Category: Erik Erikson

Adolescence is one of the most challenging periods in people’s lives. During this stage, people undergo numerous physical, social and cognitive changes. As far as physical changes are concerned, adolescents develop secondary sexual characteristics (Bukatko, 2008). Girls’ breasts usually fully develop at the period between 12 and 18. Pubic hair and leg hair usually appear between ages 13 and 14. Girls also start having their menstrual periods between ages 9 and 16 though in the majority of cases menarche starts when girls are 12-14. As for boys, their testicles start growing at the age of nine but they reach the adult shape at the age of 17-18. Pubic and body hair becomes evident at the age of 17-18 as well. Boys start experiencing nocturnal emissions at the age of 13-17. Male voice also changes at that period. Clearly, adolescents continue growing and active growth stops at the age of 18 in boys and at the age of 16 in girls.

Adolescence is also characterized by significant cognitive changes. Thus, adolescents develop the ability to think systematically (Bukatko, 2008). They are able to form logical connections and think in a complex way. At this stage, people form abstract thinking. Processing speed increases considerably. It is also necessary to add that memory and attention also improve. Adolescents become more organized and less egocentric. They also start questioning numerous conventions and authority. Adolescents also start solving various moral and ethical dilemmas. It is necessary to note that adolescents develop ideas, plans and dreams that often have the essential impact on their further lives. At the same time, at this period of their development, people are more risk-taking and their behavior may change significantly.

Finally, social changes are also dramatic during adolescence. Adolescents become more integrated into the society and they are preparing to adulthood (Bukatko, 2008). More importantly, this is the period of the development of their self-identity (Rathus, 2013). Thus, according to Erikson, adolescents live through an identity crisis and they may need help in adjusting to the new environment of the adult world (Rathus, 2013). Sexual orientation and self-esteem also develop at that period and have certain influence on their further life. All this affects the way adolescents form relationships with their peers, educators (or employers), parents, and so on.

It is important to note that Erikson’s theory is the most suitable to consider the developmental stage in question. According to Erikson, “social relationships and physical maturation give each stage its character” (Rathus, 2013, p. 12). It is important to mention major characteristics of the theory. The psychologist divided people’s lives into eight stages and labeled them after the life crisis the person may face at each stage. These stages are as follows: hopes (up to 2), will (2-4 years), purpose (4-5 years), competence (5-12 years), fidelity (13-19 years), love (20-25, 20-39), care (25-64, 40-64) and wisdom (from 65 years up to death). As has been mentioned above, adolescence is the period when people start integrating into the society and start developing numerous social ties. Therefore, the social aspect plays an important role in people’s development at this stage. Notably, Erikson stresses that adolescents form their identities and find their place in the society. They encounter certain crises during which they have to answer questions concerning their identity, their worth, their values, their future and so on. These questions also arise as they feel dramatic changes that are happening with their bodies. It is possible to note that physical and cognitive changes affect the way people start seeing themselves and integrate into the society.

Importantly, culture plays a crucial role in peoples’ development and Erikson’s theory explains that trend. Culture can be seen as a social element and people are affected by it at different stages of their development. However, the impact of culture is often quite limited at earlier stages of people’s lives. Clearly, the environment where an individual is brought up affects the way the person sees him/herself and the entire world. Culture has a paramount effect on the development of adolescents’ identity. Values are usually transferred from parents to children who form their vision of the world. Children start acknowledging various rules and behavioral patterns in their childhood. However, adolescents start understanding or questioning conventions and values, they learnt during earlier stages of their lives. They start analyzing and often comparing different cultures they are exposed to. During this stage, adolescents meet more people (as they are more integrated into the society) and have to encounter a mix of cultures (as well as subcultures). This is often a period of numerous conflicts as a person may be brought up in one cultural paradigm but decide to change everything and join another cultural group (form another cultural identity). Of course, it is essential to help adolescents overcome difficulties they may face and help them adjust to the multicultural world. It is also important to teach them various skills to cope with issues associated with cultural diversity as they may use these skills during their adulthood.

Reference List

Bukatko, D. (2008). Child and adolescent development: A chronological approach. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Co.

Rathus, S. (2013). Child and adolescence: Voyages in development. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.

