms of February […] pitch[ing] their white tents […] and the wild cavalry of March winds” [35], which suggests a kind of hopeless landscape to which Ethan is contained within. Winter acts with a relentless agency here, as it suggests a kind of inescapable hell, one that Ethan ironically feels incapable of living outside of. He is separated from the modern world, cut off from his potential dreams and potential life alongside Mattie as Starkfield’s residents are almost described to be at the mercy of nature. However, it is this same feeling of the unknown that Frome perhaps feels afraid of encountering. To him, this is the essence of a wilderness that he is unfamiliar with; a wilderness he envisages is the modern world outside of Starkfield. It is even described to the reader just how much Ethan is associated to the landscape itself “[he is] a part of the mute melancholy landscape, an incarnation of its frozen woe, with all that was warm and sentient in him fast bound below the surface” [38]. He is empty and shackled to his surroundings; encompassing the very winter that consumes the town and its citizens. Frome lacks the courage and the determination to make something of his life, which is reflected through the coldness of his character. This constitutes to his inability to correct his ways and runaway with Mattie, as he lives in constant fear of the consequences of betraying his wife and dishonouring his family. Ethan never changes because of this, yet we do find pockets of his desires led through his emotions towards Mattie. Ethan “looked at her hair and longed to touch it again, and tell her that it smelt of the woods, but he never learned to say such things” [103]. This idea of nature, which creeps into the description here, gives insight not only to Ethan’s inability of demonstrating his feelings but also to the landscape, the woods, as something he holds in great care, as he does for Mattie. Despite the landscape having such hostile imagery proposed to us by the narrator, we do find that the nature in Starkfield holds large emotional significance to Ethan. He perhaps treasures Mattie like he treasures the landscape; though it is his prison it is the only place he feels he can belong to. Mattie being contained within Ethan’s known environment reflects a shred of the desire within Ethan to pursue his goals. However, this gives out a false sense of security and hope that Ethan is capable of change; the tragic idea of his nature is carved through his isolation which works in a similar fashion to that of Hester and Dimmesdale in Hawthorne’s narrative. This is perhaps extended further through the New England setting and the Puritan communal beliefs that affected the individual during the time. The wilderness to the educated man in such a society is that which is not taught in the same social sphere, which is the same isolation that Ethan inevitably becomes a victim of.

The weather and the landscape within the narrative are tightly woven into the feelings of the characters, so much so that the two are synonymous with each other. Nature, and the nature of each individual, come together as one in the same, shown especially through Ethan’s character development, which is as unchanging as the weather and cold that persists within Starkfield. This particular use of Wharton’s writing style helps the reader grasp a more concrete portrayal of the kind of emotions and natures of her characters that she wishes to display in the narrative. When Ethan and Mattie speak to each other outside of the home, their true selves are drawn out and we witness the truth of their feelings when they are alone: “They stood together in the gloom of the spruces, an empty world glimmering about them wide and grey under the stars” [52]. We are drawn to the fact that nature here, specifically the woods they stand within, is a place considered not wild but comforting to them. Ethan and Mattie’s entrapment within Starkfield has eliminated this sense of vulnerability outside of their town’s community. Like Hester and Dimmesdale, Ethan and Mattie are able to free themselves of the strains of their monotonous lifestyles and enjoy the company of one another alongside nature. This ‘empty world’ that seems to surround them emphasises the intensity of their exchanges, like nothing else is able to interrupt them and they see themselves as the only ones united in a hopeless setting. It is also interesting to note that ‘the gloom of the spruces’ enables such an interaction between Ethan and Mattie. The darkness that covers their meeting together, created by the trees, suggests how the natural landscape is almost aiding their encounters by injecting this feeling of hope that the two will realise their emotions and escape. What may be the wilderness to other residents within the town is a known and emotionally significant area to Ethan; helping with his way of coping in his frozen hell. Ethan realises that this moment is special, as he “would have liked to stand there with her all night in the blackness” [52], as it is one of their very few moments together where he is able to separate himself from the reality of their situation. These moments of romantic suspension between the two recognises the wider tragedy that their love will ultimately be unfulfilled and blockaded by their own flaws. With this, the reader is perhaps able to see that Wharton could be instilling an optimistic outcome for Frome through nature’s representation as a safe haven for their love to flourish. However, this creates the illusion within the narrative that the nature in Starkfield is benign. We are inevitably drawn back to the fact that Ethan is a prisoner to his landscape, as even “the Frome gravestones […] mocked his recklessness, his desire for change and freedom” [54]. The fact these are gravestones that contain his past family members, where they seem to ‘mock’ Ethan’s hopeful outlook on a brighter future, further highlights the tragic element of his inevitable fate. Starkfield is woven into his heart and is therefore a part of his very own self, though he still roams the landscape without a definitive direction. This being said, then, as one can lose themselves in the woods, so too is Ethan lost within the wilds of his society with no end goal. The gravestones symbolise that nothing will save him from the same fate, but if that means being locked in the same position as Mattie, perhaps being lost together for Ethan is far better than being isolated entirely.

