Category: Ernest Hemingway

Introduction

Both Ernest Hemingway and John Steinbeck are well-known American modernist authors of the twentieth century, whose works represent the urgent social issues of the era in which they lived. Protagonists created by the authors embody general perceptions of the modern man of that period, his or her dreams and aspirations, and internal struggles. Though from their subjective point of view, writers empower their protagonists with virtues that were respected at that time.

In The Chauffeurs of Madrid, Hemingway through Hipolo represents how a man should behave in the face of war, whereas in The Chrysanthemums, Steinbeck portrays the struggle of a modern woman for equality through Elisa. The given essay compares and contrasts the images of Elisa and Hipolito as people of the first half of the twentieth century.

Main body

Both Elisa and Hipolito perform their work skillfully; it is highlighted that they are good at what they are doing. Hemingway depicts Hipolito as a diligent and punctual chauffeur by saying “and if you told him to show up at six a.m., he was there ten minutes before the hour” (289). Hipolito is calm and accurate, and “as solid as the rock he looked to be cut from”, which speaks to the quality of his character rather than the constitution (Hemingway 289).

Elisa, in turn, is an awesome gardener, which is reflected in her strong chrysanthemum crop. She approaches her gardening with exceptional energy, which indicates that she loves what she does. A particular appreciation of her gardening skills is expressed in her husband’s words “you’ve got a strong new crop coming” and “you’ve got a gift with things” (Steinbeck 2). Therefore, it may be assumed that both authors perceive a modern man to be good at his or her job.

However, Hemingway goes beyond the professional qualities of Hipolito and praises his bravery and courage by saying that when men like Hipolito fight they always win due to their resilience, fortitude, and perseverance (289). This is a turning point in the story, as Hipolito is no longer represented as a civilian chauffeur, but as a specimen of courage, valor, and persistence. Hemingway portrays him as “not romantic” and “not afraid to die”, claiming that people like Hipolito are the best ones of their time (289). Hipolito is the only one out of four chauffeurs who is a positive character with no shortcomings. Even though Hemingway does not overemphasize the virtues of his protagonist, the deeds through which he is portrayed eloquently illustrate that Hipolito is an idealized man.

Contrary to Hemingway’s protagonist whose feelings and emotions are not described in the story, Steinbeck presents a vivid and detailed picture of Elisa’s emotions in order to disclose her personality. In The Chrysanthemums, through Elisa, the struggle for gender equality is portrayed. The main theme of Steinbeck’s story is a capable yet vulnerable woman whose social and personal fulfillment is impossible due to the traditional conception of a woman’s role in a man dominated society.

In contrast to Hemingway who tells what a modern man should be like and what he should do, Steinbeck shows what a modern woman is, what internal struggle she has, and from what she suffers. Contrary to Hipolito, Elisa is an ordinary woman facing typical problems just like other females of that time. The fact that she wears a gardening costume making her figure “blocked and heavy” does not speak of her being repressed by the role her husband handed to her (Steinbeck 1).

Instead, she feels comfortable with her husband who seems to take care of her. What Elisa is oppressed with is social perceptions of what a woman should be and her own vision of herself. Steinbeck portrays Elisa as an ordinary woman of the first half of the twentieth century who feels frustrated in a masculine world and is unhappy with the traditional female role. When Elisa talks to a tinker, one may notice her deep desire to live in a world of adventure and freedom, especially when the man says that society would not allow that kind of thing.

However, Elisa is feminine, and the fact that she starts crying as she sees her flowers lying abandoned on the road speaks to her vulnerable nature. Though being strong and gifted, Elisa is a woman who does not want to be like a man. Rather, she wants to try doing what men do in order to discover new dimensions of herself and become more satisfied with her life. Contrary to Hipolito who is represented as a holistic person and whose deeds may be unambiguously interpreted, Elisa appears to be full of contradictions. Just like the chrysanthemums which have delicate and tender flowers yet strong and long stems, Elisa has both feminine and masculine traits making her feel undecided and oppressed.

It may be stated that Hemingway appraises his protagonist by saying that he would bet on Hipolito rather than Franco, or Mussolini, or Hitler (291). This final phase of The Chauffeurs of Madrid reiterates that Hipolito is what a modern man should be in the face of war, according to Hemingway. The attitude of Steinbeck to Elisa is neutral, as the author neither sympathizes nor criticizes her. One may state that Elisa is an average modern woman who, though desiring to behave like a man, cannot let go of her femininity.

Conclusion

In summary, being indisputable giants of twentieth-century literature, in their works, Hemingway and Steinbeck depict an image of a modern man. In The Chauffeurs of Madrid, through Hipolito, Hemingway represents how a modern man should behave in wartime. In The Chrysanthemums, through Elisa, Steinbeck portrays the internal struggles and contradictions of an ordinary modern woman, as she discovers both feminine and masculine sides.

Works Cited

Hemingway, Ernest. Hemingway on War. Edited by Sean Hemingway, Simon & Schuster, 2012.

Steinbeck, John. The Long Valley. Edited by John H. Timmerman, Penguin Books, 1995.

The Nick Adams Stories by Ernest Hemingway mainly reflect on the author’s personal life and his own experience. What the readers can find in these stories appears very true to life and amazingly realistic. One of the short stories belonging to the book “The Nick Adams Stories” is Wedding Day. This short story is the embodiment of great literary techniques including autobiography along with involving plot.

The story “Wedding Day” is a part of the final section from The Nick Adams Stories. Nick is a young man here who is just married and alone with his charming bride they are traveling on their honeymoon. The young couple goes down the river to settle in their cottage for their honeymoon. They are amazed by the beauty of nature in the places surrounding their cottage and those ones they see on their way to the cottage.

The main characters of the story are Nick Adams himself and his bride. Discussing Nick Adams’ character, it should be stated that he is a reflection of Hemingway himself and is much the embodiment of the author’s very personality. In this story, we find Nick at such an important stage of his life as his marriage and honeymoon journey. What is told in this story is a reflection of Hemingway’s honeymoon when he and his wife enjoyed staying in a beautiful cottage situated on the bank of the picturesque river. Nick’s bride can be also described as a reflection of Hemingway’s first and ever love Hadley Richardson; this charming lady personifies all the dreams by any decent man.

Speaking about literary techniques applied in the story, one of them should be mentioned as a very successful one. In this story, Ernest Hemingway resorts to the use of repetition to emphasize his narration. This stylistic method by Hemingway can be acclaimed as very successful; sometimes it is even mentioned as his “carte-de-visite”. The readers may see the way the author begins the story paragraphs describing the beauty of the nature surrounding the places the couple visits while their honeymoon, and ends up with similar descriptions; thus, the ideas are repeatedly revisited with slightly different words. This literary technique enables Hemingway to highlight his ideas and gives the storytelling sort of complete and cyclical feeling adding to the self-contained impression it produces.

One more interesting literary technique is autobiography. Nick Adams represents Hemingway himself as has been mentioned above. This literary technique can be seen many times throughout the storytelling. For example, the readers may well remember Hemingway’s honeymoon with his beloved Hadley Richardson when reading about Nick and his bride’s honeymoon experience.

In conclusion, Wedding Day short story can be acclaimed as a great piece from the book “The Nick Adams Stories” by Ernest Hemingway. The readers are invited to see Nick and Hemingway himself as Nick’s prototype in a new light of a lover and a young husband. Nick’s character strikes with his love for life, ability to value the beauty of nature surrounding him, and to cherish his beloved one. As far as I am concerned, this story can be evaluated as a nice piece of literature encouraging one to have a new outlook on life and the real values in it. This young man’s sincerity alone with his charming bride, their love to each other, and to what they are given by life simply amazes.

Introduction

The story “Cross Country Snow” depicts themes of a male bound and male friendship typical for many Hemingway’s stories. The main character of the story, Nick, is at a loss about the prospect of his spouse’s pregnancy. Hemingway depicts many themes and motifs metaphorically giving readers a chance to interpret the meaning and significance of male friendship, love and human relations in general. Thesis The story Cross Country Snow vividly portrays a theme of male friendship and a strong bound confronted with Nick’s fear of fatherhood and possible changes in his life.

Main text

The story opens with the description of two friends, Nick and George, ski out. At the beginning of the story, Hemingway describes the icy winter beauty: he writes specifically and beautifully about the world and nature (Meyers 23). The evocative intimacy of place well-remembered marks this, and many other of Hemingway’s descriptions of that boyhood world.

“Nick Adams came up past George, big back and blond head still faintly snowy, then his skis started slipping at the edge and he swooped down, hissing in the crystalline powder snow and seeming to float up and down as he went up and down the billowing khuds” (Hemingway 45).

This description creates an atmosphere of solemnity and beauty. Hemingway depicts a rivalry between the characters and their desire to ‘do their best’. The hesitancy and repetition of phrases, the parallels of contrast, express and enforce the strong bound between George and Nick. Hemingway underlines that both men enjoy physical activity but do not want to talk much about it.

In contrast to a male bound and friendship, Hemingway depicts relations between Nick and Helen, and Helen’s pregnancy. “Though he is not yet ready to be a father, Nick shows that accepting responsibility for his actions will enable him to move forward. The opposition in the opening paragraph illustrates Nick’s conflict” (Edenfield 142). It is possible to say that Nick Adams striving rigorously to forget the vocational implications of his spouses’ pregnancy and instead dwell on skiing, metaphor for writing without such implications, with his friend George, Nick’s alter ego or the writer’s internalized private audience in writing: “George and Nick were happy.

They were fond of each other. They knew they had the run back home ahead of them” (Hemingway 47). The thought of his social obligation raised by his wife’s pregnancy constantly intrudes: in the ski lodge, “Nick noticed that [the waitress’s] apron covered swellingly her pregnancy” (Hemingway 47) Except as fantasy, this surrogate writer’s ideal scene of writing as pure play remains just that, a fiction of writing fiction free from public determinations.

Nick gives an affirmative answer to George’s question, “‘don’t you wish we could just bum together? Take our skis and go on the train to where there was good running…and not give a damn about school or anything’?” but then can’t promise George that they will ever “‘go skiing again’” together’ (Hemingway 48). The repetition of key words and phrases and the circularity of issues has a predictability.

As a part of the collection In Our Time, ‘Cross Country Snow’ can be seen as an in-depth description of male friendship and male activities. This story explores male authority in ways that seriously question its nature and value. Physical activities and function as legitimating agents for men’s images of themselves. “The moment together over the wine and cake is important in revealing how close Nick and George have been.

The scene sets up what Nick is losing in taking on a family” (Edenfield 141). Similar to other stories, ‘Cross Country Snow’ depicts a difference between male and female relations. The themes of love and friendship inform readers in such subtle ways that they are easily overlooked even though they are the forces which motivate the characters’ behavior. In the case of George and Nick they form the basis of their relationship. Too often this relationship is laid waste by stereotypical thinking.

The main theme of male relations and friendship reflects inner feelings and the atmosphere of trust. The contract between male and female relations explains the responsibility towards a male friend and friendship. There is a mystery at the heart of such freedom and responsibility as there is a discontinuity between the main characters and the rest of the natural world. This discontinuity is evident in the new possibilities for narrative.

Hemingway writes: “They took down their skis from where they leaned against the wall of the inn. George was already started up the road, his skis on his shoulder. Now they would have run home together” (Hemingway 52). This scene shows that in spite of all troubles and problems faced by both men, they try to keep their friendship and support each other. Causes must now contend with reasons as the narrative possibilities for the human condition become multiple and diverse. Such an understanding of interpretation vitiates Nick’s insight that male friendship is the central instance of the human.

It is possible to say that Nick regards skiing as an escape from the world and its problems. George asks Nick: “Will you go back to the States? ’Nick answers: I guess so.’” (Hemingway 50), and adds that he does not want to go there. The relationship between Nick and George are based on personal intimacy, especially between vocational peers (Pfeiffer and Konig 97). In spite of the sparse details of plot, the subtle and dramatic dialogue “reveals a clear, sensitive portrait of two strong personalities of Nick and George. Hemingway uses few words in dialogues and shows as real men Nick and George speak in direct sentences, effectively translate the world and achieve their goals, and are therefore traditionally masculine. The impersonal tone of this narration is a highly personal glimpse into the narrator.

The language is simple enough, but in the word repetitions, in the pacing of the phrases, the contrast of the long and short sentences, the writer deliberately appeals to the senses, both to what is seen and how it sounds to the ear.

Conclusion

In sum, Cross Country Snow vividly portrays close relations between two men and the role and importance of male friendship. In this story, Hemingway recognizes subjectivity and creative potential of traditional gender-inked patterns, and uses imaginative power to define and shape what has always been defined as objective reality. Make friendship, and a strong bound between Nick and George, is confined with Helen’s pregnancy and Nick’s fears to become a father. The psychological configuration of the story, considered amid an array of contrapuntal image patterns, imparts a symbolic equivalence between the male friendship and the theme of fatherhood. Male friendship allows Nick to escape from problems and underline his ego and masculine wilderness.

Works Cited Page

Edenfield, C. O. Doomed Biologically: Sex and Entrapment in Ernest Hemingway’s “Cross-Country Snow”. The Hemingway Review 19 (1999), 141.

Hemingway, E. In Out Time. Scribner, 1996.

Meyers, J. Ernest Hemingway: The Critical Heritage. Routledge, 1997.

Pfeiffer, G., Konig, M. “The Bill Always Came”: Hemingway’s Use of the Epiphany in “Cross-Country Snow. The Hemingway Review 16 (1996), 97.

Abstract

Critical thinking skills have increasingly gained attention in higher education, in the world, as well as in Israel. Critical thinking skills has become an essential concept in the Israeli education system, especially in the English curriculum Critical thinking, which means the ability to analyze conceptualizing, and synthesizing information gathered through communication, observation, reflection, and experience, are considered essential in today’s fast moving and global work. With the growing awareness of the importance of critical thinking and considering that it is a skill that needs to be learned and practiced, the Israeli Educational System urges instructors to consider using the strategy to enhance critical thinking among learners. The study aims to investigate how learning about posttraumatic stress disorder, through literature, enhances critical thinking skills among EFL learners. Discussing trauma and topics related to mental health with high school students has especially become urgent as the world is still dealing and coping with COVID pandemic and its consequences affected high school students. The participants were eleventh-grade high school students from Sakhnin Elhekkma High School aged 16 or 17. Using short stories by the American author, Ernest Hemingway, the researcher engaged the students to critically evaluate themes in the literature and relate them to real-life experiences. Questions that required HOTS were included in the structured interviews in order to assess how students’ ability to think critically was influenced by various themes and literary devices the author uses. The study uses various activities and questions that examine HOTS, for example, designing Veen Diagram activity through which learners have the ability to compare and contrast between characters and themes portrayed in the story ‘A Way You Will Never Be’. The results showed that trauma-related themes evoked curiosity among learners, and enhanced their critical thinking skills. This study serves as an example and encouragement to other EFL teachers to incorporate HOTS activities into teaching.

Introduction

Background

The study focuses on the traumatic experiences of Nick Adam, the protagonist of Ernest Hemingway’s three short stories ‘A Way You Will Never Be’, ‘Big-Two Hearted River’ and ‘Now I Lay Me’, published in In Our Time (1925). The study argues that teaching Hemingway’s short stories to EFL learners enhances students’ critical thinking skills, and increases their understanding of trauma and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), which is much more common in adolescents than previously thought. Among the three short stories, the study especially focuses on ‘A Way You Will Never Be’, since it best represents trauma. Students’ critical thinking skills are tested throughout the study. While reading and discussing the short story they are introduced to definitions of trauma and PTSD, the instructor observes whether they can absorb the new information needed to make reasoned judgments on trauma and PTSD. ‘A Way You Will Never B’” is imparted to students and organized according to the English Israeli curriculum. According to Spiegel (2008) “helplessness,” usually accompanied by “a loss of control over one’s body” is one of the most common characteristics of trauma.

Spiegel explains that “the mental imprint of such frightening experiences sometimes takes the form of loss of control over parts of one’s mind – identity, memory, and consciousness.” Levine, et al. (2014) describe PTSD as a condition that occurs in people who have experienced a traumatic event that either involved death or a serious injury and that always involved intense fear. Traumatic events often return in the person’s sub-consciousness, such as in a dream or nightmare. The relationship between dreams and trauma is not a new one and has been made by Sigmund Freud 100 years ago already. According to Freud: “dreams occurring in traumatic neuroses have the characteristic of repeatedly bringing the patient back to the situation of his accident, a situation from which he wakes up in another fright. This astonishes people far too little” (Rabelhofer, 2018 p. 58). Students familiarize themselves with the characteristics of trauma and PTSD by reading ‘A Way You Will Never Be’, in which a veteran who suffered trauma on the battlefield becomes haunted by nightmares.

Rationale

Critical thinking skills have a vital significance in higher education, especially in the EFL classroom. One of the main goals in the English curriculum is the integration of Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) at all levels and domains, to enhance student’s understanding and critical thinking, the English Israeli curriculum asserts in its handbook that Higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) are necessary for learners to acquire and use knowledge effectively and efficiently, and have value in themselves as a life-skill. Learner performance has been shown to improve as a result of both direct teaching and incidental learning of thinking skills. As asserts in the English Curriculum (Handbook, 2020, p. 18), “Application of HOTS will enable learners to be better prepared to cope with the challenges of the 21st century, which ensures up-to-date thinking in a different life- discipline. Moreover, learners at all levels are instructed to use HOTS in social interaction, in their access to information and presentation and appreciation of language. Literature and culture are considered inherently designed to enhance students’ critical thinking.