People begin to encounter various experiences since their childhood that shape their individuality, temper, and behaviors. Different psychological theories contribute to understanding life experiences and facilitate self-analysis and self-evolvement. Therefore, Erikson’s theory can help identify whether an individual has successfully passed developmental crises and acquired new traits to affirm their identity.

The chosen person is one of my friends, and she is married. According to Erikson’s theory, the girl is at the intimacy vs. isolation stage that corresponds to early and emerging adulthood or age between 20 and 40 years (Maree, 2021). At this stage, the developmental task is seeking and establishing intimate relationships (Maree, 2021). Noteworthy, it allows individuals to recognize their vulnerability and learn to trust other people (Maree, 2021). If a person fails to build strong relationships, it may result in isolation and loneliness (Maree, 2021). As one may notice, personal traits and readiness to be open to others can play a pivotal role in life.

The friend experienced this stage without difficulties because she had found the love of her life and became happily married. Perhaps, the main reason for positively handling the intimacy vs. isolation stage was her previous toxic relationship. As she told me, the past negative experience helped her to analyze her needs and desires. It resulted in the ability to recognize what partner she wanted to see near her.

In conclusion, Erikson’s theory helps to understand the experiences that impact the life of an individual. Successful passing the developmental tasks or crises influences the way an individual develops their interactions with others. Failure to recognize and address the needs at a particular stage may result in problems with relationships and identity.

References

Maree, J. G. (2021). The psychosocial development theory of Erik Erikson: Critical overview. Early Child Development and Care, 191(7-8), pp. 1107-1121. Web.

By means of introduction, let us give some information about Erik Erikson that may be useful for us in this work. It must be mentioned that Erikson’s theory of eight stages of human development is considered to be one of the most important impacts on psychoanalysis and psychology on the whole. Erikson is known as Neo-Freudian, but in contrast to Freud, he believes that though the character of a person is formed in his childhood, it is not forever, because the characteristic feature of the character is its ability to change considerably during every next stage. It should be mentioned that Erikson did not deny the essence of psychoanalysis, he used its main postulates building new levels on their basis.

Speaking about Erikson’s work, the eight stages of life that he defines should be mentioned. These stages of psychological development are formed on the basis of three key factors: psychological crisis, significant social relationship, and favorable outcome (McAdams, 2006). Thus, each stage involves a psychological crisis inside a person’s psyche and this crisis is the leading force in the development of a man’s personality: trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus doubt, initiative versus guilt, industry versus inferiority, identity versus diffusion, intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation and integrity versus despair (Weiten et al. 2008, 341).

The last but one conflict is especially interesting for me because I think that

I belong to the seventh stage of Erikson’s classification at the present moment. What is more, I have just entered this stage, because it includes people of 40 to 65 years old. However, I clearly understand that I have successfully completed the previous stage, and this may be proved by the fact that I have chosen my soul mate already and I am a married person. Besides, I have managed to establish a friendly relationship with many people, so, isolation is not a threat for me.

The main question that is posed at the seventh stage may be defined in the following way: Am I satisfied with my present accomplishments? Have I done everything I could for the next generation? Have I done anything useful for society? The word “generativity” in this case refers, first of all, to the next generation. The primary goal of a person at this stage is to give birth to children and to provide them with suitable conditions for their future life. As for me, I am sure that I have accomplished at least the first part of the task: I have children and so far, I am rather successful in their upbringing. My children have everything they need for their mental and physical development and for their becoming developed personalities. The atmosphere in our family is healthy if we have any problems we solve them together. Besides, at this stage a person should be socially active: that means that he/ she should establish the career, be productive at work and see the positive results of the work. I feel that I satisfy the requirements of this stage, as I am successful at my work, and I have healthy and friendly relationship of cooperation with my colleagues. In addition, the stage under consideration concerns social life. I personally feel that I am a cell of society, that my opinion and my existence are important for it. That is why I feel that I have to be socially active, take part in community activities.

Those people, who fail to resolve the main conflict of the stage, become stagnant. They suffer, because they feel that they are unproductive, if they have neither children nor career. They understand that they have lived the half of their life already and it is high time to observe some results, but they have none. I definitely do not belong to such people and the only thing I can advise them is to summon their strength and to start doing something useful.