Introduction

Edith Wharton’s novel “Ethan Frome” is rich with symbolism that adds depth and complexity to the narrative. Through the use of various symbols, Wharton explores the themes of isolation, confinement, and the destructive power of societal expectations. In this informative essay, we will delve into the symbolic elements within the story and examine their significance in enhancing the reader’s understanding of the characters and their experiences.

Starkfield as a Symbol of Confinement

The town of Starkfield serves as a symbol of confinement and entrapment in the novel. Its harsh winters, barren landscape, and oppressive social norms reflect the emotional and physical imprisonment experienced by the characters, particularly Ethan Frome. The town’s relentless winter acts as a metaphor for the cold, unyielding nature of Ethan’s existence, trapping him in a loveless marriage and a life devoid of joy and fulfillment.

The Red Scarf as a Symbol of Passion

The red scarf worn by Mattie, the object of Ethan’s affection, represents passion and vitality in the story. The vibrant color contrasts with the dreary atmosphere of Starkfield, symbolizing the awakening of desire and emotional warmth that Ethan experiences in the presence of Mattie. The scarf becomes a potent symbol of the forbidden love and the potential for liberation from Ethan’s oppressive circumstances.

The Sled as a Symbol of Escape and Tragedy

The sled, a recurring symbol throughout the novel, represents both the possibility of escape and the inevitability of tragedy. The sled initially represents freedom and joy, as Ethan and Mattie experience moments of exhilaration and connection during their night-time sled rides. However, the sled ultimately becomes a symbol of their entrapment, as the fateful sled accident leaves them physically and emotionally crippled, reinforcing the suffocating nature of their circumstances.

The Color Red as a Symbol of Forbidden Desires

The color red is employed as a symbol to represent the characters’ hidden desires and passions. It appears throughout the novel, from the red pickle dish that shatters during a pivotal moment in Ethan and Mattie’s relationship to the red ribbon in Mattie’s hair. The color red signifies the intensity of emotions and desires that are suppressed and repressed within the strict social structure of the time period, highlighting the tragic consequences of attempting to defy societal expectations.

Conclusion

The use of symbolism in “Ethan Frome” deepens the reader’s understanding of the characters and the oppressive environment in which they exist. Through symbols such as Starkfield, the red scarf, the sled, and the color red, Edith Wharton explores themes of confinement, passion, escape, and the consequences of forbidden desires. The symbolism adds layers of meaning to the narrative, evoking emotions and providing insight into the complex inner lives of the characters. By examining these symbols, readers gain a deeper appreciation for the profound impact of societal expectations and the desperate longing for liberation that permeates the story of “Ethan Frome.”

In this essay, I will be discussing how the theme of realism is present in Ethan Frome by Edith Wharton, and how Lost in the Funhouse by John Barth represents the conventions of postmodernism. I will then explain how realism and postmodernism both depict what life was like during the period they originated despite the century-old age gap between the two. This essay will demonstrate how realism attempts to create scenarios that are similar to real-life and communicate elements of the truth, whereas postmodernism has a more abstract portrayal of the world and uses historical events as metaphors and symbolism entwined with earlier styles of writing.

Realism is identified by literary critics in two ways: (1) a movement of the nineteenth century, related to literary prose fiction, by novelists such as George Eliot and Balzac; (2) human life represented in literature by different historical movements throughout the centuries. Realism was created in the Nineteenth Century as an opposing genre to romanticism, an Eighteenth-Century genre that emphasized nature and the imagination, and the emotions of the individual. Its emergence can be explained in terms of a set of historical conditions linked to the rise of capitalism and consequently, the middle class. As cultural conditions changed, writers turned to more realistic styles of writing to address their new concerns as the struggling middle class, Realism is plausible not because it reflects the world, but because it is constructed out of what is (discursively) familiar (Belsey, 2002:40). Literary realism was the dominant genre from Civil War to World War I, but really did not mean the same thing to all authors. For William Dean Howells, realism was constructed to report just the facts. For Edith Wharton, it was about probing the interior mental states of her characters. Wharton`s realism is all about accurately depicting the emotional and moral dilemmas of upper-class characters. This form of narrative is considered psychological realism, specifically her novel Ethan Frome where the narrator delves into the protagonist`s thoughts and feelings.