Significance and Objectives

Topics related to trauma are considered difficult and are rarely discussed with high school students, for example through literature. There is a tendency among teachers, following their practical experience during the practicum in the EFL classrooms, to avoid difficult topics and to think outside the box. This project stresses the importance of not shying away from such urgent and important topics, even if they have a reputation of being challenging. Discussing trauma and topics related to mental health with high school students has especially become urgent because of the current COVID pandemic that, according to most recent research, has especially affected high school students. The consequences of the COVID pandemic on high school students are only beginning to emerge. A new study Goldberg (2020) claims that “remote learning might affect student’s mental health and increase their anxiety and depression.” Besides, Literature enables students to enhance their thinking skills and become familiar with new terms. Before constructing their point of view and drawing conclusions about the possible meaning of the text, students discuss several possible interpretations of the story. They should take into consideration that each literary text can have several interpretations.

This study will be conducted on five-point students from eleventh grade, aged between 16 and 17 from Sakhnin Elhekkma high school. The students are male and female and have the maturity to understand and be sensitive to traumatic life events and able to understand the impact of such events on a person’s psyche. Hopefully, this study will encourage and motivate further researchers and high school teachers to continue research on trauma and related topics, among others, to think of how to discuss it with students, how to expose students to it through literature, classroom discussion, and individual reading, in ways that would enhance their critical thinking skills as well

Literature Review

Trauma in Literary Studies

Trauma and PTSD are considered to be the main theme in most of Hemingway’s short stories, especially in the literary piece ‘A Way You Will Never Be’. Thus, teaching trauma and PTSD to EFL students is considered very essential to impart, since it enhances a student’s critical thinking skills, through which they have to analyze traumatic experiences that are related to the protagonist, or the author themselves. Schönfelder (2014), for example, asserts that: “literary and imaginative approaches to trauma provide a necessary supplement to the historical, it provides a kind of imagination, with the ability to fictionalize and symbolize.

Literary trauma has the power to engage reader’s emotional identification and sympathy on the one hand and critical reflection on the other hand” (Schönfelder, 2014, p. 29). Furthermore, Schönfelder (2014) claims that literary trauma offers specific functions and effects that hinge on its functionality: twentieth-century trauma narratives remain connected, at least in principle, to a long tradition of literary representations to “other people’s pain,” whose ethical implications are tied to their fictional status and to the fact that the other people and their fates whose pain the reader witnesses thoroughly” (Schönfelder, 2014, p. 30). Accordingly, literary trauma has a great impact on readers’ thinking skills, since they operate in an imaginary way. Thus, Hemingway’s short stories, especially ‘A Way You Will Never Be’ are suitable for enhancing learners’ critical thinking skills regarding trauma in general and PTSD in particular.

Trauma and PTSD

Life events can have a traumatic impact on a person, shatter the person’s world view and destabilize her conception of herself. Depending upon a range of factors, reactions to shattering life events can either be short or long-term. Newer research in trauma studies defines trauma as an original inner catastrophe, as an experience of the excess which overwhelms the subject symbolically and/or physically and is not accessible to him. This “radical and shocking interruption of the universe, but not its destruction” means that the pain experienced by the subject is forcefully relocated into the subconscious (Goarzin, 2011, p. 21)

The American Psychiatric Association (American Psychopathological Association, 1968) considers an intense traumatic experience a natural disaster, war/ combat, a terrorist attack, or any serious injury as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). PTSD can result from a variety of traumatic experiences including stressful life circumstances and the impact can be so severe as to attack the person’s “core identity” and even lead to the person’s loss of self (Morga-Lo’pez et al., 2019). People suffering from PTSD tend to have intense and disturbing thoughts and memories and suffer from recurring flashbacks of their experiences.

Even though trauma has been discussed from different disciplines, among others in medicine, psychoanalysis, literature, and history, they all consider trauma as linking the past to the present. Memory on the other side is known to confront the mind with the unexpected and the accidental. While the unexpected happens inside mental connections, trauma is associated with memory and expressed through symptoms (Rabelhofer, 2019). This research will discuss the representation of trauma in Hemingway’s short stories ‘A Way You Will Never Be’, ‘Big-Two Hearted River’ and ‘Now I Lay Me’ while paying special attention to PTSD. I argue that learning about PTSD through a literary character with whom students can identify has educational benefits. Nick, the protagonist of Hemingway’s short stories, who suffer from trauma and PTSD is around the age of high school students.

Creating critical thinkers, especially among EFL learners involves a crucial process that involves the introduction of specific tools and concepts. One of the underlying topics in Hemingway’s short stories is trauma and PTSD in particular. Teaching the literary piece, ‘A Way You Will Never Be’ to EFL students makes them grasp new concepts and aspects regarding trauma. Post-traumatic stress disorder is defined according to The American Psychiatric Association (American Psychopathological Association, 1968) as a disorder “that may occur in people who experience a traumatic event such as accident, terror and war/combat”. Bringing this definition forward to EFL learners might link what students read about PTSD and Hemingway’s short story ‘A Way You Will Never Be’. In ‘A Way You Will Never Be’, the protagonist Nick Adams experiences PTSD while being stationed at the Italian front on the Piave River during World War 1. Through this information, students can understand Nick Adam’s mission. As a character who has experienced war and attack, the first paragraph of the story plunges the reader into a narrative of what Nick has experienced and suffered, arriving at the scene right after the attack: “The attack had gone across the field, been held up by machine-gun fire from the sunken road and, Nicholas Adams saw what had happened by the position of the dead” (CSS, 306).

After reading ‘A Way You Will Never Be’ and adapting the definition of PTSD, as a result of the battlefield, combat/war, or shell-shock, EFL learners can link Nick Adam’s traumatic experience to PTSD. Drawing a conclusion, and making a connection between the definitions to what students have already learned is considered as a high-order thinking skill that EFL learners implement while reading the narrative. Applying the HOT of comparing and contrasting leads students to another HOT, which is called bridging text and context; through which learners can draw, analyze and explain the real relationship between Hemingway, the fellow writer, and Nick Adams, the protagonist. As the English Handbook Curriculum (2020) states: “activities for Bridging text and context encourage learners to understand connections between the text, universal themes and relevant information and ideas from other sources”. As such, sources may include the biography and personality of the authors, and aspects of the historical, social, and cultural contexts of the text. Throughout teaching ‘A Way You Will Never Be’, students will be exposed to Hemingway’s biography; as well as assume that the fictional character of Nick Adam might be the real voice of Hemingway himself.

The Benefits of Developing Critical Thinking Skills through Literature in EFL Context

The primary goal and learning outcome in higher education is developing critical thinking skills through literature, especially among high educational EFL learners. More recently (Stefanova et al, 2017) recognize critical thinking as one of several learning and innovation skills necessary to prepare students for their post-secondary education and workplace. Teaching and fostering critical thinking skills have the reputation of being challenging for EFL teachers. Hence, many high education curricula integrate English literature in their TEFL classroom and ask learners to become aware of the cultural and intercultural concepts conveyed in literary texts. A wide number of works highlight the importance of literary texts in the foreign language classroom, as (Yaqoob, 2011, p. 513) claims: “a literary text is considered as means of enhancing critical thinking and creativity among EFL learners.”

In addition, Ghson (2002) states that teaching literature to EFL learners may impart changes in their attitudes, help them to reflect more deeply on the world around them, and may open new horizons to them that allow for more interception, questioning, and exploration. Although the ability to think critically improves with age, some researchers are convinced that critical thinking can and should be taught and practiced already in an early formal context (Feng, 2014). Besides stating benefits for integrating literature in language teaching, especially for the EFL classroom, much research asserts that different literary texts have different values (Collie & Slater, 1987; Floris, 2004; Hernández Riwes Cruz, 2010; Tayebipour, 2009; Van, 2009). Such literary pieces enhance the culture and intercultural awareness prospectively.

Furthermore, higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) is a very popular and essential concept in the Israeli education system, especially in the English curriculum. According to new research (“Appendix B: Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Bloom, 1956; Krathwohl, Bloom & Masia, 1964). HOTS was developed by Benjamin Bloom 1956. Bloom’s taxonomy was designed to encourage higher-order thinking skills with six levels, which are as follows: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. While Lots requires memorizing, HOTS requires understanding and implementing this knowledge. However, now the stages of Bloom’s taxonomy have been updated to become as remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, revising, and creating. In this model, an individual begins with the basic level, which is called knowledge level, and then progresses until he or she reaches the most complex level, which is evaluation. The model, as it is proposed, seems too rigid. Also, dividing the thinking process, which is characterized by its complexity, fluidity, and continuity into discrete skills, seems artificial.

Definition of Higher-Order Thinking Skills

Higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) has become an essential concept in the Israeli education system, especially in the English curriculum. Research from Anderson (2013), asserts that Bloom’s taxonomy is designed to encourage higher-order thinking skills with the following six levels: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. While Lots requires memorizing, HOTS requires understanding and implementing this knowledge. Bloom’s taxonomy has been updated to include now remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, revising, and creating. In this model, an individual begins with the basic level, which is called knowledge level, and then progresses until he or she reaches the most complex level, namely evaluation. The model, as it is proposed, seems too rigid, however.

Moreover, dividing the thinking process, which is characterized by its complexity, fluidity, and continuity into discrete skills, seems artificial as well. Despite Bloom’s different definitions, it is the most widely used in teaching English as EFL and ESL. Furthermore, when we gain insights into the way our memory functions, we improve our chances to better recall information. This is crucial in EFL/ESL learning because we are constantly storing and retrieving new linguistic and literary information. Besides knowledge, critical thinking improves cognitive skills and mental abilities, such as interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation, and self-regulation.

In addition, according to Suleiman, Muniyan, Madhvan, Hasan, and Rahim (2017), higher-order thinking skill is defined as the mind’s application to construct or find something unique. Higher-order thinking skills allow a person to apply new knowledge and use it in a new situation to receive possible answers. High-order thinking skills allow thinking at a higher level rather than merely memorizing facts and recounting information exactly as it is said. Critical Thinking Skills (HOTS) were implemented in schools to allow students to apply, analyze, evaluate and think creatively. HOTS is defined in terms of (1) transfer, (2) critical thinking, and, (3) problem solving (Brookhart, 2010).

According to Willingham (2007, 9), critical thinking has three key features and includes effectiveness, novelty, and self-direction. What makes it effective is that it avoids common pitfalls, such as seeing only one side of an issue. It is novel in that readers do not just remember a previous solution or a situation to help them solve the problem, but can devise something new. It is self-directed in that the person must be devising the solutions and not be coaxed by a teacher to provide an answer. When a reader uses HOTS, they can consider an issue from various perspectives, look at and challenge any possible assumption that may underlie the issues, and explore its possible alternatives (Halvorsen, 2005). In addition to the reasons highlighting the importance of teaching HOTS in the EFL context, some aspects enable individuals to master skills necessary for the development of new solutions to challenging problems. Since the world is rapidly changing, individuals need to engage in higher-order thinking to continually update their knowledge and skillsets.

Promoting and Assessing Higher-Order Thinking Skills in School’s Curriculum

Norris in his book (1985) asserts that for learners to become good thinkers they need to become observers first, who know how to apply what they already know and feel as well as learn to evaluate their thinking and to change their behavior as a result of thinking critically. Accordingly, enhancing critical thinking should become an essential part of the educational curriculum, particularly in foreign language teaching, ideally executed by good teachers and educators with the help of certain fun activities. Some researchers claim that it is very difficult to teach HOTS. For example, Willingham (2007) in his research discerns that teaching HOTS among students might reveal two problems, surface, and deeper structure. Regarding the latter, a person might read something and automatically interpret it in light of what they already know.

Background knowledge not only allows a person to comprehend sentences but also plays a powerful role in limiting interpretations of a new text (Willingham, 2007). Deep knowledge thinking, however, can penetrate beyond the surface structure. It allows problem-solving skills to transfer to new problems with new surface structures. According to Willingham (2007), it is not enough to teach students metacognition, or regulate their thoughts, because to comprehend the surface structure of a problem students must transfer this thinking skill and learn to look for the deep structure. One strategy is encouraging students to ask whether they encountered similar problems before and think of how they solved it at that time, in other words making a connection between two experiences.

Thus, a systematic assessment for teaching HOTS in the curriculum is very essential. Learners should implement HOTS even in their daily lives. Pogrow (2004) promotes the development of conversations in the classroom which are designed to lead students into engaging in cognitive processes essential to all learning, including the ability to recognize and solve problems, to infer information from a context, de-contextualize, apply ideas from one situation to another (making connections) and to synthesize information (Pogrow, 2004). These abilities are especially related to the learning of a new language.

When applying a suitable pedagogical tool, learners are required to be assessed with an essay, for making sure they grasp HOTS. One essay in the literature program in Israel assesses the HOTS for making connections refers to as the bridging essay. The Israeli Ministry of Education has provided assessment rubrics for grading students’ writing or bridging essays in the EFL literature programmer (State of Israel Ministry of Education pedagogical affairs English 10 department English inspectorate, 2013). This rubric includes categories for HOTS as well as content, organization, language use, and mechanics. In addition to developing quality assessment tools for measuring students’ knowledge of HOTS, De Corte and Masui (2009), Facione, Giancarlo, Facione and Gainen (1995), and Pogrow (2004) argue that it is essential to present and practice educational materials in teacher’s training to enable higher-order thinking. Educators play an essential role in creating critical and independent thinkers, who can discern between logical arguments and sophistry.

Enhancing Critical Thinking Skills in the Israeli English Curriculum

One of the most important goals in the English curriculum is promoting higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) in all levels and domains, so that learners can enhance their understanding and their critical thinking. Hots such as comparing and contrasting, inferring, integrating, predicting, and making connections are implemented, especially when teaching different literary texts. The English curriculum handbook (2020) describes the importance behind teaching HOTS: “Higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) are necessary for learners to acquire and use knowledge effectively and efficiently, and have value in themselves as a life-skill. Learner performance has been shown to improve as a result of both direct teaching and incidental learning of thinking skills. The application of HOTS will enable learners to be better prepared to cope with the challenges of the 21st century (The English Curriculum; 2020).

One of the ways to implement HOTS in teaching a literary text is imparting the key components as explained in the English Israeli Handbook (2020). These key components match Bloom’s taxonomy regarding higher and lower thinking skills. To provide learners with a richer and more meaningful experience, they have to be moved from the literal or concrete level of thinking to higher levels through which they do something with the facts they get out from the text. Thus, acquiring such strategies is crucial for students’ success in all disciplines. Several taxonomies have been proposed as a result of numerous studies in the area of questions and objectives, such as those proposed by Guilford, Weaver, and Bloom. These taxonomies embody the levels of three educational objectives by which activities are posed—cognitive, psychomotor, and effective.

The cognitive taxonomy, which was proposed by Bloom (1956), is the most commonly used in the area of education. Krathwohl (2002) in her research states that Bloom saw the original taxonomy as more than a tool for measurement, so it could serve as means for determining the congruence of educational objectives, activities, and assessments in a unit, course, or curriculum; and the panorama of the range of educational possibilities against which the limited breadth and depth of any particular educational course or curriculum could be contrasted. The six levels within the cognitive domain are divided into two levels of thinking skills: Lower-Order Thinking Skills (LOTS), which includes knowledge, comprehension, and application, while higher-order thinking skills (HOTS): Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation. (Bloom, Englehart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956; Truschel, 2010).

The English Israeli curriculum broadly matches Bloom’s taxonomy, especially when imparting LOTS and HOTS questions for each given literary text. The LOTS and HOTS questions are divided into six key components that teachers must use when teaching literature. These key components are as follows: pre-reading activities through which learners are motivated and encouraged to explore the theme and the topic of the text given, while the second key component is the basic understanding of the text. Activities for basic understanding questions ensure that all learners understand the basic storyline or literal meaning of the story, play, poem given.

Concerning analysis and interpretation questions: encourage students to probe beyond the literal meaning of the text, and may employ relevant literary terms. In addition, activities should include tasks that induce learners to use HOTS. Some specific HOTS should be taught explicitly: this may be done before, during, or after reading a text (English Handbook Curriculum, 2020). The last component is bridging text and context. Activities for bridging text and context encourage learners to understand connections between the text, universal themes, and relevant information and ideas from other sources. These sources may include the biography and personality of the author, as well as aspects of the historical, social, and cultural contexts of the text. This component may be taught at any stage in the teaching of the unit.

Challenges and Critical Thinking among Arabic-Israeli EFL Context

Arabic EFL learners are required to master three –Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), Hebrew, and English- all at a proficiency level to graduate from school and universities. Despite these challenges, Arab-Israeli students have become more exposed to English through television, movies, music, and the internet, and feel more confident to use English when contacting friends and relatives abroad (Amara 2014). As such, EFL educators should create learning models to overcome these drawbacks among their EFL learners each of which might be able to enhance the learner’s competence and language performance. One of these includes the blended learning of the traditional teaching: teacher-centered and learner-centered, through which a teacher provides higher-order thinking skills questions that might enhance the learner’s critical thinking regarding a given literary text.

Engagement is a crucial goal in learning English as a foreign language. (Vinson et. al, 2010) defines engagement as: “the extent to which students are contributing to activities.” (Coates, 2005) defines it as “the extent to which students are actively involved in a variety of educational activities that are likely to lead to high-quality learning.” Kuh (2009) states as well that student engagement involves a high level of participation and high quality of effort in the learning process. Thus, for each teaching procedure, students should act and work with it. As a result, teachers, especially teachers to EFL learners should offer interesting and motivating activities to learners to guarantee positive and active engagement.