As an example of a person belonging to the other stage, I have decided to choose a neighbor of mine, Ms. Lizock, a woman of eighty, who evidently belongs to the last stage – old age. She is lonely, she has neither family nor friends. Ms. Lizock never had experience of married life and she has no children. The main questions she has to answer are the following: Have I lived my life successfully? Have I managed to achieve everything I wanted? Unfortunately, Ms. Lizock cannot answer these questions in the affirmative, because despair is the result of reflection on her life. She suffers, because she feels that her life is wasted and she cannot face death with calm conscience. The present situation is the result of Ms. Lizock’s failure to resolve the conflict of some previous stage, because she failed in finding friends, husband and good job.

Unfortunately, it is too late to help my neighbor, but her example may be useful for other people for them not to understand that they have wasted their lives when it is too late already. Thus, we have proved that Erikson’s theory is reasonable and may help people resolve the major conflicts of life. This theory may be useful for everyone, because it makes people think about their achievements and plan their future.

Reference List

McAdams, D. (2006). The person: A new introduction to personality psychology. (4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Son

Weiten, W., Lloyd, M.A., Dunn, D.S., and Hammer E. (2008). Psychology Applied to Modern Life: Adjustment in the 21st Century. NY: Cengage Learning.

Introduction

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development was developed by Erik Erikson and first published in his 1950 book Childhood and Society though he later revised the theory and published it in subsequent books beginning from the late 1950s to the 1980s.

This theory is one of the most recognized theories of personality in the field of psychology, alongside Sigmund Freud’s theory of psychosexual. However, in contrast to Freud’s theory, Erikson’s theory defines the influence of social experience over a person’s entire lifetime. The theory is divided into eight stages spanning from infancy to late adulthood.

Psychosocial Stage 1 – Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth-2 years)

This is the first stage of the Psychosocial theory and focuses around the infant’s basic needs being provided by parents or other caregivers. At this phase, the newborn wholly depends on the caregivers for food, care, and love. Their comprehension of the surrounding originates from the parents, for instance, if the parents are affectionate towards the child, their view of the society will positive, but with a lack of affection, the consequence will be a feeling of distrust.

Psychosocial Stage 2 – Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (2-4 years)

At this stage, the child develops a greater degree of personal control and starts to explore their surroundings due to improved muscular coordination and mobility. The children also learn to control their own body functions and this results into some level of autonomy.

However, the child is still largely dependent on the parents. Through the parents’ support, the children develop their first interests that will go on to influence their careers. However, when the children are constrained, they will instead have doubt and reluctance when performing challenging duties.

Psychosocial Stage 3 – Initiative vs. Guilt (4-5 years)

This stage mainly occurs at the preschool stage and is characterized by children attempting to comprehend the world around them and learning basic skills. The development of courage and autonomy are what distinguishes this group from the rest. Children who succeed at this stage feel capable and able to take up leadership roles while those who fail to gain the skills have feelings of guilt, lack of confidence, and lack of initiative (Bee and Boyd, 2004).

Psychosocial Stage 4 – Industry vs. Inferiority (5-12 years)

By interacting with those around them, children at this stage begin to have pride owing to their achievements and skills (Allen & Marotz, 2003). They also learn the idea of time and space and are able to put them into practical use. The stage is very crucial to the development of self-confidence that will be of great benefit both at home and at school and this occurs only if the children are encouraged and commended by their teachers and parents.

Psychosocial Stage 5 – Identity vs. Role Confusion (13-19 years)

At this stage, the adolescent/teenager is more concerned with how they are seen by others. One of the major decisions that the group faces is that of settling on a school and occupation. In the latter stages, the children at this psychosocial stage may develop a sexual identity. Erikson came up with the word ‘Identity Crisis’ in which he stated that each stage had its own crisis (Erikson, 1956).

However, this crisis is more marked at this stage as it marks the transition from childhood to adulthood. Persons who receive support will come out of this developmental phase with more autonomy and control while those who are not supported will be confused and unsure of themselves (Marcia, 1966).

Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adulthood, 20-24, or 20-40 years)

This stage is more marked around the age of 30 and is characterized by young adults trying to explore or establish personal relationships. Young adults spend more time with their identities or friends while those who are rejected or fear rejection become isolated (Erikson, 1950). After establishing their identities, they are prepared to commit long-term intimate and reciprocal relationships to others that can be through friendships or marital agreements.