Realism sets the boundaries for postmodernism. Postmodernism is the disappearance of the real. This genre moves towards storytelling through sign and symbolization. It is a relatively young genre, originating in 1968 as the new modernism. Metafiction is often a feature present in postmodernist texts, a style of self-aware prose narrative. It is a novel about a novelist writing a novel, each book would also typically have the same title as Lost in the Funhouse. Postmodernism was a move away from poetry-style writing, towards a more fictive narrative, where modernist literature worked on time, and literary postmodernism would work in time (Connor, 2004:63). Modernism had been characterized by its efforts to establish seriousness in the novel whilst incorporating realist influences, whereas postmodernism based itself on the historical impacts on society, it became the thing it represented. This supports my argument that Lost in the Funhouse is a mark of postmodernist literature. Lost in the Funhouse uses self-reflective speech to build a sense of Metafiction, he died telling stories to himself in the dark (Barth, 1969: 95) This draws a link to the Implied Author as it helps the readers to understand the story and the fictionality of it. These metafictional devices serve as a purpose for humor. Barth deconstructs the writing of a short story through the writing of Ambrose`s story.

During the period of writing realism, landscape, and nature were key themes in establishing identity. The conventions of literary realism serve to agender an appearance, make an impression of the real, and support the text’s representation of reality on a theoretical level. In the novel Ethan Frome, Edith Wharton portrays realistic points of view. She achieves this by describing the town of Starkfield, its limited shops, and the people who live there, If you know Starkfield, Massachusetts, you know the post office. If you know the post office you must have seen Ethan Frome drive up to it (Wharton, 2000:33). She appoints each character with specific characteristics that can be easily recognized later in the novel. She describes the landscape, putting the book in a place, that the reader can instantly recognize. Starkfield is represented as a small town, as Ethan Frome is an American realism novella, the focus is on domestic lives. As the narrator is extra-diegetic, they describe the town as being left behind, emphasizing how it is underdeveloped. The name of the town is also a symbolic representation, the adjective stark has connotations of bare and desolate, further exploring how empty the town is. This could be a metaphor for how barren the characters’ lives are, specifically the protagonist Ethan Frome. Despite the novel being rooted in Realism, the description of winter has romantic elements, with its use of metaphors. Just as Ethan`s house had been battered by the accumulated cold of many winters (Wharton, 2000:15), so had Ethan himself.

Edith Wharton employs two narrators to tell the tale in Ethan Frome. The prologue and the epilogue feature an unidentified, omniscient narrator, they have complete and unlimited knowledge of what happens, but all we know about them is they are not a resident of Starkfield. It is in the prologue that the reader understands the novel`s exploration of this mysterious man, Ethan Frome, and wants to know more. It was that night that I found the clue to Ethan Frome, and began to put together this vision of his story (Ethan Frome, 2000: Prologue), the reader only receives the facts that the narrator wants us to have. The first-person point of view in the prologue and epilogue sets out an eyewitness account, giving the novel a sense of intimacy and realism. The narrator then shifts to third person limited, the events of the story unfold in the thoughts and feelings of one character: Ethan Frome. This encourages an emotional involvement between the reader and the character as it forms a connection. The narrator’s interpretation of the snippets of conversation with the people of Starkfield is what sets the tone of the novel, but we are not sure how much of that is the truth.

Lost in the Funhouse opens in the third person perspective. However, throughout the narrative there is the presence of three points of view; the protagonist, the author, and the narrator or speaker, who exists with the metafictional elements in the narrative. The narrator of Lost in the Funhouse is aware the story is written as there are references early on to grammar and language. Italics are employed, in fiction stories especially, for outside intrusive, or artificial voices, such as radio announcements (Barth, 1969:72), Barth uses the narrator to address the issues of story writing as he mentions several alternative ways the story could end, the first expedition found his skeleton in one of the labyrinth corridors (Barth, 1969:95). Lost in the Funhouse tells the story of a family trip to an amusement park, specifically focusing on the funhouse. The protagonist is Ambrose, a 13-year-old boy who gets lost in the funhouse, both literally and metaphorically. The implied author is a construct, the image of the writer that is produced by the reader based on their understanding of the text. The mirrors in the funhouse could be interpreted to be fragments of Ambrose as he is confronted with images of himself with no way out. Does the short story begin with the rhetorical question for whom is the funhouse fun? (Barth, 1969:72) that construct the foundations of the narrative that is going to unfold. The details of Ambrose`s life fed to us create an intradiegetic, omnipotent narrator who is within the narrative world but also has complete knowledge of all other characters in the narrative world.