The design of a unit plan (LOG) is very important while teaching a literary text. One of the ways through which EFL learners are engaged properly inside the classroom is by imparting a well-organized unit plan for the text taught. The organization of the log is done by using HOTS and LOTS questions that are designed through pre-reading activity, analysis and interpretation, post-reading, and bridging text and context essay. Moreover, HOTS questions help students make their own decisions, strengthen their autonomy, motivate their vested interest in the activity and so increase engagement in it (Pink, 2009).

Hemingway’s Embodiment of Modernism in his Short Stories

Rahn (2011) mentioned that modernism is a literary movement that began in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in Europe and America. The main features of this movement are characterized by a conscious break with traditional styles employed in literary works. This literary movement experimented with new ways of representation, including more emphasis on expressing personal feelings and the reporting of personal experiences. Moreover, modernism is commonly considered as the period between WWI and WWII, and therefore war and related trauma are common topics in this literature. Hemingway’s three short stories as well as other of his texts deal with such experiences of war and trauma. For example, in Nick Adam’s stories, Nick endures physical and internal war to achieve the ultimate code hero. Facing physical and mental wars, Nick sees masculinity, for instance, as a source of safety.

In Nick Adam’s stories, Hemingway portrays war and uses the symbolism of war in different instances, especially in ‘A Way You Will Never Be’. As an adult, Nick joins the war to validate his manhood and fully achieve the code hero. During the war, she discovered the reality of war and that his masculinity will not be justified; therefore, failing the code hero. This idea results in Nick’s post-traumatic stress, causing wars within Nick as he recovers. In ‘Now I Lay Me’, Nick admires fishing, a masculine hobby, in great detail during the night when he is uncomfortable, showing that masculinity provides security for Nick through war. While traveling through the country in ‘A Way You Will Never Be’, Nick searches for symbols of masculinity to find safety: “He had seen guns hidden under screens of mulberry leaves to the left of the broad, noticing them where the sun hit the metal” (Hemingway, 2017,156). This imagery depicts that even though the guns are hidden; it provides the comfort he longs for through his mental journey through the war.

Authors make use of the literary techniques available to them within their literary community. As Nadia Ahmad (2016) claims: “Hemingway makes the reader look much deeper into the dialogue, forcing him/her to interpret the character’s words. This modernist style deals with the psychology of the reader to ensure the full impact of the story even if he/she does not finish the whole story.” Besides, Ahmad asserts that Hemingway’s short stories often turn ordinary people into philosophers. Critics believe that the factual meaning of a piece of writing should not be obvious from the surface story and that the reader should be able to see below it. Hemingway motivates readers to ask questions and provides answers by looking more carefully at hidden meanings such as looking for imagery and symbols. For instance, the use of the yellow color in the story A Way You Will Never Be has several interpretations. One of the interpretations is that yellow is a psychological construct that Nick’s mind creates to support what Freud asserts as “traumatic neuroses.” Moreover, the yellow house also stands for the memory of the Austrian soldier who shot Nick when Nick lies for his second nap:

“He shut his eyes, and in place of the man with the beard who looked at him over the sights of the rifle, quite calmly before
Squeezing off, the white flash and club like impact, on his knees,
Hot-sweet choking, coughing it onto the rock while they went
Past him, he saw a long, yellow house with a low stable and the
River much wider than it was and stiller. “Christ,” he said, “I
Might as well go.” (A Way You Will Never Be p.6).

Diaz (2009) asserts that Hemingway uses different techniques in his short stories in In Our Time (1925). Diaz (2009), writes that Hemingway’s use of language in In Our Time (1925) affects the reader’s emotions. Hemingway’s ability to provide vivid experiences for readers makes the reader reconstruct the text through the act of signifying emotions. This process of signification is made possible only through the use of the reader’s imagination. The study of the relation between emotion and imagination emphasizes readers’ ability to decode fiction the same way they decode reality.

Hemingway’s Personal Life

Ernest Hemingway was born on the 21^st of July in 1899, in Oak Park, Illinois. His father Clarence Edmonds Hemingway was a physician, and his mother, Grace Hall Hemingway, was a musician. Even though he planned to join the military services his defective eyesight led to repeated rejections. He then managed to enter World War 1 as an ambulance driver. Following Hemingway’s life experience, (Sindelar, 2017) asserts that Hemingway left the comfort of home and the security of the Midwest and went to Italy to look for adventures. In Europe, he experienced several romantic rejections, and the experiences with the different cultures and people, as well as time spent in Italy, not only changed his worldview but helped him understand and develop further to the idealist ambulance driver, War revealed itself as a sordid bloodbath, where one was required to carry parts of dead bodies and sustain injuries that would last for a lifetime. According to research from (Sindelar, 2017), the time in Italy, especially the war experience, immersed Ernest in a world that was very different from Oak Park.

In Italy, before he was twenty, he picked up body parts after the munitions factory explosion in Milan. Then he proceeds to the Italian/Austrian front where the soldier next to him was killed, another had his leg blown off, and Earnest was seriously injured. These experiences forged a philosophy of life that didn’t exist and weren’t needed in Oak Park. As these actions and rituals evolved, they became the code and the set of morals for Hemingway’s survival in the modern world. Following this code, Ernest created a modern lifestyle in writing well, where he conducted heroes faces death and trauma. In addition, the Hemingway Room at the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library recently displayed a Bersaglieri medal from Hemingway’s World War I collection, and Hemingway himself bicycled to the front with his supplies of cigarettes, chocolate, and postcards for the troops (Baker, 44). Steven Florczyk’s 2013 study of Hemingway’s service in The Red Cross mentions his riding a bicycle to the front lines, accompanied by a photo of young Hemingway on his bike from the Hemingway Collection in the JFK Library. These detailed events are produced as the first scene in Hemingway’s short story namely ‘A Way You Will Never Be’.

Following his life experience in Italy as an ambulance driver, in which he faced horrors and encountered death, Hemingway nonetheless employed a unique and simple style of writing. He sheds light on the horrors of warfare, biting loneliness, and the horrible sadness of losing loved ones as well as uses such emotions by applying techniques such as irony, contrast, and most of all autobiographical details, which can be seen, for example, in A Way You Will Never Be.

Traumatic Experiences in Hemingway’s Short Stories

Drawing on the benefits of integrating literature in the EFL classroom, and as a means of forming critical thinking, reading, and discussing A Way You Will Never Be informing students about the causes and effects of PTSD. Furthermore, PTSD is a mental health condition much more widespread, especially in younger people, than was previously thought. Hemingway volunteered during World War I as an ambulance driver with the American Red Cross. He was injured on the Austro-Italian front at Fossalta di Piave, and hospitalized in Milan (Young, 2020b). Later he would relive these events through recurring nightmares (Rabelhofer, 2019). Moreover, his war experience influences his short stories, especially A Way You Will Never Be, where the setting is Fossalta di Piave as well. Like Hemingway Nick gets wounded in the battle in Fossalta di Piave four years earlier. He hoped to confirm the details surrounding his injury and to understand the recurrent images that haunt his inner self (Quick, 2003). Hemingway was not only physically injured during WWI, but his war experiences caused a mental disorder in him and may have triggered his suicide.

The research will examine Nick’s traumatic experiences through the plots of A Way You Will Never Be, Big Two-Hearted River, and Now I Lay Me. What emerges from the analysis is the picture of a young man who suffers from the traumas and the psychological effects of war. Moreover, Nick serves as a case study of the effects of PTSD: For example, in A Way You Will Never Be, Nick suffers from poor mental health as a direct result of his war experiences, including a head injury inflicted on him during the war. Nick’s former war comrade Captain Paravacini notices that the war front worsened Nick’s mental state: “I’m sure your appearance will be very heartening to the troop” (Hemingway, 2017).

In ‘Big-Two Hearted River’, Nick remembers traumatic war scenes, especially those that occurred on the burned Seney country: “There was no town, but the burned-over country” (Hemingway, 2017, part 1). In Big-Two-Hearted River, we meet a disoriented Nick, who is back from war searching for meaning and a purpose in his life. He then decides to go back to Michigan, where he goes camping and fishing in an attempt to escape his war memories: “Nick felt happy. He felt he had left everything behind, the need for thinking, the need to write, other needs” (Hemingway, 2017, part 1). Hemingway describes Nick’s actions in detail, painting the image of a restless young man who is trying to distract himself with as many activities as possible while being unable to find relief in any of them. Moreover, traumatic memories cause Nick to recall events about his friend Hopkins: “Nick drank the coffee, the coffee according to Hopkins. The coffee was bitter. (Hemingway, 2017, part 1). Despite Nick’s efforts to distract himself through camping and fishing, he is not able to escape his war memories.

After reading the short story, students will be asked to link Nick and Hemingway through pre, analysis, and post-reading tasks, which are teaching techniques specified in the Israeli English Literature Handbook. Drawing parallels between Nick and Hemingway, students are then asked to take a standpoint and answer the question: how does the background information of Hemingway add or changed to your understanding of the story? (Bobkina & Stefanova, 2016) stresses the importance of narratives stories, for learning about other people’s viewpoints and for informing oneself on a particular topic. For example, readers understand that texts are not just neutral and that language and literary devices are crucial for understanding a text. Thus, students learn to identify and reflect on the judgments they make.

Traumatic Experience in ‘A Way You Will Never Be’

A Way You Will Never Be takes place in Italy during World War 1. Nick Adam, the American soldier, and the protagonist is suffering from shell-shock and post-traumatic stress disorder. He is plagued by nightmares and witnesses the ravage of war. Nick observes the effects of shelling on the townhouses well. During a hot summer day, Nick bicycles from the village of Fornaci to captain Para’s encampment. On his way, he witnesses the bodies and wrecks of war. The American makes attempts to deal with his war torn-memories. When Nick reaches the camp, Para asks Nick to rest before he returns to Fornaci being concerned about Nick’s safety.

Following the personal background information of Hemingway, who experienced the same battlefield on the Italian/Austrian frontiers, helps learners understand the appearance of Nick Adam and his mission at the very beginning of the story. The information helps them to draw a connection and find similarities between Nick Adam, the protagonist of the story, and Hemingway, the author. PTSD (Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder) and TBI (traumatic brain injury) emerged in World War 1 to mainly describe shell shock. PTSD can be caused as a result of having witnessed the brutal deaths of one’s comrades, simply finding oneself participating in a collective, sanctioned violence, and suffering the guilt of the survivor. As Michael Reynolds (1998) claims: Hemingway himself suffers from PTSD and had earlier gone under traumatic war experiences while serving as a Red Cross at Fossalta, Italy during World War 1. When a trench mortar shell exploded a few feet from him, killing the man who was standing between him and the explosion, knocking him out, and leaving him with 227 shell fragments in his right leg alone (Hemingway, 2017, p. 19). The injuries the man suffered indicate that the force of the blast must have been concussive.

Already in 1952, Phillip Young labeled Hemingway’s nonphysical wound as ‘traumatic neurosis’ and discussed its psychological ramifications (Young 162). Nick in ‘A Way You Will Never Be’ undergoes visible symptoms of mental instability: he discourses volubly about locusts and acts in such a disturbed manner that his friend Paravicini tells Nick he must go back behind the lines because he is frightening the Italian troops, to whom he has been sent in an American uniform as a morale booster. Nick also feels as if something is ‘coming on’ that tries to control (Hemingway, 2017, p. 313); Hemingway does not explain what ‘it’ is trembling, mild hysteria but it is visible and hastens Paravicini’s decision. The following lines: “The attack had gone across the field, been held up by machine-gun fire from the sunken road and … Nicholas Adams saw what had happened by the position of the dead” (Hemingway, 2017, p. 3) plunges the reader into a narrative of what happened in the battlefield and introduces Nick as objective observer coming upon the scene after the attack, as someone who experiences after the war. Revise.

Florczyk explains that Nick’s route in A Way You’ll Never Be is virtually identical to the route Hemingway has taken from Fornaci through Fossalta di Piave to the frontlines and that Nick’s observations on the aftermath of the battle parallel what Hemingway could have witnessed on this route. Hence, by presenting this specific information of Hemingway’s historical experience, students will enhance their higher thinking skills by drawing a connection between Hemingway and Nick’s traumatic war experiences. Nick’s observation, as reported in the short story might help students understand Hemingway’s thoughts and feelings. Hemingway uses repetition to emphasize the recurrent thoughts and Nightmares of traumatic experiences. The initial scene, for instance, reveals Nick’s inner state of mind as he observes the battlefield, zooming in and extensively cataloging the bodies’ positions and debris during battle.

Nick’s traumatic symptoms are gradually revealed in ‘A Way You Will Never Be’, first as he talks with Paravicini and then as he lies down on Para’s bunk. After their conversation about drinking, Para asks Nick, “How are you really,” and Nick says, “I’m fine. I’m perfectly all right” (Hemingway, 2017, p. 309). Paravicini is skeptical and repeats, “No, I mean really,” and Nick replies, “I’m all right. I can’t sleep without a light of some sort. That’s all I have now” (Hemingway, 2017, p. 309). Paravicini then asserts that Nick’s head wound “should have been trepanned” (Hemingway, 2017, p. 310), i.e. opening holes or spaces in the skull to allow space for brain swelling. Nick says, “Well, they thought it was better to have it absorb, and that’s what I got. What’s the matter? I don’t seem crazy to you, do I?” and further remarks, “It’s a hell of a nuisance once they’ve had you certified as nutty” (Hemingway, 2017, p. 310). Thus, ‘A Way You Will Never Be’ is given to EFL learners, for best representing the concept of PTSD.

Research considers ‘A Way You Will Never Be’, as best representing PTSD. For example, when Ronald Smith examines Nick’s symptoms, he compares them to those indicated by the American Psychiatric Association’s list and concludes that Nick exhibits all seven criteria for PTSD (45). The criteria are abbreviated here: “exposed to a traumatic event … event is persistently re-experienced … [as] images …, hallucinations, … flashbacks; inability to recall an important aspect of the trauma; difficulty falling or staying asleep, irritability or outbursts of anger; duration more than one month; impairment of social, occupational … functioning” (Hemingway, 2017, p. 48).

In his first attempt to nap, Nick has several memories related to the attack including his conviction that the battle may be futile because the soldiers: “could not hold it [their military objective] when they took it” (Hemingway, 2017, p. 310). Besides, Nick’s memory of an attack when he wasn’t drunk, when Nick asserts that: “making it cold, no time to get it… making it cold up that slope the only time he hadn’t done it stinking” (Hemingway, 2017, p. 310). This incident makes Nick think of the horror experience of wounded soldiers. Furthermore, Hemingway uses several images and symbols to draw a picture of trauma and fear. For instance, the following lines through which the color yellow is used, expresses the cowardice and fear that Nick experiences when traumatized, which are as follows. Outside of Fossalta there was a low house painted yellow with willows all around it and a low stable and there was a canal, and he had been there a thousand times and never seen it, but it was there every night as plain as the hill, only it frightened him… especially when the boat lay there quietly in the willows on the canal …” (Hemingway, 2017, p. 311). Yellow connotes cowardice, similar to the yellow house in Nick’s nightmares, which frightens him.

Nick says pointedly that the image of “a house and a long stable and a canal” leaves him “soaking wet, more frightened than he had ever been in a bombardment” (Hemingway, 2017, p. 311). Nick’s recurring nightmares and his inability to sleep without light are clear evidence that Nick is unable to deal with his traumatic situation. Another instance through which Nick reveals a symptom of his state of mind is seen in the following lines: “gentlemen, either you must govern, or you must be governed” (Hemingway, 2017, p. 412). The implications are clear. Either Nick must govern his thoughts and actions, or someone else will have to control them. Nick is desperately trying to prevent sliding into mental chaos by putting his thoughts on a safe and sane topic from another time and place. Nick’s rambling lecture on grasshoppers, which Nick associates to the trout fishing in his youth is a clear symptom of his state of mind as well. The scene of the corpses at the very beginning of the story doesn’t bother Nick at all, but when it is time for Nick’s departure, Nick’s irrational response to captain Para indicates to the reader, how disturbing this sight is to him, being a vivid reminder of Nick’s condition. For Nick, the unburied dead, like his own unburied past, pose a threat to his mental health.

Besides, the real reason for Nick’s visit to the Italian/Austrian fronts is more likely therapeutic, that is, to boost Nick’s morale and restore his confidence, as Nick assures: “it wasn’t my idea” (Hemingway, 2017, p. 413), Nick has to refer to a “vague and say ‘they’. Thus, very likely the idea was originated with the doctors that were assigned to Nick’s case.

Seiden and Seiden (2013) indicate that in A Way you’ll Never Be, Nick is lonely and the tone of the story does not seem to have any logic in itself. But the reader is motivated to think of reasons what and why it is happening. Seiden and Seiden furthermore state, “Running through Hemingway’s writing is a stance, a point of view that communicates a profound irony: what had promised to be so meaningful is meaningless” (p. 98). Now I Lay Me and A Way You’ll Never Be characterize these types of ghost-like dramas in the protagonist. According to William Adair (Kovarovic, 2020, p. 192), what happens to the protagonists is “lose rather than violence,” which affects their emotions.

As mentioned, ‘A Way You Will Never Be’ is the best representative of trauma and PTSD in particular, and, as seen above, Nick who is the protagonist of most of Nick Adam’s short stories reveals several symptoms of PTSD and trauma. While A Way You Will Never Be best portrays PTSD, the short stories Big Two-Hearted River and Now I Lay Me portray Nick as going through traumatic experiences as well. Similar to ‘A Way You Will Never Be’ shed light on the fact that Nick Adam’s short stories, to some extent, express the traumatic experiences that Hemingway portrays through Nick. Now I Lay Me and Big Two-Hearted River draw different instances of traumas.