Psychosocial Stage 7 – Generativity vs. Stagnation 25-64, or 40-64 years)

This is the stage of middle adulthood and the main focus is on career and family. Persons who succeed during this stage will feel that they are positively impacting on the society by being active in their own families and in the community while persons who fail at this phase will have feelings of unproductivity and detachedness from society.

Psychosocial Stage 8 – Integrity vs. Despair (65-death)

At this phase, persons are less productive and focus is on the reflection of life. It is during the stage that people reflect on their accomplishments. Those who feel proud of their achievements will “have a feeling of integrity while those who are unsuccessful of their achievements will have a feeling that their lives have been wasted and are filled with regret” (Erikson, 1950).

Influence of Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

The psychosocial theory has had a great influence in my life. For instance, being in my 20s, I am in the Intimacy vs. Isolation stage and am currently bent on making long-term relationships as mentioned by Erikson. I am also making friends with persons with whom I share common interests such as career and academic activities.

I am trying to establish my career, having decided on a specific career earlier on in my teenage years during the Identity vs. Role Confusion stage. At this moment, I feel proud of my achievements and I attribute this to the support and encouragement I received from my parents and teachers. As mentioned by Erikson, support and provision of affection, care, and warmth to the child by both parents and teachers is crucial to the holistic development of the child.

References

Allen, E. and Marotz, L. (2003). Developmental Profiles Pre-Birth Through Twelve (4th ed.). Albany, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning.

Bee, H. and Boyd, D. (2004). The Developing Child (12th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and Society. NY: W. W. Norton & Company.

Erikson, E. (1956). The problem of ego identity. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 4(25), 56-121.

Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3(14), 551-558.

Introduction

Erik Erikson is a proponent of Freud’s psychosexual development theory supporting Freudian elements of psyche and the concepts of Oedipal and Electra complexes as explanation of sexuality. In his theory of epigenetic psychosocial development of personality, he expanded the Freud’s psychosexual theory by introducing the aspect of society and culture and by adding the principle of epigenetic.

Erikson postulates that the genesis of the personality development is from the innate characteristics of a child that are sequentially build through the eight stages of personality development under the influence of the society and culture. Erikson believes that personality development does not end at adolescence as depicted by Freud but it is a lifelong process.

Each stage has an optimal time required for the ego to resolve a psychosocial crisis. The resolution of the psychosocial crises at the preceding stages cumulatively determines the personality. Proper resolution of the psychosocial crisis in each stage result into a personality virtue while poor resolution of the psychosocial crisis result into mal-adaptation and malignancy.

Mal-adaptation and malignancy are the anomalies of imbalanced personalities that may occur at each stage. The malignancy is due to skewed ego resolution towards negative personality while mal-adaptation is due to the skewed ego resolution towards positive personality.

Hence, the epigenetic psychosocial theory postulates how personality develops from the innate characteristics through into the adulthood by the consecutive and cumulative impacts of the society and culture.

The Infant Stage

This personality development occurs within the first two years of an infant, a stage known as oral-sensory stage. The psychosocial crisis here is between the trust and mistrust that depends on the perceived quality of the maternal care by the infant.

Proper resolution and balance of the trust and mistrust by the ego, results into a virtue of faith and hope that gives an infant the qualities of patience and tolerance when the needs are not satisfied in time.

These virtues are important in our future personalities, as they will help us “get through disappointments in love, our careers, and many other domains of life” (Boeree, 2006). Faith and hope will make us endure the hard circumstances we encounter in the society and our work places.

Improper and imbalanced resolution of trust and mistrust by the ego will result into malignancy and mal-adaptation. Too much maternal care will result into “mal-adaptive tendency of sensory mal-adjustment” where an infant will trust anybody through into the adulthood without imagining of possible harm from the strangers.

On the other hand, poor maternal care will result into “malignant tendency of withdrawal” where an infant develops mistrust, depression and psychosis way into the adulthood (Boeree, 2006). An overt trust or mistrust personality affects our relationships in the work place and the society.