There is a series of juxtapositions in the narrative. In the funhouse, it is easy for a person to become lost in the secret mazes, which trigger feelings like fear and panic. But the overriding message of a funhouse is fun and excitement, these two elements contradict each other. Lost in the Funhouse requires the reader’s full attention in order to learn from the text as there is much disorientation and the presence of two narrators disjoints the narrative. The story is fragmented and uses symbolization, and metaphors to portray the story. In Christopher Norris`s article Lost In the funhouse: Baudrillard and the politics of postmodernism suggested that postmodernism is a genre where the ideas of truth, validity, or right reason simply drop out of the picture (1990:120).

Wharton draws on the expectations and restrictions that women experienced in nineteenth-century American society. She conveys the message that women were raised to become nothing more than domestic servants and companions for men (Yacin, 2018:48). Wharton reinforces my argument by the way she emphasizes the expectations of women through Zeena. Her role previous to being Ethan`s wife was to care for his sick mother. Women were expected to know how to care for the sick and serve a household, actions which shamed and dazzled Ethan. Shortly after the marriage between Ethan and Zeena began to crumble, Zeena developed an illness. This illness gave Zeena, and many other women, an opportunity to escape the pressures and burdens of their day-to-day lives. Illness on the surface appears negative, but it provided women with an element of control in their lives at a time when women didn`t have much power. Women were trapped, fleeing the household to seek medical care made them appear selfish and careless, but her lonely, mediocre life was the reason for her symptoms. This portrayal shows the sexist views of men on women in the 1900s. Furthermore, Mattie is introduced as a meager, vulnerable character, she is aware of the fact that she can only exist when she is in a close relationship with a man. Her economic dependence is a criticism of female entrapment and reinforces the gender roles of the nineteenth century. When studying Ethan Frome, Ethan`s infatuation for Mattie becomes obvious, her being a much younger and more beautiful woman, opposite to his wife; infertile, ugly, and sick.

A significant theme of realism is pessimism. The harsh reality of the accident set an ironic deathly tone about the house and although Mattie and Ethan are bound together as they had wished, it is via paralysis rather than immortal love, I don`t see there`s much difference between the Frome`s up at the farm and the Frome`s down in the graveyard (Wharton, 2000: 114). Psychological realism is prominent in this novel with Frome thinking of various different scenarios that would occur if he were to run away with Mattie, I think this is important in the discussion of gender as it puts Ethan in a traditionally vulnerable position, as it is, unfortunately, a societal norm that men do not discuss feelings. Ethan Frome is inspired by Edith Wharton`s personal life, emphasizing the real in realism. At the age of twenty, Edith married an older man. This is represented in Ethan Frome as Ethan Frome had married an older woman; Zeena and young Mattie fall for Ethan, an older man. At an early stage, the marriage crumbled just like Frome`s marriage in the novel. Her unhappy marriage forced her to devote her energies elsewhere, like her writing and representing the harsh realities of married life.

As the world celebrated the end of World War II, writers and novelists were questioning the idea of a new narrative that would interest all. This was mirrored through the deconstruction and ironic representation of former theories. Postmodernism could simply be the construct of a representation of the past, which will also lead to understanding (Thompson, 2004:39). John Barth criticizes the severance of the conventional relationship between author and reader through the use of language in Lost in the Funhouse, as the narrator, like Ambrose becomes lost. The funhouse is a symbol of frustration; Barth`s frustration with the new fiction and Ambrose`s prepubescent sexual frustration. Ambrose learns on his journey through the funhouse, that language is a metaphor for sex and that the funhouse is the epitome of sex. He knows the funhouse is for lovers, and that he is not one. The funhouse is a reminder that narrative is just representation told through the playfulness and inventiveness of language, and that the element of storytelling is not a clear picture of reality, but like the many mirrors in the funhouse; one of the many ways life can unfold.