‘Now I Lay Me’, ‘Big-Two Hearted River’ and the Character of Nick Adams

The three short stories ‘A Way You Will Never Be’, ‘Now I Lay Me’ and ‘Two-Big Hearted River’, published in In Our Time (1925) best represent Nick Adam and his traumatic experiences. Hemingway constructs an image of a man, namely Nick Adam, who goes through different traumatic instances during the war or post-war. This study comes to show the traumatic experiences of Nick Adam that Hemingway produces, especially in the story of ‘A Way You Will Never Be’, which best represents the topic of trauma and PTSD. Therefore, ‘A Way You Will Never Be’ is chosen to best represent the concept of trauma and PTSD to EFL students.

This section sheds a light on Nick’s traumatic experiences that Hemingway portrays throughout most of his short stories. The traumatic events that Nick experiences in ‘Now I Lay Me’ and Big Two-Hearted River are, to some extent, similar to those presented in ‘A Way You Will Never Be’, each one contains instances of PTSD and trauma but in a different image. ‘Now I Lay Me’, for instance, shows the effects of PTSD on Nick Adam after his war injury. The story recounts Nick’s sleeplessness at the front, for he is afraid of death. This is reflected in the following lines when Nick asserts that:

I did not want to go to sleep because I had been living for a long time with the knowledge that if I ever shut my eyes in the dark and let myself go, my soul would go out of my body. I had been that way for a long time, ever since I had been blown up at night and felt it go out of me and go off and then come back. I could only stop it by a very great effort. So while now I am fairly sure that it would not have gone out, yet then, that summer, I was unwilling to make the experiment (Hemingway, 2017, p. 276).

Nick’s insomnia and recalling past events are considered as clear evidence of the shock he goes through. Nick tries to cope with his fear of death via remembering life before the war when reverting to his childhood when no longer at war. Nick connotes sleep with death, so rather than falling asleep like other soldiers, he keeps himself awake all night. One way through which Nick avoids sleeping well is when he talks about nature. Nick, for instance, says: “I had different ways of occupying myself while I lay awake. I would think of a trout stream I had fished along when I was a boy and fish its whole length very carefully in my mind, fishing very carefully under all the logs, all the turns of the bank, the deep holes, and the clear shallow stretches, sometimes catching trout and sometimes losing them (Hemingway, 2017, p. 276).

I would stop fishing at noon to eat my lunch, sometimes on a log over the stream, sometimes on a high bank under a tree, and I always ate my lunch very slowly and watched the stream below me in the backyard while I ate. Often I ran out of bait because I would take only ten worms with me in a tobacco tin when I started. When I had used them all I had to find more worms, and sometimes it was very difficult digging in the bank of the stream where the cedar trees kept out the sun and there was no grass but only the bare moist earth, and often I could find no worms. Always, though, I found some kind of bait, but one time in the swamp I could find no bait at all and had to cut up one of the trout I had caught and use him for bait” (Hemingway, 2017, p. 444). Here, Nick keeps himself awake by remembering when he went fishing as a boy, then repeats the dream just in another set when he finishes remembering, he dreams of fishing in another stream that he created out of his imagination. He claims that when he was a boy, he could fish along “a trout stream”.

Having the proper to dream, or reinvent dreams, Nick takes control over his state of mind. One way through which Nick copes with trauma is through images from nature, as expressed in the opening paragraphs: “that night we lay on the floor in the room and I listened to the silkworms eating. The silkworms fed in racks of mulberry leaves and all night you could hear them eating and a dropping sound in the leaves. I did not want to sleep because I had been living for a long time with the knowledge that if I ever shut my eyes in the dark and let myself go, my soul would go out of my body. I had been that way for a long time, ever since I had been blown up at night and felt it go out of me and go off and then come back” (Hemingway, 2017, p. 279).

I tried never to think about it, but it had started to go since, in the nights, just at the moment of going off to sleep, and I could only stop it by a very great effort. So while now I am fairly sure that it would not really have gone out, yet then, that summer, I was unwilling to make the experiment” (Hemingway, 2017, p. 335). Besides in ‘A Way You Will Never Be’, ‘Now I Lay Me’, Nick Adams lacks sleep and is unable to fall asleep. These stories, indeed, talk about Nick’s fear after the war. Hemingway gives more attention to the manifestation of the traumatic experience on his protagonist’s psyche.

Summary of ‘A Way You Will Never Be’

Nick Adams is the protagonist of ‘A Way You Will Never Be’. The story takes place in Italy during World War I, where he was wounded and subsequently suffers from shell shock, or PTSD. He is plagued by nightmares during which he sees the eyes of the Austrian soldier who shot him. Nick Adam’s best friend, the Italian Captain Paravicini, thinks that Nick Adam’s head injury should have been treated differently since he acts in bouts of “craziness” (Hemingway, 2017, p.13). During one hot summer day, Nick Adams bicycles from the village of Furnace to Captain Paravicini’s encampment. On the way, he witnesses bloated corpses and hundreds of blowing pieces of military papers. When Nick reaches the camp, an Italian second lieutenant questions Nick Adam’s identification papers before Paravicini intervenes and coaxes Nick to lie down and rest before he returns to Furnace; he fears for Nick Adam’s sanity and safety despite the young American’s valiant attempt to deal with his war-torn memories (Cliff Notes, 2020)

Unit Plan and Procedure for Teaching ‘A Way You Will Never Be’

The unit log consists of three parts. Each part consists of several questions regarding the story itself. This unit log is directed toward 5-point students who do the internal Bagrut examination. One of the required components for the unit log is the extensive reading through which students are required to read 4 to 5 short stories. The breakdown points of the final go like 20 percent of the extensive reading and 80 percent for the required literary pieces. The book report follows the Ministry of Education’s requirements for administrating pre-and post-reading assignments for the short story, which is aimed to assess students’ critical thinking such as their English performance, using the HOT of distinguishing different perspectives and comparing and contrasting. The assignment consists of three Appendices: An Appendix of HOTS and an Appendix of literary terms.

Each Appendix contains several questions related to the story. As represented in the Appendices, the three sections are divided into pre-reading, analysis and interpretation, and post-reading activities to foster students’ critical thinking skills or HOTS. The study will describe the importance of each section and then suggest assignments that could be implemented for ‘A Way You Will Never Be’.

Pre-Reading Activity

There are several benefits to pre-reading activities. According to a study conducted by Wahid (2020), “what the learner brings to the reading will affect how she or he understands what they read.” (p.12) Therefore, Wahid considers it important to have a well-organized pre-readings activity to engage students and to help prepare them to prepare for the reading. Pre-reading activities can help students anticipate the topic of the reading, and so introduce students to the specific vocabulary and discourse of the text. Furthermore, pre-reading activities try to encourage students and motivate them to read more.

In this study, I will attach a pre-reading activity that is imparted to the students respectively. As such, four pictures are selected (as in Appendix A) that relate to the topic of the reading. Students are given several questions regarding the pictures. They are asked to write their answers down on a sheet. Before writing their answers down, the students are asked to form small groups, copy the pictures and connect the pictures so that they will reflect on what they believe the reading will be about. Brainstorming thoughts are written by the students on board. Each group takes it in turns to talk about their ideas. Doing such, students practiced their written and their spoken. Students are then asked to find information about trauma through the google search engine and to write down what they found before the group and then share it with the rest of the class.

Analysis and Interpretation Questions

This section consists of questions that require a more in-depth analysis of the story. Students are given several questions that directly relate to the story (Appendix B) and a list of literary terms such as symbolism and irony. For example, to better answer questions concerning the setting, students are given definitions of symbolism, irony, and simile.

Post-Reading Activity and Bridging Text and Context

This section is considered as engaging HOTS most thoroughly. Students are provided with activities through which they can demonstrate how deeply they understand the literary piece. The post-reading activity will provide historical, social, and cultural context information about text and author (Appendix, C). Before students answer these questions, they are encouraged to HOT’s components of comparing, contrasting, and distinguishing between different perspectives. Concerning comparing and contrasting, students are introduced to several activities that introduce the HOT of comparing and contrasting. This is done by presenting the HOT in any domain in the classroom in a short, memorable, and as experiential as possible. To master comparing and contrasting, students, for example, are asked to draw a Venn diagram, considered a popular tool for comparing and contrasting.

Another activity that is used to enhance the understanding of the HOT is by comparing and contrasting topics written on cards, by using the Venn diagram, students write the similarities and differences between the topics given. One of the given topics might be like: compare and contrast between different jobs, or animals. Differences and similarities between both jobs, for instance, are written in several cards put in small baggies, and students pull a card and compare and contrast the set. This can be done verbally, on paper, on whiteboards, or in a reader’s notebook. Once students are comfortable comparing and contrasting ordinary things, they will be able to apply this skill to the reading.

Distinguishing different perspectives is another component of HOT to which students are exposed. Questions in the analysis and interpretation section (Appendix B) require students to be familiar with this HOT component first and therefore practice it by itself. Thus, in Appendix (E) students will be shown pictures of how birds see the world. Then, they are asked questions such as: who is seeing the picture? What does he see? Does human being see dogs, people, and other living things with ball eyes on their heads and backs? This activity is called “a bird’s eye perspective”. Teaching the HOT of distinguishing different perspectives, makes students able to understand that everyone in the world sees the world differently, for example, we humans see other humans and dogs as people and dogs, while birds might see people and dogs as a threat. That means that people might see the same thing, but look at it differently. Another activity is showing students “illusion photos,” where they can see two or more pictures in one image. Appendix (E) consists of such an “illusion photo,” in which some students might see an old woman, while others detect a young lady. This example shows students what we mean, with seeing things differently, or having different perspectives.

Research Method

Data Sources

When conducting research, it is essential to ensure that data is obtained from reliable sources. It helps individuals interested in the use of the document to be assured that the information is as truthful as possible. In this study, the researcher obtained information from two sources, as discussed in the section below. The approach was considered essential because secondary data provided background information of the study while primary data made it possible to address conflicts and gaps in the existing knowledge.

Secondary

The first source of data came from secondary materials. As Kumar (2019) explains, a researcher should investigate what other scholars have found out in a given field before embarking on the process of collecting primary data. Secondary data provides background information upon which one needs to develop the new knowledge. The review of the literature enables a researcher to monitor the pattern that other scholars took, findings that they made, and specific areas that would need further research. The review also makes it possible to understand specific variables that could have changed with time because of the emerging technologies or issues such as the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Assessing such factors better informs us what information to collect from the field. Thus, literary reviews are critical for new research findings.

Secondary data was obtained from scholarly books that discusses the issue under investigation, articles, in print and online, most of them published in the past five years. Some older scholarly works provided a basis for explaining specific concepts relevant to the study (for example, Bloom’s taxonomy published in 1965). The literature review provided a basis for the secondary data.

Primary

The researcher also obtained data from primary sources of information. When reviewing the literature, it emerged that most of the available materials were published in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and other Western countries. Although these materials were relevant and effective in explaining HOTS and related factors, it was necessary to also collect data that reflect the local environment. As Singh et al. (2021) observe, although the United States and the United Kingdom are both developed countries, they have a unique socio-economic and political environment that makes them different. Thus, it is important to not assume that concepts developed through research conducted in one country are universally applicable and globally relevant.

Primary data made it possible to collect information that is uniquely relevant in the local context. The study focused on determining a unique relationship between two common variables. Critical thinking and posttraumatic stress disorder are common variables. However, studies investigating how raising awareness of posttraumatic stress disorder among EFL learners enhances their critical thinking are not common, as was noticed when reviewing the literature. When investigating concepts that are not common, the best way of gathering knowledge is through the collection and analysis of primary data. Primary data collection and analysis also helped in ensuring that research was an original study that does not just rely on information from other scholars. This chapter is dedicated to explaining how primary data was collected and analyzed to respond to the research questions.

Research Philosophy

One of the first steps that a researcher needs to take is the definition of the appropriate research philosophy that will guide the entire process of collecting and analyzing data. According to Dudovskiy (2016), research philosophy focuses on the source of information, its nature, development of knowledge, and major assumptions made in the study. It is the belief that a researcher embraces how data on a given phenomenon should be gathered, processed, and applied to address a specific issue of interest. It enables the researcher to define the path that should be taken to gather facts in line with the research goals and objectives. A researcher can use positivism, realism, interpretivism, or pragmatism, depending on the study’s aim and objective. In this study, the researcher considered pragmatism as the appropriate philosophy.

Pragmatism

In social sciences, pragmatism is emerging as a popular research philosophy that guides the decisions and actions of researchers. According to Dudovskiy (2016, p. 44), the primary belief of this philosophy is that “there are many different ways of interpreting the world and undertaking research, that no single point of view can ever give the entire picture and that there may be multiple realities.” It rejects the extreme views of positivists and interpretivism that knowledge can only be developed in a specific pattern. Instead, it takes a more flexible approach to knowledge development.

A pragmatist believes that people can interpret the world in different ways depending on how they view the world. It argues that the approach that one takes to develop knowledge may depend on their academic background, socio-cultural factors, or the perspective to which one seeks to investigate an issue. It is not advisable to rigidly hold one standard as the only correct approach to conducting a study. The philosophy holds the belief that research questions should define the philosophy that a researcher embraces (Kumar, 2019). When selecting the philosophy, one should ensure that it is capable of effectively addressing the research question. It allows the usage of quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method research. The fundamental principle is that the chosen approach should facilitate effective analysis of data to help respond to the research question.

The researcher chose pragmatism as the most desirable research philosophy for the study. One of the main reasons why it was selected is that it is flexible when defining the right approach to data collection. It acknowledges the fact that developing new knowledge may require different strategies depending on the nature of the research question. When investigating the impact of creating awareness about trauma on critical thinking, the researcher may need to use different strategies to collect and analyze data. Although this study required the researcher to interact with participants when collecting data, as suggested by interpretivism, data analysis had to be done quantitatively, as required by positivists. It means that the study required the use of aspects of both positivism and interpretivism. In such a case, pragmatism becomes the most effective method that one can use. It enables flexibility when collecting and analyzing data. In this case, the goal was to use a method that would effectively explains the relationship between critical thinking among EFL students and raising awareness about trauma using identified source material. It allowed the use of both qualitative and statistical methods to analyze data and establish the relationship between the variables.

Research Approach

When research philosophy has been identified, the next step is to select the appropriate research approach. According to Yakkaldevi (2021), the research approach refers to the procedure and plan based on research questions and objectives. This approach facilitates the development of new knowledge. A researcher has the responsibility to ensure that the selected research approach is in line with the principles and assumptions of the selected philosophy. The researcher found it necessary to describe the motives for her selection.

Inductive approach

One of the most popular approaches is inductive reasoning (Singh et al., 2021). It involves searching for patterns and providing explanations. In this approach, a researcher does not need to develop a hypothesis or identify with a specific theory at the initial stages of the research. Although using a theory can help explain specific concepts, especially when reviewing the literature, it is not a mandatory requirement for a researcher to start by developing a hypothesis. The approach starts with making observations or conducting tests. After that, a researcher develops the patterns in line with the relevant research questions. The pattern would then lead to a specific theory or concept that reflects the aim of the study. Kumar (2019) explains that this method is sometimes referred to as the bottom-up reasoning approach or moving from specific and a general idea. The main reason why it was considered inappropriate is that it requires qualitative methods of analysis. One needs to develop patterns, which are then used to develop themes or theories. In this study, the goal was to explain the relationship between specific variables.

Abductive approach

Abductive reasoning sometimes referred to as abductive research, was developed to specifically address the perceived weaknesses of inductive and deductive approaches. It criticizes deductive reasoning as lacking the clarity on how to select a theory that should then be tested through the formulation of specific hypotheses (Thomas, 2021). On the other hand, it criticizes inductive reasoning as one that focuses on the building of theories without taking into consideration empirical data analysis. As such, it seeks to bridge the gap that has been left by the two primary approaches of research. Abductive reasoning is a pragmatic approach that allows a researcher to use concepts of both inductive and deductive reasoning. It allows one to construct theories and make logical inferences while at the same time, making it possible for a researcher to use statistical methods to conduct an analysis. One needs to make observations, which may be incomplete, and then use them to make the best predictions. Critics of this approach argue that it is ineffective because it does not clearly state whether one should use qualitative or quantitative data. The observation that it requires a researcher to make can be incomplete. The best predictions that one makes may not entirely be true. These major weaknesses make this approach less desirable for the study. It was necessary to use an approach that defines a specific path of developing knowledge.

Deductive approach

The deductive method involves developing a hypothesis, based on a specific theory and then through the collected data and analysis of it, either to accept or reject the theory. When using this approach, a researcher may be required to identify a specific theory or commonly accepted concept as the basis of knowledge development. The next step is to formulate hypotheses that explain the relationships existing between specific variables. The relationship proposed should be based on the concept identified or information available in the existing literature (Yakkaldevi, 2021). Primary data has to be collected from a sample of respondents. Using methods such as correlation analysis, mode, median, and mean, the hypotheses can then be tested.

The test conducted will help in accepting or rejecting the set hypotheses. In instances where a hypothesis is not confirmed, a researcher would need to modify the theory or the existing concept. The approach was selected as being appropriate for the study because it makes it possible to explain the causal relationship between specific variables and concepts (Thomas, 2021). It allowed determining the relationship between critical thinking among EFL learners and raising awareness about trauma. It was also considered desirable since analysis of data is done quantitatively, which is in line with the research philosophy selected and the research design. It allows for the generalization of findings made to a given extent (Sordi, 2021). It meant that findings made in this study could be generalized to the entire population of EFL learners across the country.

Research Strategy

Based on the research question, a specific research strategy to gather the relevant information needed to be formulated. The researcher briefly discusses different strategies in order to explain her choice.