The Toddler Stage

This is the second stage occurring between 2-4 years, and is known as anal-muscular stage. The psychosocial crisis at this stage is the autonomy versus shame and doubt that depends on the degree of the restrictions imposed on the child by the parents. The toddler needs a balance between autonomy, and shame and doubt thus the ego must resolve the psychosocial crisis by balancing the two.

According to Boeree (2006) “proper, positive balance of the autonomy, and shame and doubt, you will develop the virtue of willpower or determination.” The virtue attitude of determination improves our performance in the work places and the society.

Little or no restriction of a toddler will result into “mal-adaptive tendency of impulsiveness” where a toddler develops a personality of shameless and overconfidence in which later in adulthood one become over ambitious.

On contrary, too much restriction of the toddler will result into “malignant tendency of compulsiveness” where the toddler loses self-esteem and becomes dependent on the rules and regulation in order to do things perfectly (Boeree, 2006).

Preschooler Stage

This is the genital-loco motor stage, which occurs at the age of 4-6 years. The psychosocial crisis is between the initiative and guilt at the level of family relation. At this stage, the child develops the capacity of moral judgment and oedipal experience ensues.

The virtues of purpose and courage result when the ego resolves and balance the psychosocial crisis between the initiative and the guilt (Davis & Clifton 1995). The virtues of purpose and courage help us to be responsible in our work and to the society.

If the child has too much initiative, it will result into “maladaptive tendency of ruthlessness” where the person becomes selfishly objective in life not considering the interest of others. On the other hand, too much guilt will result into “malignant tendency of inhibition” (Boeree, 2006). The inhibited person becomes reserved and rigid, never to propose anything that is worth doing in the work places and in the society.

School Age Child

This is the fourth stage in psychosocial development and it occurs between the ages of 6-12 years. The psychosocial crisis is industry versus inferiority that occurs in the context of the community and the school. At this stage, the balance between industry and inferiority results into the virtue of competence (Davis & Clifton 1995). The virtue of competence in our lives makes us achieve satisfaction in our work and serving the society.

The mal-adaptation of industry will result into narrow virtuosity that is characterized by the narrowness of our minds and interests, hence making us be mere actors of our real characters in the society (Davis & Clifton, 1995).

The malignancy of inferiority that occur at this stage is the inertia; one become inactive in the work place and in the society due to the feeling of inferiority complex thus the inactiveness makes have poor socialization skills.

Adolescence Stage

This is the fifth stage occurring between the ages of 12-18 years. The psychosocial crisis is between ego identity and the role confusion in the context of peer groups and role models. The virtue of fidelity is achieved when there is proper resolution of the psychosocial crisis by the ego (Boeree, 2006). Fidelity makes us to conform to the demands of the work and the society in spite of the challenges.

The anomaly resulting from psychosocial crisis resolution is the identity crisis. Too much of the role confusion will result into “malignant tendency of repudiation” where one becomes alienated from the mainstream society and get involved with the vices in the society.

On the other hand, excess of the ego identity will result into “mal-adaptive tendency of fanaticism” (Boeree, 2006). Fanaticism makes one to nurture the infallible interests without considering the views of others.

Adult Stage

These are the sixth, seventh and the eight stages and occur between the ages of 18 and beyond. The psychosocial crises are intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation and integrity versus despair. The psychosocial crises occur in the context of friends, partners, workmates, and the society.

If the psychosocial crises are resolved and balanced very well, the virtues of love, care, and wisdom are obtained (Davis & Clifton, 1995). The virtues of love and care are what makes us a have a healthy relationships with our partners, families, friends, community and the whole society.

While the virtue of wisdom makes one approach death with courage and this is the gift to the children as “healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear death” (Davis & Clifton, 1995).

The mal-adaptations at these stages are the promiscuity, overextension, and presumption. The mal-adaptations results into loose behavior at young adult, overworking in the middle adult and presumptuous character.

In contrast, the malignant tendencies are exclusion from relationships in the young adult, middle life crisis of rejectivity and disdained in the life of the old (Cherry, 2010). These malignancies and mal-adaptations are the personalities the society is trying to avoid in the bid to build a better society.