A postmodern writer, such as Barth, self-consciously toys with the disconnection that he receives from society. Ambrose and his narrator alter-ego are both extremely self-aware, the ending would tell what Ambrose does while he`s lost, and how he finally finds his way out (Barth, 1969:77). Ambrose being trapped in the funhouse until the day he dies is a metaphor, he isn`t physically trapped, but mentally trapped in the confines of society and his head, he wonders: will he become a regular person (Barth, 1969:95). Lost in the Funhouse inadvertently highlights the struggles of adolescence, a confusing time, and a time where exploration is key. During the time Lost in the Funhouse was published, the Vietnam War escalated as did domestic resistance to it and there was a rise in a student protests. These students were fighting for their freedom to grow up and find themselves. Ambrose echoes this lack of authority and control as, when he is in the hall of mirrors, he cannot acknowledge himself from another perspective. In a way Ambrose is expressing his need for definitive authority; he will construct funhouses for others and be their secret operator (Barth, 1969:97).

Edith Wharton`s novel Ethan Frome overall supports the literary conventions of realism. It portrays the style and characterization of the early nineteenth-century lifestyle through the domestic focus on one man and his wife, an empty world glimmering about them wide and grey under the stars (Wharton, 2000:52). Realism is the accurate representation of situations in an everyday world. Edith Wharton portrays realistic points of view, a step away from the unique and unusual romantic literature that preceded it. Lost in the Funhouse reinforces postmodernist literature conventions in the way it comments on the techniques of fiction and the concerns of a writer attempting to write a story. John Barth enables readers to identify with postmodernism when he depicts disorientation and fragmentation of reality by displaying postmodernist techniques such as metafiction, the questioning of authority, and the death of the author he wishes he were dead but he`s not (Barth, 1969:97). These two novels come together to represent and echo the woes of their time, Ethan Frome and Lost in the Funhouse are textbook examples of their genres.

Bibliography

1. Wharton, E., 2000. Ethan Frome. Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions.
2. Barth, J., 1969. Lost in the Funhouse. London: Secker

His concerns about money further emphasize his complete helplessness when taking chances; unlike him, Mattie’s father escaped rural Massachusetts although “he had died too soon to prove that the end justifies the means”, yet Ethan’s typical New England rigid code of ethics restrains him from looking after his own interests. After all, he agreed to marry Zeena only because of the fear of loneliness and silence he took after his mother.

The tranquility of the landscape contrasts with his emotional struggles as if nature were indifferent to human suffering: when Zeena insinuates that the villagers are talking about his affair, he can’t bear the thought of being considered immoral by his community, even if morality costs him his happiness.

The sled ride, which goes wherever the snowy course takes it, is the perfect ultimate metaphor for Ethan’s life: nothing more than his failure to take control over his own existence, agreeing that real death is eventually preferable to the living one he shares with Zeena. By the end he cannot maintain his focus and gets distracted by outside forces: the horse that reminds him of the neglected duties in life and at the farm. Here the naturalist theme is further highlighted by the symbolical presence of the stars: by moving in prescribed arcs across the sky, they represent the idea that fate and life are predetermined and stand against the belief according to human beings are responsible for the course of their life and can influence their fate by choosing to act. Ethan was caught between these views and just as he failed to achieve anything in life, he fails to commit suicide. By never making a choice, either to break free from the rules of society and go off with her lover or to give up his dreams and submit to social expectations, he succeeded in destroying everything.

Mattie too accepts her destiny passively; in spite of his romanticism, Ethan’s claims for powerlessness sound hollow, and even Mattie realizes it: though she believes Ethan has been good to her, he more than anyone has been the source of her troubles. Her refusal to consider asking her father’s acquaintances for help proves the shame and her resignation to the terrible (and possibly degrading) fate she believes awaits her. Being pretty, as Charity Royall in Summer will demonstrate, is not enough to guarantee a young woman a reputable social position.

Similarly to Ethan Frome, Summer doesn’t challenge the assumption that social class determines personality and place in the world, it simply shows what happens in a world where this is assumed to be true.

Regarded by Wharton herself as “Hot Ethan”, the seasonal imagery is emblematic of what happens in Charity’s first taste of the life she had so desperately dreamt of, going from a glittering and sultry summer promise to a fading and withering fall reality. During summer, the metaphor for youth, Charity is initially confident she can do whatever she pleases without the approval of society and accepts the ideology according to which her worth depends on how she appears to men, holding the internalized belief that the world can be read in its appearance, therefore limiting her judgments of people on what they look like and not their very essence, exemplified by her willingness to change her aspect only for men she deems worthy of that.