Experiment

This strategy is used when conducting scientific research where specimens can be controlled. An experiment can be conducted in a laboratory or any other setting that allows for effective control of items under investigation, including the environment. This strategy could not facilitate investigating how critical thinking can be enhanced through raising awareness about posttraumatic stress disorder. Its principles are not aligned with the nature of questions that had to be answered in this study.

Case study

A case study is a popular strategy that is used in social sciences to collect and analyze data. According to Sordi (2021), it involves an in-depth observation and analysis of a given phenomenon in a real-world context. In this strategy, a researcher needs to observe a given individual or a group of people to understand their behavioral patterns (Thomas, 2021). An effective case study may involve monitoring the subjects for a long period, preferably without the subject realizing that they are under investigation. The purpose of a case study is to describe a specific situation or an entity, identify key issues in the case, and then analyze the case with the help of a theoretical concept (Singh et al., 2021). Because of its efficiency as a way of collecting data, it was one of the strategies used in this study primarily because it emphasizes the need to use qualitative methods to analyze data. The analysis involves the use of specific theories and concepts to explain the phenomenon observed. It also required time in order to observe the phenomenon or a group of people, which was not possible in this study.

Action research

This strategy is common in social sciences, especially when there is a need to introduce change that addresses a specific problem. As shown in figure 3.1 below, the strategy starts with the identification of a problem that needs to be addressed. In this case, critical thinking was identified as a challenge among EFL learners. When the problem is identified, a researcher should envision how it can be addressed. The proposed solution in the study is to raise awareness about posttraumatic stress disorder as a way of enhancing critical thinking among the targeted population.

The next step is to develop a plan on how specific data should be collected (Kumar, 2019). The developed plan should then be implemented to facilitate the actual collection of data. The researcher is then expected to analyze the collected data to respond to specific questions in the study. One should then form a conclusion based on the information gathered and processed. The information should then be used to adjust a theory or propose a change to help solve the identified problem. The researcher used several aspects of this strategy when conducting this study. However, there was no need to adjust any theory in this project.

Grounded theory

The strategy involves studying a specific phenomenon or a process with the primary goal of discovering a new theory (Singh et al., 2021). As shown in figure 3.2 below, this strategy allows a researcher to collect data using various strategies. Data can be collected using experiments, secondary data, interviews, case studies, or focus groups. Irrespective of the method or methods that one uses, the fundamental principle of this strategy is that the process should lead to the development of a new theory. This qualitative method is popular when trying to develop a new theory based on an observed phenomenon. The strategy was inappropriate for this particular research because it uses qualitative methods. It was also considered inappropriate because the researcher was not interested in the development of a new theory.

Ethnography

Ethnography is popular qualitative research when analyzing the culture of a specific group of people. According to Sordi (2021), the strategy assesses customs, habits, practices, and general ways of life. Instead of getting data through interviews and surveys, a researcher makes the deliberate decision of living with the subjects for a given period. Data will be collected by directly participating and observing the activities and beliefs of the people being interviewed. It is often viewed as one of the best strategies for understanding the cultural practices of a given community in an unbiased way. Instead of seeking an explanation of why these individuals do specific things or believe in certain principles, a researcher becomes part of the community and gathers first-hand data. Although it is a popular strategy, it was not an option that could be considered in this study. Time available to closely interact with the subject for a long period was lacking. The fact that it is always leaning towards the qualitative research method further made it inappropriate for the project.

Archival research

Archival research is often essential when conducting any form of academic study. As Yakkaldevi (2021) observes, this form of data collection involves retrieving data from secondary sources, most preferably published sources. A researcher gets information from journal articles, books, and other reliable sources. In many cases, this method is used to develop background information if other strategies of data collection will be used. It may be also used as the sole source of data in a research project. In this study, the researcher used the strategy to collect secondary data. The school library and online academic databases proved critical when looking for secondary materials. Information from these sources was used to identify the knowledge gap and to guide the process of collecting primary data. Information presented in chapter 2 of this report is entirely based on data obtained through archival research. Secondary data was used throughout this document to support various arguments, including in this chapter.

Survey

The survey is the most common strategy of collecting data from a large sample (Dudovskiy, 2016). The strategy involves developing research questions using a questionnaire and then distributing the instrument to the selected participants. A researcher has to recruit participants who meet specific inclusion criteria and then email the instrument of data collection to them. The researcher can use specific online sites such as Survey Monkey to facilitate the process of collecting data. Social media platforms such as Facebook have also made it easy for one to collect data from a specific group of interest. In some cases, a survey can be conducted through phone calls when the sample size is relatively small. In this study, the researcher was interested in collecting data from only ten participants. Although this would be an effective strategy for collecting the needed data, the small sample size meant that the best method of collecting data was through interviews. This method has been discussed in detail in subsequent sections of this chapter.

Research Choices/Design

The research onion shows that once a research strategy has been defined, the next step is to select an appropriate research choice. The research choice should be aligned with the research philosophy selected and the approach. Kumar (2019) advises that the selected approach should be in line with the aim and specific objectives that have to be achieved. Depending on the goal that one needs to achieve in research, it is possible to use qualitative, quantitative, or a mix of the two methods.

Qualitative

Qualitative research design is one of the most commonly used methods in social science research. According to Sordi (2021), it involves the analysis of non-numerical data. In qualitative analysis, a researcher uses open-ended questions to collect data. These questions make it possible for a respondent to provide a detailed explanation of an issue based on their personal experience. It means that data collected from the participants may not be similar for every question asked. Using their own words, participants are expected to explain a phenomenon in detail, giving an explanation based on their knowledge and experience whenever it is necessary. The qualitative analysis goes beyond descriptive statistics that limits the answer of specific questions to certain categories. Instead, participants are allowed to involve their personal experience and knowledge to give a detailed explanation of an event.

Qualitative methods are effective when investigating specific phenomena. Whether a researcher decides to use surveys or ethnography, qualitative methods make it possible to explain an event in great detail. In many cases, a researcher would identify a pattern based on the responses obtained or observations made. The pattern identified would then help in developing themes (Singh et al., 2021). The outcome of the analysis would thus be presented in form of themes that directly respond to or reflect the aim of the study. Because it is an effective research design, it was considered appropriate in this study because of the specific questions that had to be answered and the aim of the study.

Quantitative

The second alternative to analyzing primary data in social sciences is the use of quantitative methods. Unlike qualitative methods, this design involves the use of statistical methods to process primary data. Quantitative research involves establishing possible relationships that exist between specific variables. A researcher uses this method to find average, specific patterns, make predictions, determine the existence of a relationship between specific variables, and generalize the outcome of the study to a wider audience (Ghauri et al., 2020). The use of the statistical method is often viewed as the best way of collecting data without allowing personal bias or opinion to influence the outcome of the study.

The process starts with developing structured questions that help in ensuring that there is a standard way of responding to the questions. The Likert scale is often the preferred approach of standardizing questions when developing the questionnaire. The tool is then used to gather data using the chosen strategy. The collected primary data then has to be processed using specific tools and methods. Using various statistical tools such as Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) or Microsoft Excel, one would analyze the outcome of the analysis using a specific conventional method. The outcome of the analysis should show the relationship between the specific variables under investigation.

This method was considered the most appropriate in this study. The researcher was interested in determining how raising awareness about posttraumatic stress disorder by using specific books could enhance critical thinking among EFL learners. There was a need to determine if there was a significant relationship between the variables. Using statistical methods, it would be possible to assess the degree of the existence of the relationship. A researcher would be in a position to affirm that critical thinking among EFL learners can be enhanced by raising awareness about trauma, especially through the use of specific materials. The process through which primary data collected in this study was analyzed is explained in detail in subsequent sections of the report.

Participants: Sampling and Sample Size

Sampling is an important stage of collecting primary data. Kumar (2019) explains that in many cases, it may not be possible to collect data from the entire population because of the limited time and resources. As such, one has to select a manageable sample to represent the entire population. The cardinal rule that one has to follow when sampling is that the selected population should be an accurate representation of the entire population. The total population of EFL learners in the country is significantly high. It was not possible to collect data from all of these participants across the country. As such, the researcher had to select a sample that effectively captured the entire population. Sampling can broadly be classified as probability or non-probability sampling.

Probability sampling is a common method of selecting individuals to represent the entire population. A researcher needs to use the principle of randomization in selecting the participants (Allibang, 2020). Once it is determined that everyone within a given targeted population meets the selection criteria, the selection would be done randomly. The goal is often to ensure that the personal biases and preferences of a researcher do not influence the selection of participants. In this case, all members of the group have an equal chance of being involved in the study. Although it eliminates personal bias in the selection of participants, it is a time-consuming process. It is also not easy for a researcher to ensure that the selected individuals have specific desirable characteristics. It is an effective sampling method when selecting a large sample size. The researcher considered this method less desirable because the sample size that was needed was small and they had to meet strict inclusion criteria.

The second sampling method is known as the non-probability or judgmental sampling method. In this approach, a researcher defines specific inclusion criteria that participants must meet to qualify for the study. Once the criteria are set, the researcher deliberately assesses the population and identifies those that are most qualified to be part of it. It means that every member of the population does not have equal chances of being part of the study (Ghauri et al., 2020). The preference may be based on how well they fit into the desired category, their ability to provide informed answers, their willingness to be part of the study, and their availability, among other factors.

Judgmental sampling was appropriate in this case because the researcher was interested in collecting data from a specific group of respondents. A sample size of 10 participants was considered adequate for the study. This study was conducted on five-point participants from eleventh grade, aged between 16 and 17 from Sakhnin Elhekkma High School. The participants were male and female and had the maturity to understand and be sensitive to traumatic life events and able to understand the impact of such events on a person’s psyche.

Inclusion/exclusion criteria

The researcher developed specific inclusion-exclusion criteria, which defines the characteristics of study participants, which had to be met by those who took part in the data collection process. Allibang (2020) explains that developing inclusion/exclusion criteria enables a researcher to ensure that the data collected reflects the views and concerns of the targeted population. For one to qualify as a participant in the study, they had to be EFL students in the selected school. They had to be aged 16 or 17 because of the need to ensure that they were mature enough to respond to the questions. The respondent could be male or female students at the institution. Learners who are foreign students and moved to the country within the last two years were excluded from the investigation. Those aged below 16 or above 17 were also avoided in this investigation. Learners who met the inclusion criteria but stated that they could not participate in the study because of personal reasons were left out. Learners who the administration expressed concern as being unable or inappropriate for the study were also left out.

Data Collection and Analysis

Data was collected from two main sources, primary and secondary sources, as discussed in the section above. When conducting a review of the literature, various gaps in the knowledge were identified, and it was necessary to address them through the collection and analysis of primary data. A sample of 10 participants at the selected school was considered for that purpose. Using a questionnaire that had been collected, the researcher conducted interviews, as discussed in the section below.

Method of collecting data

Primary data can be collected from participants in many ways. Before starting the one that was chosen for the study, it is necessary to discuss some of the popular methods and explain why they were considered inappropriate specifically for this study. The information may be beneficial to future scholars who may be interested in using any of the methods. One of the common methods of collecting primary data is through observation, as Nunkoo et al. (2021) note. This approach requires a researcher to interact with the participants and interact with them to understand a specific phenomenon.

Instead of asking participants to answer specific questions, the researcher will personally observe events of interest and answer the necessary questions. This method of collecting data was considered inappropriate for this study because it is a time-consuming process. The fact that it requires regular physical interaction with participants during this time of the COVID-19 pandemic made it even less desirable. The administration of the school chosen could also not allow the researcher to take such a long time interacting with the participants. Because of these weaknesses, it was not used in collecting primary data.

Surveys have emerged as some of the popular methods of collecting data from participants. In this case, a researcher e-mails a questionnaire to specific participants. Sometimes the questionnaire is made available at specific websites where the desired participants can access and respond to the questions within a specific time (Nunkoo et al., 2021). The main challenge when using this method is that a significantly high number of participants tend to fail to answer the questions within the required time. The study also targeted specific students in high school, some of whom do not have an email address. Because of the need for transparency between the researcher and the institution, and the importance of protecting the identity of the participants, this method was considered inappropriate. The method would have also required a longer period to reach out to the participants through online platforms, convince them to be part of the study, and wait for them to answer research questions.

The use of enumerators has also become a common strategy for collecting data. A researcher needs to identify individuals who are then sent to participants in different locations to collect data (Kingsley & Robertson, 2020). In this study, a researcher could not use third parties because of various reasons. It would be unacceptable to have people, other than the researcher, engaging participants because they may fail to observe the ethical requirements needed when interviewing minors. Teachers would make better enumerators, but using them may compromise the anonymity of the participants. The cost of this method is also high as the enumerators have to be paid. As such, the method was not considered appropriate for the study.

A face-to-face interview was considered the most appropriate method of collecting data from the participants. After getting the necessary approvals, the researcher made direct contact with the participants that had been identified to take part in the study. Before starting the interview, the researcher explained to them the significance of the study, its impact, and reasons why they were selected, as Kumar (2019) recommends. All the questions and issues that they had were addressed before the interview. The interviews took place within the school, at locations that participants selected. Using the questionnaire with structured questions, the researcher asked the participants questions and recorded their responses in the data collection instrument. Each interview took about 15 minutes because of the need to clarify specific issues that were unclear to each participant.

The method was chosen because of the various benefits it offers. First, it is one of the quickest methods of collecting data when approval has been given and geographic location is not a challenge (Mahrool, 2020). Each of the series of interviews took two days, and each day, the process only took 1 hour and 15 minutes. It meant that the program for the participants was not affected. The face-to-face interaction between a learner and a researcher is always critical. As Kingsley and Robertson (2020), it is possible for a researcher to collect non-verbal cues such as facial expressions and body language to gather further knowledge. One can easily determine if a participant is hiding a piece of critical information through these non-verbal cues.

The physical interaction also limits the chances that a respondent would deliberately provide misleading data. They do not have a lot of time to think and deliberately provide false information. The researcher is assured that the information that is obtained is as accurate as it can get. The method also provides an opportunity to address concerns and issues that the researcher may have about the investigation. As such, misinformation that may cause panic among respondents is eliminated.

It is necessary to admit that although this method is effective when collecting data, it has some weaknesses worth noting. One of the main weaknesses of this method is that it can be time-consuming when the sample size is large (Mahrool, 2020). If a researcher has to collect data from more than 250 people, this method may take several months to complete. Some people may also reject it because of the need to interact physically at this time when COVID-19 is a major concern. It may also be a challenge when participants are spread across a large geographic area, which would require a researcher to make long-distance travels to collect data. These issues were effectively addressed, making it possible to collect the needed data within two days.

Structured interviews pre, during, and post-teaching the story

The process of collecting data from these participants needed direct assistance from the relevant teachers. The investigation was focused on demonstrating that after teaching the story, the participants can grasp and understand PTSD and trauma, which is unfamiliar to them before teaching the story. It was also necessary to determine if their critical thinking was enhanced after listening to the story. In the first series of interviews, the researcher engaged the participants before they were taught the concept of posttraumatic stress disorder using Hemingway’s story, ‘A Way You Will Never Be’. Responses from the participants were recorded for comparison.

The relevant teachers were then requested to focus on teaching the entire class the concept of trauma without using the story that was selected. The second interview was conducted at this stage to assess the extent to which participants had grasped the information presented to them. The assumption made at this stage is that the selected participants had not read the selected story and if at all they did, they had not related it with the concept of posttraumatic stress disorder and critical thinking.

The researcher then requested the teacher to further explain the concepts of posttraumatic stress disorder and critical thinking using the selected store. Soon after completing the lesson, the researcher engaged the same respondents once again. It is important to note that in each of the three interviews, research questions did not change. At this stage, of interest was to determine if there was a significant change of thought towards questions asked after the story was used. The approach made it possible to determine if the knowledge of participants was significantly enhanced, especially after the story was applied to facilitate their understanding of the concept. The nature of this data collection meant that the relevant teachers had to be fully involved in the process. However, they were not present when interviewing the participants. It was felt that the presence of the teacher may make some participants uncomfortable when answering the questions, which may compromise the outcome of the study. Excluding these teachers during the interviews was also meant to enhance the confidentiality in the study.

Instrument of data collection

The researcher developed a questionnaire to facilitate the data collection process. According to Sahu and Sing (2021), a questionnaire is an essential tool for data collection because it helps in standardizing responses obtained from participants. It is critical when collecting quantitative data that needs to be coded for statistical analysis. After the preliminary review of the literature that was done when developing the research proposal, a questionnaire was developed based on the research questions and objectives. The questionnaire has four sections to help collect comprehensive information on the issue under investigation.

The first part of the document focused on the demographical factors of the learners. Kumar (2019) explains that sometimes there is always a bias in the line of a respondent’s demographical class. One may answer a specific question in a given pattern because society expects that gender to act and reason in a certain way. Capturing the demographics of participants was critical because it made it possible to capture any bias associated with people in specific groups. The researcher was interested in ensuring that information was collected from both male and female participants. As such, the demographical classifications in the questionnaire made it possible to have a balance of both genders as participants.

The section captured the nationality and the period within which one has stayed in the country and attended local schools. The section was essential because the researcher was interested in collecting data that was as local as possible. The age was another variable identified in the section as it was specified that only those aged 16 or 17 years were qualified to take part in the investigation. Religion was considered a unique factor that was included because of its influence in managing stress. According to Yakkaldevi (2021), some religion teaches their faithful to be resilient in the face of stress and to always be critical in their thinking and decision-making. Race and social status in the society were not considered relevant when defining the demographics of the participants.