Conclusion

The epigenetic psychosocial personality development theory clearly elucidates the sequentially development of personality from the innate personality of an infant through into the old through a cumulative effect of the societal and cultural factors. This theory is consistent with the Freud’s psychosexual theory with extension of the developmental stages into eight as compared to the five stages of psychosexual theory.

Moreover, the aspects of culture and society have been incorporated together with the epigenetic concept. Balanced and proper resolution of the psychosocial crises at the stages results into personality virtues while skewed resolution of the crises results into personality anomalies of ma-adaptation and malignancy. The personality virtues and anomalies determine our roles in the work places and in the society.

References

Boeree, G. (2006). Erik Erikson: Personality Theories. Psychology Department Shippensburg University. Retrieved from http://www.social-psychology.de/do/pt_erikson.pdf

Cherry, K. (2010). Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development. Psychology. Web.

Davis, D., & Clifton, A. (1995). Psychosocial Theory: Erikson. Haverford. Retrieved from http://ww3.haverford.edu/psychology/ddavis/p109g/erikson.stages.html

Some of our personality traits are inborn while most are learned depending on the negative or positive reinforcement that we get from adults. Erik Erikson did a great job in exploring this concept. Through the influence of Freud, Erikson believes that behavior is not totally defensive and that the ego exists from birth. According to him, behavior is largely influenced by culture and especially the external world. He believed that the interaction of the body, mind and culture influences our development. He therefore structured life into eight stages extending from birth to death.

According to Erickson the first stage starts at birth and ends at 18 months. This stage is known as infancy. For a child to undergo this phase effectively the mother should give it love, care and support. If a child is successful in going through this period, it learns to have trust in life, feels secure and develops confidence in future. A good example of such a child is one who shows confidence in everything it does. In fact research has shown that most optimistic people in life developed a crucial trust of the world during their very early years. It is no wonder that, a child develops stronger ties with its mother during this period.

The second phase is referred to as Early Childhood. It proceeds from 18 months to 3 years. A child that receives proper nurturing at the first stage will probably emerge successful at this point. However, it requires a strong parental bond, encouragement and support. These elements are necessary for a child to learn how to feed, talk, and walk as well as help the child develop a sense of self-esteem and autonomy. Once they are able to manage their bodies, children start to discriminate right from wrong. The ability to use the word ‘no’ is gained at this stage. This is important because it helps the child to develop essential skills of the will. (Arlene, 2002).

The third stage is the play age which begins from 3 to 5 years. It is here that the effectively developing child learns to copy the adults around them. The child gains initiative in coming up with play situations and should therefore be provided with toys such as cell phones, dolls and baby cars. At this stage, children are fond of asking several questions in an attempt to explore and understand their world. Thus, parents and other parties concerned should support them by giving them appropriate answers to enable them discover their environment. A child that is well supported in this phase will be social, active and enthusiastic in learning new things (Arlene, 2002).

The latency stage/school age is the forth level. It takes place between the age of 6 and 12 years. Accomplishments of numerous skills of knowledge such as learning and creativity are achieved at this level. As a result of victorious resolution of predicaments in earlier levels, children put lots of effort in order to compete with their fellows at school. Consequently, the child develops a sense of industry. Being a social stage of development, children experience adequate feelings of dominance and develop a high level of self–esteem and pride amongst their peers when they flourish in their academic work. Although parents are still crucial at this level, the major relationship is with the neighborhood and school (Arlene, 2002).

Adolescence is the fifth stage. It occurs between the age of 12 and 18 years. According to Erikson, prior to this stage, development largely depends on what is done to and is predetermined by what we do afterwards. At this level, peer influence is dominant as many teenagers tend to behave like their peers. They form social groups which they identify with and become royal and devoted to them. In an attempt to find one’s own identity, an individual deals with moral issues when he/she comes to grip with social interactions through experimenting on various roles. In an effort to emulate a certain lifestyle, the majority opt to view life in an idealistic manner rather than being realistic. Once an individual successfully navigates through this stage, he/she will experience role identity and orderliness (Arlene, 2002).

Young Adulthood is the sixth phase between 18 to 35 years. Love and companionship are vital at this level. It is here that the successful individual endeavors to have a mutually satisfying relationship through friends and marriage. Attachment to friends and marital partners develops affiliation and love in the individual. If this stage is settled successfully, one experiences indisputable intimacy. It is not surprising therefore that the crucial relationship at this stage is with buddies and marital partners (Stages of Social-Emotional Development In Children and Teenagers, n.d).