Although in certain circumstances it can seem utterly impossible, joy can be found in many ways, even if it is in disguise. But, for Okonkwo and Ethan Frome joy was much harder to find than they both expected. They had to attempt to find elation by going to extreme measures. For both of these characters, the endless stress and pressure made them feel as if death was the only way for them to seek happiness. Both characters strong feelings of reassurance and need for happiness caused them to make impulsive decisions. In an effort to find happiness, Both Okonkwo and Ethan Frome ultimately decided to end their lives.

Both characters thought that death was the only way they would find peace. Both characters were feeling a tremendous amount of dread. For they no longer knew what to do. Ethan Frome knew that he wanted to be with Mattie and he went to extreme measures to assure himself. “The big tree loomed bigger and closer, and as they bore down on it he thought: ‘ It’s waiting for us: it seems to know’ (Wharton 170),” Ethan reassured himself by thinking that what he was doing was right and that the tree seemed to know as well, even though the idea seemed unrealistic. Okonkwo also felt the same way about feeling safe or finding peace. “We who are here this morning have remained true to our fathers, but our brothers have deserted us and joined a stranger to soil their farmland. (Achebe 203).” Okonkwo had found peace knowing that he had stayed true to his clan. But just because he found reassurance did not mean that he was not pressured by his peers. Both Ethan and Okonkwo felt reassurance with everything they did, from sledding into an elm tree to being a part of his clan. This is significant because it goes to show that they both felt reassured that their decision of death was right. Both characters were fully confident in all of their decisions even if it meant trouble.

Many aspects contributed to Ethan and Okonkwo’s decision. But the main contributor to the madness was the pressure from peers. The pressure of the people around both Ethan and Okonkwo pushed them to make their decision. In Ethan Frome, Although Mattie and Ethan both wanted to be together, it seemed as if Mattie initially pressured Ethan into making his decision. “‘Ethan, where’ll I go if I leave you? I don’t know how to get along alone. You said so yourself just now. Nobody but you was ever good to me.’(Wharton 166).” Initially, Ethan thought that Mattie was crazy for wanting to run into the elm. But after Mattie did more “convincing” Ethan eventually caved. However, Okonkwo was not being pressured by one person alone, he was under the pressure of the whole clan. “ They set fire to his houses, demolished his red walls, killed his animals, and destroyed his barn. (Achebe 125).” Okonkwo had always been a planner. He never planned to be put into exile. He never planned to have pressure from his clan and for his friends to burn all of his belongings. Both characters immense amount of pressure led them to end their lives. Both Okonkwo and Ethan felt pressured by somebody to die with them or to leave their clan. The pressure that these two people felt eventually built up and reached a tipping point.

Despite being able to pull through all of their hardships, eventually, the tragic reoccurrences led to Ethan and Okonkwo making their impulsive decisions. Both characters underwent an exponential amount of stress due to the high expectations of the people around them. The decisions by both of these characters to end their lives were spur of the moment and not at all expected.” ‘Right into that big elm. So we’ll never come up anymore.’ ‘ Why, what are you talking of, are you crazy?’(Wharton 165).” Ethan and Mattie felt that running into the elm tree was the only way that they would ultimately end up together. Ethan and Mattie wanted to die so that they could stay together and finally be able to be happy. The same thing essentially happened with Okonkwo. “‘ That was one of the greatest men in Umuofia. You drove him to kill himself (Achebe 208).” As stated in the text, Okonkwo was one of the greatest men in his clan. But what would drive a man like him to kill himself? His stress and tragic experience. Both Ethan and Okonkwo did not want to live the rest of their lives in the conditions that they were currently suffering or about to suffer. They both killed themselves to seek joy and to put all of the hardships behind themselves. Although suicide is not ideal, the characters in both books felt that it was the only way out. Both Okonkwo and Ethan Frome’s surprising suicides or suicide attempts were in an effort to end their misfortune and seek joy.

Overall, the tragic deaths of Okonkwo and Ethan Frome were in an attempt of seeking finding happiness. The good moments in life did not seem to come as easily to the two of them, from years of exile to neverending guilt. Ethan and Okonkwo both reassured themselves that where they were and what they were doing was right. The two of them also crumbled under the pressure from their peers, which ultimately led to reckless decisions.