The second section of the document was specially developed because of concerns of COVID-19. It was meant to determine if any of the participants had recently been diagnosed with the virus. The researcher also inquired if any family member of the participant had been affected by the disease. Over the last two years, COVID-19 has emerged as one of the most common causes of trauma in families (Sahu & Sing, 2021). As such, the information was not only meant to help protect all the participants in the study but to help assess the level of stress the respondents have been subjected to in the recent past.

The third section of the instrument focused on assessing participants’ knowledge about specific variables in the study. It was necessary to determine if they are aware of trauma, especially posttraumatic stress disorder. The researcher sought to determine if the participants are aware of critical thinking and factors that influence it. It was equally necessary to know if they had previously read Ernest Hemingway’s short story ‘A Way You’ll Never Be’ and understood its key themes. Most importantly, this section focused on determining if the participants could link critical thinking to awareness about posttraumatic stress disorder.

The last section focused on directly responding to research questions and objectives. As a qualitative research method, it was essential to ensure that questions in this section were structured. Using a Likert five-point scale, the researcher developed structured questions to facilitate the collection of the needed information. Questions in this section made it possible to determine how critical thinking among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners is influenced by raising awareness about trauma. The instrument that was used in the primary data collection is attached in the appendices (Appendix 1) of this report. The tool was original and built for the needs of this research. It was tested for validity to ensure that it had the capacity to collect the needed information. It made it possible to establish the relationship between the variables, shown in figure 3.3 below.

The researcher also used a unit log to facilitate the collection of qualitative data. The instrument has three sections, each having several questions. The first section of the instrument was the pre-reading activities through which participants responded to some pictures that help them to figure out the definition of trauma and PTSD. The second part of the instrument focused on course analysis and interpretive questions. The last part of the unit log focused on specific HOT components that target participants’ critical thinking skills. The instrument has been attached at the appendix of this document.

Data analysis

Data collected from primary sources were analyzed statistically to help respond to the research questions. The chosen research philosophy, research approach, and strategy all indicate that statistical methods were the most appropriate method of processing primary data. The researcher used an Excel spreadsheet, as an alternative to the use of SPSS, to process the data. The findings obtained were presented in graphs and charts to enhance an understanding of the concepts analyzed. The qualitative analysis was presented to further explain the issue under investigation beyond statistical presentation. The following are the questions that were used in the analysis:

1. What is the relationship between critical thinking and awareness about trauma?
2. How do you think the author’s style of writing help convey the theme or the message of the story?
3. How does the background information of Hemingway influence your understanding of the short story?

Ethical Considerations

When conducting the study, it is the responsibility of a researcher to ensure that specific containment measures are observed. According to Flick (2020), collecting data from humans requires an individual to respect participants and to ensure that the study does not affect their security or the normal way of life in any way. Standard rules and regulations have been developed to help guide such processes. Academic papers also have strict rules regarding plagiarism that one has to observe. In this section of the report, the researcher discusses.

Getting the relevant approval

According to Yakkaldevi (2021), a researcher needs to get the approval of the management of the institution from which, data is to be collected. Doing so eliminates suspicion and helps in ensuring that data is collected in a structured manner. The management may have specific issues that they would want to control when collecting data to help protect the image and integrity of the institution. In this study, the researcher was interested in collecting data from Sakhnin Elhekkma High School. Contacting and getting the approval of the administration of this institution was critical because of several factors.

The participants who were targeted for this study had to be aged 16 or 17 years, which means that they are not of the legal age. The law does not allow one to engage such minors in an interview without getting consent from the relevant authority, most preferably, a parent (Thomas, 2021). It would have taken a long time to contact each parent to explain to them the rationale of the study and why their children were selected to participate in it. It was easier and less time-consuming to contact the administration of this institution, explain to them the aim of the research, and address all the concerns that may arise about the well-being of the learners in the study. The school would then contact each of the relevant parents directly and explain to them the nature of the study and the security and safety of their children. Doing so means that the researcher would be able to overcome the legal challenge in this study.

The study focuses on posttraumatic stress disorder, which is a highly sensitive topic, especially for children aged 17 and below. Some of these children have gone through immense trauma and the memory of such events may trigger erratic behavior or massive emotional pain (Flick, 2020). As such, it was essential to ensure that such interviews are highly structured, and where necessary, the support of a teacher was granted. The goal was to ensure that the study does not result in emotional stress to the participants.

The administration of the school, through class teachers, was in the best position to help in selecting participants who are in the best position to answer the specific research questions. Teachers understand their students, especially those who have had traumatic experiences. They also know the emotional stability of every learner in their classes (Thomas, 2021). As such, they could help the researcher to select individuals who might have gone through trauma but are emotionally strong enough to talk about it without breaking down or being affected in any way. The assistance helped in ensuring that the few participants selected made a meaningful impact on the study.

The administration of this high school has rules and regulations that define how learners interact with visitors. Such rules and procedures are meant to protect the image and integrity of the institution. It is an assurance to parents that their children will not be exposed unnecessarily to strangers who may want to extract information from them (Yakkaldevi, 2021). Such a rule also helps the management to ensure that one does not collect data that may taint the image of the institution. As such, consent had to be given, as explained above, before a researcher could directly engage with relevant teachers and the sampled participants.

Participants’ protection

One of the cardinal rules in any research is that human subjects should be protected as much as possible. The study should not expose them to any form of physical or emotional harm. In this study, the researcher made an effort to ensure that participants were protected. Although the process of identifying the participants and engaging them in the study was strictly guided by the administration and specific class teachers, it was still important to monitor the effect that research questions had on them. When it was noticed that they had an emotional change during the study, the interview had to be stopped. A decision would then be made to replace such a participant or to postpone the interview to such a time that they would be stable enough to continue with the investigation. Making such decisions required the assistance of the class teacher who understand these specific learners.

It is always crucial to ensure that the identity of participants remains anonymous, unless in special cases where anonymity is not required and participants agree to identify themselves. In this case, the researcher considered it essential to protect the identity of the participants, especially because they were minors. Sordi (2021) explains that protecting the identity of participants helps in ensuring that they are not subjected to criticism or any form of attack because of their opinion. Sometimes one can be discriminated against because their idea contradicts that of the administration or the majority in a given institution. Instead of using their actual names, participants were assigned codes (Participant 1, Participant 2, Participant 3, and so forth). When sharing the transcript with the administration, as a way of demonstrating transparency and integrity, the identity of the participants was already coded, which means that it was not possible to trace how a specific participant answered specific questions in the study.

Academic integrity

Ethical considerations in a study also focus on academic integrity. This institution, just like many colleges in the country, has zero-tolerance towards plagiarism. It is one of the major academic offenses that may have serious consequences on the offender. As such, the researcher made every effort to avoid any form of plagiarism in this study. The section above of this chapter noted that data was collected from primary and secondary sources. Secondary information obtained from books, journal articles, and reliable online sources were accurately referenced using the American Psychological Association (APA) method of referencing, and a list of all the sources used was provided on the reference page. It was also necessary to ensure that the paper is completed as per the guidelines of the supervisor and within the timeline that had been provided.

Observing COVID-19 containment measures

The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has had a major impact on the lives of people in this country. Many people lost their lives to this virus across the world, and the pandemic has not been eliminated. Yakkaldevi (2021) explains that new variants of the virus are still emerging, and although the majority of adults have been vaccinated in the country, it is still essential to observe containment measures. Because the targeted participants are below 18 years, an age group that was initially left out when rolling out the initial vaccination campaign, it is possible that some of them are not vaccinated. To protect these learners and their family members from acquiring the virus, the researcher went for a COVID-19 test before conducting the interviews. Even after getting the negative result, the researcher avoided any physical contact with the participants, to protect themselves and the participants as much as possible. A physical distance of at least one meter was maintained when conducting the interview. The researcher chose non-crowded and well-ventilated rooms to conduct the interviews.

Limitations and Delimitations

It is necessary to acknowledge that there were some limitations in this study that had to be addressed to enhance its success. When collecting secondary data for the study, it was apparent that the majority of books, journal articles, and other published sources were based on studies conducted in Europe and North America, especially the United States. As Sordi (2021), specific environmental factors are unique to a specific country based on the social, political, and economic forces. It means that findings made in the United Kingdom can automatically be relevant to other countries around the world. It took a relatively long time to find materials published locally to support information obtained from other parts of the world.

The researcher encountered several challenges when collecting primary data. It was not easy convincing the administration of the selected institution to allow the participant to be part of the study. The researcher had to physically present the consent letter and the consent form to the administration, explain the significance of the study, and reasons why the institution was chosen. The management demanded a detailed explanation of how COVID-19 containment measures would be observed, and the researcher had to explain.

The fact that participants were minors meant that questions developed for the interview had to be refined to avoid any statement or word that would be considered inappropriate for the learners. The administration went through the questionnaire and approved it before it could be used in the interviews. These checks meant that the process of collecting primary data had to take longer than had been anticipated. During the interview, it was demanding to collect data while at the same time monitoring how the process affected the participants emotionally.

The management of the institution also reported that parents of some of the participants who had been selected to take part in the study had objected to the idea for personal reasons. In such cases, the researcher had to work with the relevant teachers to find a replacement for these participants. There was also the personal concern of contracting the coronavirus. Yakkaldevi (2021) warns that schools offer a perfect platform for the rapid spread of the virus. As new variants continue to emerge, it is not possible to predict how the body will manage the disease. The researcher had to make an extra effort to protect self when collecting data.

Specific delimitations defined the scope of primary data collection and the boundaries of the study. The sample size used in this study is one of the delimitations worth noting at this stage of the report. The researcher only used a sample size of ten participants. Sordi (2021) explains it is often advisable to use as large a sample size as possible to ensure that there is an effective representation of the entire population. However, the nature of the study and the time available meant that 10 was the reasonable sample size that could be used. The geographic location or the setting where the study was conducted was limited to only one school. The administration of Sakhnin Elhekkma High School had accepted the request for the study to be conducted in the institution. These issues did not compromise the integrity of the study as the researcher also relied on secondary data to support the conclusion and recommendations made. The approach used to collect data, the high involvement of the researcher in the process of collecting data, and the nature of questions help to further enhance the reliability of the study.

Results, Findings, and Discussion

Results and Findings

The researcher collected primary data from the participants using structured questions to determine the relationship between specific variables. When reviewing the literature, it emerged that there was some form of relationship between critical thinking skills and awareness about posttraumatic stress disorder. It emerged that teaching children about PTSD enhance their critical skills. The researcher was interested in determining if the same claim can be clarified through primary data. The following question was posed to the respondents to determine if they have the same view.

• What is the relationship between critical thinking and awareness about trauma?

The respondents were asked to state whether they believe there is a significant relationship between critical thinking and awareness about trauma. It is important to note that the researcher first focused on determining the existence of the relationship, whether direct or inverse. Figure 4.1 shows the response obtained from the analysis of the data obtained from the participants. It is evident that 60% of the participants noted that they strongly believe that there is a relationship between the variables, while another 30% noted that they believe there is a relationship. It means that 90% of the participants believe that there is a relationship between the variables. Only 1 person noted that they were not sure of the degree of relationship of the variables. None of the participants had a contrary opinion.

After confirming that the two variables are related, the researcher was interested in determining how awareness of trauma enhances critical thinking among EFL learners. Respondents were asked to state whether they believe that creating awareness about trauma is an effective way of enhancing critical thinking among learners. Figure 4.2 below shows the statistical analysis of the response that was obtained from the participants. The figure shows that 50% strongly believe that the strategy can be an effective way of enhancing critical thinking among EFL learners. Another 30% believe so, which means that 80% of the participants are in agreement with the statement. 10% stated that they are unsure, while the other 10% noted that the strategy is not effective in enhancing critical thinking. Based on the rule of the majority responses, the researcher concluded that the creation of awareness about trauma is an effective way of enhancing critical thinking among students.

The researcher was interested in narrowing the investigation to specific books that address PTSD. Hemingway’s stories, especially ‘A Way You Will Never Be’, ‘Big-Two Hearted River’, and ‘Now I Lay Me’ were critical in this investigation. Respondents were asked to state if these specific books have had any meaningful impact on their critical thinking skills. Data obtained from the participants was processed and the outcome is presented in figure 4.3 below. The analysis shows that there was a unanimous agreement among participants on the influence of the books on learners’ critical thinking. 80% of those interviewed noted that they strongly believe they enhance critical thinking while the remaining 20% noted that they agree with the argument. None of them had a contrary opinion on the issue.

The researcher was interested in determining if there was a deliberate effort by the school to use awareness creation about PTSD to enhance critical thinking among learners. The fact that it was identified as an effective strategy in enhancing critical thinking, it is advisable for teachers to embrace and use it regularly. The response obtained was analyzed statistically and the outcome is shown in figure 4.4 below. It is evident that the majority of the participants (70%) believe that the school has been keen on using various strategies, including awareness of PTSD, to enhance critical thinking among learners. There is an effort to promote the integration of Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) in the curriculum to further empower learners. A slight minority (30%) noted that they are not sure about the commitment of the school to use the strategy, while the other 10% believe that the school is not doing much to use the strategy to achieve the goal.

The researcher was interested in determining if this strategy can be used as a means of promoting critical thinking among EFL learners in other high schools across the country and abroad. The outcome of the analysis of data obtained from the participants is shown in figure 4.5 below. It is evident that an overwhelming majority of the participants (90%) strongly believe that this strategy can be used in other high schools to enhance critical thinking skills among learners. One participant noted that they are not sure about its applicability. One of those interviewed felt that this strategy is inappropriate for high school participants. As such, one can conclude that this strategy can be used to enhance critical thinking among EFL learners in high school across the country.

Case Study

The study employed a qualitative approach of a case study based on data gathered from the planned unit as presented in the pre-reading, post-reading, and bridging text and context activities. The case study was conducted at Sakhnin Elhekkma High School. As previously explained, this school was chosen because of its high population of EFL students. The management of the school approved the request to conduct the study at this institution based on specific regulations. Besides the statistical data analyzed above, the researcher was keen on gathering specific information that could only be analyzed using qualitative methods. The case study required the researcher to spend a significant amount of time at the school conducting specific activities.

The researcher requested the English literature teacher to focus on teaching participants critical thinking skills using two strategies. One strategy involved teaching the concept of critical thinking to participants, without raising awareness about trauma. The second strategy involved practicing critical thinking skills through Hemingway’s short stories, especially ‘A Way You Will Never Be’. The case study required participants with relatively similar academic performance to be placed into two groups. One was the test group while the other was the control group. Each group took the same time to learn about critical thinking, only that the strategy used was different. Sakhnin Elhekkma High School has several streams in each grade, so having the two groups was not a big challenge.

The case study involved asking the participants specific questions related to critical thinking before and after reading the texts. The intention was to determine if there was any significant change and if the process had any meaningful effect. Data was collected from four different classes. There was the pre-reading outcome for the control and the test group. There was also the post-reading outcome for the control and test group. This way, it was possible to understand how each group performed after the learning process using different strategies.

Table 1: Teaching Strategy Used

Information in the table above shows an important trend that defines the relationship between trauma awareness and learning of critical thinking skills. It is evident that before starting the reading activity, all the participants involved had a relatively similar understanding of critical thinking. Two strategies were used, as was explained above. It became evident that although all the participants got the meaning of critical thinking irrespective of the strategy used, those who went through the conventional strategy struggled to apply the concept. They knew what it means, but when it came to its practical application, they struggled.

On the other hand, the control group, had a better comprehension of the concept and could apply it to real-life contexts. The reading and analysis of these books, especially the theme of trauma, which was common in these stories, had a major impact on these learners. Understanding the pain that some of the characters went through and understanding how they overcome their challenges made them be creative in their thinking. In an effort to emulate some of the characters in the book because of their heroic acts and ability to overcome complex challenges, these participants became critical in their thinking. One of the participants explained this phenomenon as follows:

Participant 7 explained, “Reading these stories made me understand the need to think critically. The researcher became aware of the unique challenges that people go through and the benefits of Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOT). The researcher noticed that sometimes life and death can be defined by the ability of an individual to make an important decision on how to deal with a situation.”

This response shows that the stories in the books made learners understand that these concepts go beyond an academic requirement. When a learner fails to understand that what they are taught may be essential in their lives, then they may not put the right effort to understand it. However, that changes when they realize that their success and sometimes ability to live, depends on their thinking, their attitude changes. They develop the desire to know more about the issue. They become inquisitive, and the primary concern becomes the application of the knowledge gained. Once a learner develops the desire to apply what is taught in a classroom, they enhance their critical thinking. Their normal lessons are transformed into events where they acquire unique skills needed for their everyday lives. Another participant made a very important observation based on the reading activities conducted.

Participant 9 noted, “Reading these stories helps in demonstrating how one is expected to think critically. Instead of simply presenting a concept to learners in a traditional classroom setting, these stories explain how specific characters used the knowledge they had to make a difference.”

In table 1 above, one of the challenges that the control group faced after the pre-reading activities was the application of the concept. Although they knew the concept, they could not effectively understand how it should be applied. The test group did not face the same challenge because they had been presented with specific examples on how it should be applied. It was an indication that this approach is superior because of the ability to demonstrate how concepts should be applied.

Significance of raising awareness about trauma

The researcher engaged the respondents to think about the significance of raising awareness about posttraumatic stress disorder as a strategy to enhance critical thinking. One thing that emerged during the case study was that having awareness about trauma and stress enhances their critical thinking. They tend to develop the desire to understand why an individual was subject to the pain and what could have been done to avoid the situation. They also tend to focus on specific factors that lead to the unfortunate situation. When reading the stories, most of the participants were keen on understanding the chain of events that led to the pain and frustrations of a specific individual. One of the respondents explained this phenomenon.

Respondent 2 observed that “When reading the stories, one places self in the position of a specific character, which in most cases will be the protagonist. They want to know what caused them the pain and frustration primarily since they want to defend themselves in case they face a similar situation in the future. They are also interested in finding ways of avoiding scenarios that may lead them to a similar frustrating path.”

This statement demonstrates that the awareness about stress and trauma creates the desire for one to develop self-defense mechanisms. They get to understand that specific issues can cause true pain and frustration. In a standard classroom strategy of teaching critical thinking skills, learners view it as a normal concept meant to help them pass their exams. As such, they will give such lessons average attention, sometimes allowing their mind to wander from the learning process to some irrelevant things. It limits their capacity to grasp the concept that is taught. On the other hand, when trauma and stress are introduced in the lessons in the form of stories, the focus changes. The pain that the character goes through becomes a driving force for the learner, who will then develop an interest to avoid the same. Cases of the mind drifting away from the lessons become less and the learner begins to give the right attention to the lessons.

It was noted that such learners even develop a greater interest in discussing with their peers the stories and concepts that emerge. It is at this stage that the learners’ critical thinking skills develop even further. Instead of relying on their teacher, they would start to engage themselves, trying to discuss why a given character behaved in a specific way, and what others could have done to avoid the catastrophe. At this stage, they have to think to ensure that they can answer these questions. They have to investigate the text further and respond to the questions based on their personal experience. It is at this stage that the learner develops the capacity to relate what they learn with real-life experiences. The more they answer specific questions, the more they develop further questions to understand specific phenomena in the story. The ability of a learner to develop realistic questions based on the stories read is an opportunity to further expand their critical thinking.

When conducting analysis, it was necessary to answer specific questions to help understand how the stories enhanced learners’ critical thinking. Some of the devices tend to enhance the ability of a learner to be creative in their thinking. For instate, repetition tends to have the effect of emphasizing a concept or an issue in a given story. In Hemingway’s story, ‘A Way You Will Never Be’, the author uses various literary devices to achieve various goals with the audience. Respondents were asked to identify specific devices and how they feel these devices influence their understanding of the theme or the message in the story.

• How do you think the author’s style of writing help convey the theme or the message of the story?

Participant 1 explained, “The writer uses symbolism as a literary device to achieve various aims in the book. By using specific words and objects beyond their literal meaning, the author can invoke a deep thought among the readers. This device is used across the book to effectively express the desperate situation soldiers found themselves in and how many of them lost their lives in battles.”

Symbolism is a common literary device that authors use, especially when developing a work of fiction. It is meant to evoke a deeper understanding of the story the author is telling. In many cases, it uses common objects associated with size, fear, terror, or happiness to make the audience relate to the story and have clear information about a given event.

Participant 3 noted, “Simile, imagery, and irony are some of the common literary devices that are commonly used in the story, ‘A Way You Will Never Ne’. The researcher found irony to be particularly effective because it made it possible for a reader to reflect on a traumatic issue with a sense of humor. The author describes the painful experiences of the soldiers but in a way that one may think was fun.”

The irony is one of the best literary devices that helps in promoting critical thinking. It involves saying one thing while a person means another. In the story that was analyzed, the author describes the horror that the soldiers and those affected by the war went through. Some of the scenes were so painful that instead of using direct words to describe the trauma, the author beings in fun. The device helps in easing the tension and reducing the emotional pain among the audience. However, one needs to think critically to understand that the character was still going through the trauma. Although the humor is created, a critical thinker will understand its meaning at that stage of the story and how the unfolding events continued to have negative effects on the targeted group.

Participant 4 said, “Repetition is another commonly used literary device in this story. This device was specifically used to emphasize the magnitude of traumatic events in this story.”

One of the reasons why fictional stories encourage critical thinking is the use of repetition as a literary device. When a specific word or phrase is used repeatedly, it makes the reader ask why it is done so. It creates a reminder to the reader that there is something that the author is emphasizing when telling the story. In this case, it was the pain and suffering that specific characters went through in the story. The repetition creates a pattern that one can then use to identify major themes that are presented. The ability of a learner to identify major themes in a story without the assistance of the teacher is an indication that they have enhanced critical thinking skills.

It is always necessary to understand the background of an author to have a better comprehension of their stories. Robinson and Knight (2019) explain that in many cases, people tend to base their work of fiction on events that happened in real life. Personal experiences and interactions that an author has with others and their environment define the content of their story. They tend to base their work of fiction on major events that anyone can relate to in an effort to ensure that they remain relevant and as realistic as possible. In this project, it was necessary to determine if the respondents had the same view that having background information about the author defined their understanding of the story.

• How does the background information of Hemingway add or change to your understanding of the story?

Participant 3 said, “When I realized that Hemingway was a soldier who was directly involved in World War I, I realized that his stories could be based directly on personal experiences. It changed my perception of the story, from being a mere work of fiction to being a possible memoir.”

When the reader understands the background of the author, they tend to be judgmental. They develop the interest of knowing whether the author had the authority to report an incidence in a given way. They will be dismissive of a story that seems too fictitious, especially when they realize that it was a pure work of imagination without any meaningful relations with actual events. On the other hand, when they realize that the story is a reflection of the experience of the author, the audience tends to view it as a true story other than being a work of fiction. In this book, Hemingway describes the war and its impact on many people. He explains how numerous people lost their lives, and how many more were wounded or displaced from their homes. An investigation into his background reveals that he was wounded in the war and many of his fellow soldiers lost their lives. One can easily relate his story to the actual events during the war. It becomes easy to trust the book as one that reflects on true events that took place.

Participant 7 said, “It is unfortunate that I read the story ‘A Way You Will Never Be’ before getting the background information about the author. When I finally did, my perception of the story changed. I realized that it was not a mere work of fiction, but a story that was based on a true event, which was witnessed and experienced by the author.”

The perception of the reader about the story changes when they realize that it was based on a true story. It is at this stage that the HOT skills of an individual are significantly enhanced. They get to realize that the pain and trauma that one is describing is beyond the work of fiction. It was a reality and the author was a victim. It enhances one’s desire to understand why these events happened the way they did. It creates the desire to solve some of the problems characters in the story failed to address or created. The fact that these events can happen in real life even creates fear. Fear tends to be a strong motivation as one will make a deliberate effort to avoid possible suffering. As such, it was encouraged that the audience should have detailed background information of the author before reading the story.

Discussion

Critical thinking skills are essential for high school students as they plan to transition to institutions of higher learning. According to Robinson and Knight (2019), higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) enable a learner to go beyond the obvious in their analysis, to better approach and confront questions, making them to understand why a given event happened. It enables them to investigate what impact of the event was, and whether the possibility of future occurrence, and how such situations can be avoided if they are harmful. While the need for critical thinking has been widely noticed, there have not been a lot of research on what strategies work best, considering that assessing critical thinking, especially in terms of short and long term effects on the person’s live and future decisions is tricky.

The review of the literature and the analysis of primary data both indicate that there is a direct relationship between the creation of awareness about trauma and PTSD and the enhancement of critical thinking skills among EFL students. The study strongly suggests that when learners are taught using specific traumatic stories, they get to develop an interest in events that led to the pain and suffering. They change from being a passive recipient of knowledge to being active investigators who want to go beyond understanding what happened to understand why it did. They develop the desire to find solutions to events in the story and how the pain and sufferings of the characters would have been avoided.

The use of trauma in literary studies

The researcher was interested in determining how trauma in literary studies can help enhance critical thinking skills among high school students, specifically focusing on EFL learners. According to Ghanizadeh et al. (2020), people tend to respond well to threats, sometimes more than rewards. The desire to avoid pain, suffering and potential threat far exceed the desire to enjoy various benefits. Education promises a better life for those who are committed and finally become successful. On the other hand, trauma is a reminder of the possible consequences that one may face if one fails to do something. Trauma, as presented in the story ‘A Way You Will Never Be’ was direct as a result of World War I. Individual soldiers and civilians who greatly suffered during the war were not directly responsible for it.

The event was caused by the competing interest of leaders who believed that the only solution was to engage militarily (Alfaro-LeFevre, 2019). A learner is presented with a scenario where they have to deal with an undesirable yet unavoidable event. The only way out for the soldiers and the civilians faced with the problem they did not cause was to make critical decisions to act in ways that will make them safe. For soldiers, avoiding the war would not be an option because that may lead to greater suffering as they may be accused of sabotage by their military commander. In such a tight spot, one has to be critical in their decisions because their options are limited. They have to fight the enemy and take orders from the authority, but in a way that does not expose them to pain.

In life, people are faced with various undesirable scenarios that they have to address. For a learner reading the story, they have to try and think of the possible decisions a soldier could make to stay safe. The introduction of threats in the learning process ensures that the student remains alert. They will try to fight that ingenious solution to the complex problem. Ivory (2021) explains that in such settings, students learn to work in groups to help brainstorm and discuss possible solutions. This argument was supported by primary data obtained from the participants. They observed that these stories created an environment where students could discuss some of the challenges that soldiers and civilians went through during the war.

Using of stories has emerged as an essential way of enhancing critical thinking skills among learners. According to Mariano and Figliano (2019), the use of stories as a learning tool has been used for centuries, even before the emergence of writing as a way of keeping knowledge. In a modern learning environment, the use of storybooks and novels is popular across the world (Bishop et al., 2020). It introduces entertainment in the otherwise demanding and monotonous learning environment. Stories are meant to entertain the audience, especially after taking several hours learning other concepts. However, the entertainment is designed in a way that facilitates learning. According to Fasko and Fair (2021), issues such as ethics, cultural practices, and the way of life of a people have been taught to the younger generations through stories. The researcher realized that this tool can be effective when teaching critical thinking skills.

Benefits and dangers of using trauma to enhance critical thinking skills

The use of trauma to enhance critical thinking among high school students has various benefits, which have been identified in the review of the literature and the analysis of primary data. One of the main benefits is that it evokes a sense of fear as a motivation for learners. The study revealed that when students realized that their decisions may sometimes have direct consequences, they tend to get critical in their thinking. There is a deliberate effort to avoid the pain and frustrations because of a wrong decision. The strategy also makes it possible for learners to understand how they can apply the knowledge they gain in the classroom in various practical settings.

Teamwork is an essential skill in the modern business environment and social settings. Reading Hemingway’s stories explains how different characters worked together to overcome the challenges they faced. These learners get to understand the benefits of working as a unit, especially when faced with major threats. In the analysis of primary data, it was explained that students developed an interest in working as a unit to address some of the challenges characters in the book faced. They also made an effort to identify common themes that were in the book without the assistance of the teacher. The learners developed further questions, beyond what the teacher presented, and they focused on answering them based on the stories they read. Teamwork will be a critical skill that these learners will need in institutions of higher learning, at work upon graduation, and in their social lives.

Despite the benefits of this strategy, which were discussed in detail in the analysis section, some dangers should not be ignored. According to Lombardi et al. (2021), students who have suffered from PTSD tend to be delicate even when they are fully healed of their condition. Any slight reminder of the painful event may trigger dangerous reactions. Their condition may worsen, and academic activity can rapidly deteriorate into a serious medical situation. It means that the one using this strategy should be highly skilled to understand how such students can be affected. They should identify these students and help them learn new concepts taught through the strategy without reflecting on past events that may trigger painful memories.

Using trauma, as told in Hemingway’s stories and similar books, create a sense of fear among learners, as was explained in the analysis section. As they read about the pain and suffering of various characters in the story, they are reminded that in life, it is possible to suffer when one fails to make critical decisions. The problem is that such learners end up becoming defensive. They may be proactive in making their decisions, but in a defensive way. They will be constantly looking for possible factors that may cause them pain and frustrations (Lombardi et al., 2021). Such students may become violent if care is not taken, especially if they are suffering from PTSD or had the condition in the past. They may embrace the belief that sometimes the best defense is the ability to attack first and neutralize the threat. In many cases, differences would be addressed through dialogue and mediation in a school setting or real life. But these war-related stories may emphasize the need to use force to achieve specific goals.

When trauma is overused without properly balancing it with other strategies, a student may become a pessimist. The goal of making the learner critical in their thinking may be achieved, but at a great expense. Whenever they are required to think critically, what would come to their mind is the need to avoid trauma. As a student, they have to learn that in many cases, they are always presented with many positive options. They only need to focus on what interests them in life and how they can pursue it. Cramer (2018) warns that the constant use of painful stories creates the perception that life is full of frustration. If appropriate measures are not taken to eliminate such feelings, a student can easily become suicidal. They develop a feeling that they will constantly face numerous challenges, most of which will bring them pain. If they lack the support system they feel can protect them, they can easily opt to take their own lives.

The relevance of developing critical thinking skills through literature

The researcher was interested in determining the relevance of developing critical thinking skills through literature. According to Lombardi et al. (2021), students learn critical thinking skills through almost every subject that they learn. However, literature presents them with the best opportunity to critically evaluate specific happenings in their environment. Stories like ‘A Way You Will Never Be’ present the learner with realities that one may face in life. Although most of the storybooks used are often fictional, they present realities in life. A learner has to think critically when analyzing themes in these stories. In this particular story, trauma is one of the primary themes that emerge. It is easy to use this theme to enhance critical thinking.

Unlike other subjects that may not directly focus on critical thinking through works of fiction, literature makes it possible for an author to focus on specific issues that directly relate to the way of life (Cramer, 2018). When analyzing data, it emerged that students were committed to finding reasons why some characters were subjected to pain and suffering, and what could have been done to avoid the situation. The story has offered them an opportunity to critically assess a real-life problem with the primary goal of finding an effective solution for it. The desire to find a solution to a given problem enhances a learner’s critical thinking skills. They realize that the events happened and ended in pain for some of the characters because of specific failures. They then focus on finding lasting solutions to those failures just to ensure that when they are faced with similar challenges, they can avoid the trauma. The use of literature was also considered relevant because stories tend to be an interesting way of impacting stories. They focus on activities that learners can relate to, based on daily events.

HOTS in school’s curriculum

Higher-order thinking skills remain essential for students, especially high school students who are preparing to ascend to institutions of higher learning. Learning theoretical concepts is essential but one must know how to apply them in a practical setting to solve specific problems (Mariano & Figliano, 2019). As shown in the review of the literature, employers are keen on hiring college graduates who can comprehend problems in practical settings and then formulate solutions that are effective enough. Achieving such a goal requires critical thinking skills. A learner should have the ability to think beyond the obvious. Critical thinking need to be practiced and fostered continuously ….school, before joining college. The curriculum should be developed to empower learners to have a better capacity for interpreting the world. Learners can only be critical thinkers when they are presented with a learning environment where they are active participants. In a traditional classroom setting, teachers are expected to spend most of the time issuing instructions.

Learners are expected to listen attentively and ask questions only when it is necessary. When the teacher has issued an instruction, he may decide to ask learners a few questions, just to determine if they understood. A few intelligent students will answer the questions and the teacher will assume that the concept is understood. When an assignment is given, only a few learners will have a satisfactory score. Those who fail will be classified as slow learners, and the same procedure will continue (Fasko & Fair, 2021). This traditional learning practice needs to give way to a student-centered approach. The new approach requires learners to be active in the learning process, and teachers are only expected to assist whenever it is necessary. It means that the student has to conduct research and find solutions to specific challenges, only engaging the teacher in addressing problems they do not understand (Mariano & Figliano, 2019). Such a curriculum empowers learners from a tender age, and they acquire higher-order thinking that will remain essential for the rest of their lives.

Impact of traumatic experiences in Hemingway’s short stories on readers

The analysis of the primary data showed that reading Hemingway’s short stories benefitted students significantly by enhancing their critical thinking skills. However, there were also several unintended consequences. There was a concern that the overemphasis on trauma as an underlying theme in this story had a negative effect on a section of the learners. Students who had gone through trauma at one stage of their lives relieved their ordeals when they read these stories. Hemingway describes how soldiers and civilians died in these attacks. He also explained how many other people were subjected to torture, and although some survived, it left them with both physical and emotional scars.

Some of the traumatic stories reminded students related of their own trauma. It was revealed that two students had been involved in grisly accidents but survived while others had gone through various forms of abuse at home. Reading these stories was educative, but opened scars that had not been healed yet. As explained in the methodology section above, there was an effort to identify such cases and address them immediately. Students who were emotionally affected by the stories had to be identified and offered emotional support. They had to be protected from any emotional pain that is directly or indirectly related to themes presented in Hemingway’s stories. The rest of the students were not negatively affected by the stories. They were able to use these traumatic experiences to enhance their critical thinking skills by trying to solve problems that were presented in the story.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Summary of Findings

Critical thinking skills are vital in higher education, especially among English as foreign language (EFL) students. The review of the literature in chapter 2 and the analysis of primary data conducted in the previous chapter strongly suggest that there is a need to integrate Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) at different levels in the English curriculum. Direct teaching remains critical, but studies have shown that when incidental learning of thinking skills was introduced, students’ performance increased. A high school student has the ability to go beyond merely understanding a concept and in a step further to apply what she had learned in a classroom by drawing conclusions, or finding a solution to a given issue.

During the study, it was revealed that many EFL students understood the meaning of critical thinking, but that was not enough since application remained a challenge in various contexts. The study revealed that there was a significant relationship between creating awareness about trauma and enhancing critical thinking. The case study showed that literature helped learners’ to a detailed understanding of concepts taught in class.

Thus, reading these short stories provided students with a unique ability to see how a specific character made a critical decision that spared their lives. They also learned to reflect about other characters’ poor choices in dealing and coping with the given situations. As such, they get to learn how one is expected to think critically by using the information and skills they have to avoid pain and suffering. Students expressed their desire to protect themselves from harm. Self-defense needs are created when a learner reads about the trauma that a specific character went through in the short stories. They start developing critical questions, trying to understand why a given character went through such hardships. They try to investigate, among themselves, ways in which the pain and frustrations could have been avoided.

Critically assessing problems and finding appropriate solutions expand the reasoning capacity of a learner. Learners will go beyond answering questions developed by the teacher and would develop their questions to enhance the understanding of the phenomena. They will develop the desire to investigate the scenarios presented even further, and without the constant supervision of the teacher, to answer specific questions. It creates an environment where learning changes from teacher-centered to a student-centered approach. Findings show that these stories about PTSD enable learners to understand that these concepts are not just meant to help them pass exams. They get to know that these are real-life skills that may help them overcome a similar painful phenomenon in their lives.

Implications for Practice

When conducting research, the fundamental goal is to always address a specific problem or to improve a given phenomenon. By creating new knowledge, a researcher can provide a guideline on how an issue can be improved based on data collected from various sources. In this research, the focus was to determine how raising awareness about trauma through teaching Hemingway’s stories can enhance critical thinking skills among EFL learners. The information from secondary sources and data from the case study shows that there is a strong relationship between these variables. Information obtained from the study should help enhance the teaching of critical skills among the targeted group of students and to the rest of the population of learners across the country. The information obtained in the study should be applied to help improve the practice. The following are some of the implications of the study that should be considered by relevant authorities and individuals in the country’s education sector:

• The Ministry of Education should consider the integration of Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) in the curriculum at all levels and domains, to enhance students’ understanding and critical thinking. Such major changes will require the involvement of all stakeholders, especially parents and teachers who will be expected to take active roles in the implementation.
• The ministry should be keen on selecting appropriate literature books for learners as part of enhancing their critical thinking skills. Selected stories should evoke critical thinking among learners as they try to solve problems and find a solution to challenges that the characters presented face. It is encouraged that the selected stories should reflect realities in Israeli society.
• Teachers need to move from the traditional teacher-centered approach of teaching to the new learner-centered approach. Enhancing critical thinking among learners would require students to actively participate in finding solutions to specific problems. As such, the teacher should create a platform where these learners can question events in the story and then provide answers to specific occurrences.
• Care should be taken when implementing the new strategy to help avoid any form of resistance. When introducing a major change, it is advisable to ensure that all the relevant stakeholders are duly informed. They should understand why the new changes are necessary and the expected outcome.

Recommendations for Research

The researcher understands that future scholars will be interested in conducting further investigations on this issue. As Mariano and Figliano (2019) note, as long as an issue is of interest to many stakeholders, it will continue to attract further research. Critical thinking among high school students is one such issue that is gaining rapid popularity among scholars. Some employers have complained that fresh graduates from some of the local colleges lack the practical skills needed to implement specific business strategies (Lombardi et al., 2021)). They have theoretical knowledge, and when they are asked to implement them, they struggle. This challenge is directly linked to their inability to think critically and creatively. They are unable to understand a concept beyond what is presented in the paper. Naturally, scholars will be interested to investigate this phenomenon further to help expand knowledge in this field. The following are the recommendations that these future scholars should consider:

• Further studies should be conducted to understand how raising awareness about stress and trauma can help in enhancing critical thinking among the general population of students. In this study, the investigation was narrowed down to EFL learners. It is recommended that future scholars should investigate the same issue among all students.
• Future studies should investigate the role of every stakeholder when introducing such a new approach to teaching. Teachers, students, schools’ administrations, parents, and specific officials in the ministry of education have unique roles that they need to play in such a new system. Defining their roles makes it easy to implement such a new system.
• There is a need to investigate possible challenges and resistance to change that may arise when introducing a new system. These challenges and resistance to change may negatively influence the ability to successfully implement the new initiatives. Studies should identify them and propose ways in which they can be neutralized effectively.
• A study should be conducted to help determine the effects of using trauma to teach critical thinking among learners suffering from PTSD. The danger is that such lessons may resuscitate painful memories that may have greater devastating consequences than the intended benefits. Studies should investigate how such delicate learners should be handled to ensure that they benefit from the new strategy despite their delicate condition.

Conclusion

Enhancing critical thinking among EFL learners in high school is essential as they plan to transition to institutions of higher learning. They need these skills to ensure that they become creative and innovative in solving academic and social problems. The study has revealed that raising awareness about trauma and stress is an effective way of enhancing critical thinking among these students. Using Hemingway’s stories, it has been proven that these learners can be facilitated to understand how to implement what they learn in a practical setting. Using these stories creates awareness among learners that sometimes their ability to avoid suffering and pain depends on their ability to think critically. They have to assess the situation in which they find themselves, use the knowledge that they have, and make decisions that will transform the bad situation into something manageable.

The study recommends the application of the findings in redefining the learning environment for students, especially the EFL learners who were the focus of the study. It suggests that the Ministry of Education will continue to adapt and change the English curriculum to include and refine its strategies to enhance critical thinking, thinking sensitively about what literary test to suggest. This study has demonstrated that creating awareness about trauma is one of the ways of enhancing critical thinking. The pain and frustration of the characters was the main motivation for critical thinking among the students. It created the desire for the leaders to think creatively as a way of protecting themselves from such possible events. It is possible that focusing on the success of specific individuals may be another motivating factor. Exploring various motivations is essential to ensure that learning does not just focus on trauma as the main motivating factor to learning critical thinking.

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Appendix 1: Questionnaire

Part A: Demographic Information

• Kindly select your age category based on the classes provided below
  • Below 16
  • 16-17
  • Above 17
• What is your nationality?
  • Israeli
  • Non-Israeli
• How long have you been studying in Israel?
  • Less than 2 years
  • At least 2 years
• What is your gender?
  • Male
  • Female
  • Other
• Are you an EFL student?
  • Yes
  • No

Part B: COVID-19 History

• Have you ever been diagnosed with COVID-19?
  • Yes
  • No
• Have you been diagnosed with COVID-19 over the past month?
  • Yes
  • No
• Has any of your family members or close friend been diagnosed with the virus within the past month?
  • Yes
  • No

Part C: Participants’ Knowledge about Research Variables

• Do you understand the concept of posttraumatic stress disorder?
  • Yes
  • No
• Do you understand the concept of critical thinking?
  • Yes
  • No

Part D: Enhancing Critical Thinking in EFL Learners and Raising Awareness about trauma

• To what degree do you believe you understand the concept of posttraumatic stress disorder? Tick as appropriate
  • I fully understand the standards.
  • I am acquainted with the standards.
  • Not Sure
  • I do not understand the standards.
• How strongly do you agree with the argument that awareness about trauma enhances critical thinking? Tick as appropriate
  • Strongly Agree
  • Agree
  • Not Sure
  • Disagree
  • Strongly Disagree
• Do you believe Hemingway’s story has had an impact on your critical thinking skills?
  • Strongly agree
  • Agree
  • Not sure
  • Disagree
  • Strongly disagree
• Do you believe there is a deliberate effort at the school to enhance critical thinking through awareness about trauma?
  • Strongly Agree
  • Agree
  • Not sure
  • Disagree
  • Strongly Disagree
• Do you agree with the statement that high schools should be encouraged to enhance learners’ critical thinking through the creation of awareness about trauma?
  • Strongly Agree
  • Agree
  • Not sure
  • Disagree
  • Strongly Disagree

Thank you for taking part in this study.

Appendix 2: Consent Letter

• The Principal
• Sakhnin Elhekkma High School
• Physical Address
• Postal Address
• March 3, 2022

Dear Sir,

Re: Request to Collect Data for My Master’s Degree Program From Your Institution

My name is……. I am a master’s student in ………………. University. I am conducting a research study titled “Enhancing Critical Thinking in EFL Learners and Raising Awareness about trauma through Teaching Hemingway’s Story: A Way You Will Never Be.” The purpose of this quantitative study is to explore how creating awareness about posttraumatic stress disorder can enhance critical thinking among EFL learners. Some studies have suggested that there is a relationship between these variables and it was necessary to confirm the same.

I chose to collect data from your institution because of the high number of EFL learners. The reputation that your school has developed over the years as a center of excellence where teachers easily mingle with students to enhance their success made it an obvious choice. I was also attracted to the institution because of the high level of discipline among students and strict policies meant to limit the spread of COVID-19.

I have explained data collection methods that will be used, possible risks and how they will be managed, ways of enhancing confidentiality, the right of a student to refuse or withdraw from the study, and the role of the school, especially teachers who will provide some assistance if the approval is given. Kindly sign the consent form presented if the approval is given. I am available for any further clarifications that may be needed.

Thank you in advance.

Respectfully,

Sign …………

Appendix 3: Consent Form

• Sakhnin Elhekkma High School
• Physical Address
• Postal Address
• Site Informed Consent Form
• Administrator’s Position:
• Approval Date:
• Title of Research: Enhancing Critical Thinking in EFL Learners and Raising Awareness about trauma through Teaching Hemingway’s Story:
• Researcher: Masters’ student at ………….
• Purpose: The purpose of this quantitative study is to explore how creating awareness about posttraumatic stress disorder can enhance critical thinking among EFL learners.
• Method of Recruitment and Data Collection:
  • The researcher will use judgmental sampling, which means that the participants will have to meet specific criteria to take part in the investigation. The following are the inclusion criteria:
    • Should be EFL students in the selected school
    • Should be aged 16 or 17
  • Should be a male or female student
• Students who met the following criteria were excluded:
  • Are foreign students and moved to the country within the last two years
  • Are aged below 16 or above 17
  • Are not able to take part in the study because of any reason
  • Have a traumatizing past
• Risks or Benefits: The research will be of benefit to the institution because it will enable teachers to understand strategies that they can use to ensure that their students can grasp specific concepts better. It will enhance knowledge in this field of study. The report can be used by the school, policy-makers, and future scholars. The main risk identified is that the study may remind students of their traumatizing past. Such students were excluded from the study
• Confidentiality: The identity of individual learners will be protected in this study. Instead of using the actual name of each student, the researcher will use codes (Student 1, Student 2, Student 3, and so on) to identify the participants
• Right to Withdraw or Refuse: The participants will be reminded of their right to withdraw from the study if they felt that they were unable to continue because of personal or school-related issues.
• Role as Administration/Teachers
  • If the permission is granted, the role of the institution will be to:
    • Help in the selection of specific students who will be part of the study
    • Help in contacting parents and explaining the relevance of the study
    • Facilitate the creation of awareness of trauma among learners
    • Any other assistance that may be necessary
• Agreement:
  • Having read and understood the information above, I permit you to collect data from this institution
  • Principal’s Signature
  • Date
  • Researcher’s Signature Date

Appendix A. Pre-Reading Activity

1. Look at the pictures below, how do you think these pictures are related?
2. Following your answers, how, do you think war can affect a person?

In this activity, students will be encouraged to understand cause and effect. After answering the questions, trauma and PTSD are explained to students.

Appendix (B) Vocabulary Practice

Vocabulary: Place the correct letter next to its definition. (NOT ALL WORDS WILL BE USED)

• A. Adjutant H. Principle
• B. Inciting I. Hysterics
• C. Placid J. Protruding
• D. Saluted K. Depicted
• E. Peril L. Shrapnel
• F. Regiment M. Vivid
• G. Locusts N. Resistance

1. _______ Show or represent by words, drawing, painting, or other art forms.
2. _______ Fragments of a bomb, shell, or other object is thrown out by an explosion.
3. _______ Calm and peaceful, with little movement or activity.
4. _______ A fit of uncontrollable emotions.
5. _______ producing powerful feelings or strong, clear images in the mind.
6. _______ To make a formal sign of respect to someone.
7. _______ Encourage or stir up.
8. _______ Serious and immediate danger.
9. _______ Sticking out; projecting.
10. ______ A unit of an army commanded by a colonel and divided into several companies, squadrons, or batteries and two batt

Appendix C. Analysis and Interpretation

1. 1) What is the setting of the story?
2. 2) How does the character of Nick Adam act during the story?
3. 3) What are the characterizations of both Nick Adam and Captain Paravicini?
4. 4) The writer uses the literary devices: simile, imagery, symbolism, and irony, how do you think these literary devices help convey the theme or the message of the story?
5. 5) What’s the theme of the story?

Appendix D. Post-Reading Activity

Students will be given a short video on Hemingway’s life and a short description of his autobiography; then presented with the following questions:

• How does the background information add to your understanding of the story?
• Compare Nick Adam and Hemingway. Are they alike?

Copy and complete the diagram below with words from the list that describe each character. Support your answer with examples from the story.

Appendix (E). The Veen-Diagram

Appendix (F). How Birds see the world

Appendix (G) Summative Assessment

Name: ___________________ Date: ____________________Score _________/25

Vocabulary: Place the correct letter next to its definition. (NOT ALL WORDS WILL BE USED)

• H. Adjutant H. Principle
• I. Inciting I. Hysterics
• J. Placid J. Protruding
• K. Saluted K. Depicted
• L. Peril L. Shrapnel
• M. Regiment M. Vivid
• N. Locusts N. Resistance

1. _______ Show or represent by words, drawing, painting, or other art forms.
2. _______ Fragments of a bomb, shell, or other object is thrown out by an explosion.
3. _______ Calm and peaceful, with little movement or activity.
4. _______ A fit of uncontrollable emotions.
5. _______ producing powerful feelings or strong, clear images in the mind.
6. _______ To make a formal sign of respect to someone.
7. _______ Encourage or stir up.
8. _______ Serious and immediate danger.
9. _______ Sticking out; projecting.
10. ______ A unit of an army commanded by a colonel and divided into several companies, squadrons, or batteries and two battalions.

Thinking questions: Using a combination of your opinion and evidence from the readings to answer the questions. Use complete sentences!

1. Explain and analyze this line from the story “The hot weather had swollen them all alike regardless of nationality.
2. What is your opinion of Nick’s current state of mind? Explain your answer using evidence from the text.

Multiple Choice: On the lines provided, write in the correct response for each question.

1. ________What is Nick supposed to be showing the battalion?
   1. His Uniform
   2. His Papers
   3. A Newspaper
   4. Weapons
2. ________ What does Nick use the locust for?
   1. Food
   2. Warning
   3. Pets
   4. Fishing
3. ________ How does Nick get to battalion
   1. Truck
   2. Bicycle
   3. On Foot
   4. Horse Back
4. ________ Where has Nick come from and where does he return to?
   1. Tripoli
   2. San Dona
   3. Fornaci
   4. Zenzon
5. ________ Which is NOT something Nick should have to pass out to troops?
   1. Chocolates
   2. Cigarettes
   3. Postcards
   4. Brandy
6. ________Paravicini, is acting as what for the battalion?
   1. Major
   2. Capitan
   3. Sargent
   4. Adjutant
7. ________ What army is Nick visiting?
   1. American
   2. French
   3. Italian
   4. Austrian

Name: ________________________ Date: ______________________ Score: ___________/25 A Way You Will Never Be

Directions: Create a picture of Nick’s tessera (card or ID) filling in the information you don’t have. When you are finished give a brief rationale (explanation) for your picture. You will not be graded on artistic talent, but on effort, use of color, and your explanations.

Why was there so much paper among the dead? Explain your answer.

Name: ______________________ Date: ______________________Score _________/25

Vocabulary: Place the correct letter next to its definition. (NOT ALL WORDS WILL BE USED)

• A. Adjutant H. Principle
• B. Inciting I. Hysterics
• C. Placid J. Protruding
• D. Saluted K. Depicted
• E. Peril L. Shrapnel
• F. Regiment M. Vivid
• G. Locusts N. Resistance

1. ____K___ Show or represent by words, drawing, painting, or other art forms.
2. ___L____ Fragments of a bomb, shell, or other object is thrown out by an explosion.
3. ____C___ Calm and peaceful, with little movement or activity.
4. __I_____ A fit of uncontrollable emotions.
5. ___M____ producing powerful feelings or strong, clear images in the mind.
6. ___D____ To make a formal sign of respect to someone.
7. ___B____ Encourage or stir up.
8. __E_____ Serious and immediate danger.
9. ____J___ Sticking out; projecting.
10. __F____ A permanent unit of an army typically commanded by a colonel and divided into several companies, squadrons, or batteries and often into two battalions.

Thinking questions: Using a combination of your opinion and evidence from the readings to answer the questions. Use complete sentences!

1. Explain and analyze this line from the story “The hot weather had swollen them all alike regardless of nationality.
2. What is your opinion of Nick’s current state of mind? Explain your answer using evidence from the text.

Multiple Choice: On the lines provided, write in the correct response for each question.

• ___A_____What is Nick supposed to be showing the battalion?
  • A. His Uniform
  • B. His Papers
  • C. A Newspaper
  • D. Weapons
• ___D_____ What does Nick use the locust for?
  • A. Food
  • B. Warning
  • C. Pets
  • D. Fishing
• ___B_____ How does Nick get to battalion
  • A. Truck
  • B. Bicycle
  • C. On Foot
  • D. Horse Back
• ___C_____ Where has Nick come from and where does he return to?
  • A. Tripoli
  • B. San Dona
  • C. Fornaci
  • D. Zenzon
• __D______ Which is NOT something Nick should have to pass out to troops?
  • A. Chocolates
  • B. Cigarettes
  • C. Postcards
  • D. Brandy
• _____A___Paravicini, is acting as what for the battalion?
  • A. Major
  • B. Capitan
  • C. Sargent
  • D. Adjutant
• 7.___C_____ What army is Nick visiting?
  • A. American
  • B. French
  • C. Italian
  • D. Austrian