At stage seven we have middle adulthood which is between 35 and65 Years. Here, an Individuals work becomes very crucial.They are mostly occupied with creative work and family issues. The middle aged adult has the opportunity of becoming what they have envied in life. The most important duty is to transmit positive cultural values though the family, and establishing a better society. During this stage, idleness and purposelessness are feared most. In case one succeeds in going through this stage, he/ she becomes prolific and compassionate about others. Major relationships are found within the family, place of work and community (Arlene, 2002).

Late Adulthood is the last stage according to Erikson’s theory. It is between age 55 or 65 and Death. Individuals who have fruitfully passed through all the other levels are most likely to feel contented with life since they have made a contribution to it. This is because they are able to trust, are autonomous, innovative, confident and industrious, knows who they are and have developed self- image in life. Such people become proud of their work and children. Their strength is gained from the wisdom achieved from the experience gained through the years. Most often, they accept the finishing point of life as death. Their most important relationship at this point is with all mankind (Arlene, 2002).

In conclusion, it is evident that our character is largely influenced by how well we are nurtured by our environment as elaborated by Erik Erikson in his ‘Eight Stages of Human Development’. Accomplishment in the crisis resolution in each of the levels pre determines success in the next level. Parental as well as teacher guidance is an important ingredient in nurturing the character of an individual from the time of birth to death.

References

1. Arlene F. Harder, MA, MFT, 2002, The Developmental Stages of Erik Erikson.
2. Stages of Social-Emotional Development In Children and Teenagers, n.d. Web.

Introduction

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and Erik Erikson (1902-1994) came up with two different theories on development. Freud’s psychosexual development theory holds that parental care plays a critical role in determining how children handle their sexual drives, which ultimately contributes to proper development. Freud came up with five stages of development that include “oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital” (Scott 66). Later on, other psychologists criticized Sigmund Freud’s theory on development, and in contemporary times, it is considered as one of the outdated theories. On the other hand, Erik Erikson developed Sigmund’s theory and came up with the psychosocial theory of development that has eight stages. Erikson’s eight stages of “psychosocial development include trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame/doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair” (Slater 64). This paper compares and contrasts Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual development theory to Erik Erikson’s psychosocial development theory.

Stages of psychosexual development theory vs. psychosocial development theory

Birth – year 1

At this stage, both Freud and Erikson’s theories major on the critical role that early experiences play in the development of an individual. However, while Freud stresses the importance of proper feeding at this stage, Erikson’s focus is on the way caretakers handle a child’s needs.

According to Freud, this stage is called the oral stage and a child derives pleasure through the mouth (Crain 101). This observation explains why children suck their thumbs or direct everything they touch towards the mouth. According to Crain, Freud explains that if this stage is not fully developed, an individual suffers oral fixation, which explains why some people suck their thumbs later in life (101).

On the other hand, Erikson calls this stage trust vs. mistrust. At this point, children learn to trust or mistrust adults (Crain 114). However, the person close to the child at this stage is a caregiver, and thus the interaction between the two forms the basis for trust or mistrust. Therefore, a child will learn to trust adults if the caregivers involved at this stage create the impression that people can be trusted. Erikson notes that the only communication channel for a child at this stage is through crying (Crain 114). The act of crying signifies an unmet need in a child. Therefore, caregivers should act in accordance to meet the need, which in turn forms the basis of trust between the child and adults.

1 – 3 years

Between the first and third years, Freud and Erikson’s theories major on the process by which children learn about independence and mastery.

According to the psychosexual theory, this phase is the anal stage of development. Freud notes that children at this stage are introduced to mastery, independence, and competence by learning to control bladder and bowel movements (Bee and Boyd 84). If a child undergoes this stage successfully, Freud asserts that one will grow to become a productive and capable individual later in life (Bee and Boyd 84). However, any form of failure at this stage causes anal fixation, which ultimately leads to one becoming a messy adult.

On his side, Erikson labels this phase as the autonomy versus shame and doubt stage (Bee and Boyd 85). During this stage, children learn independence and control over what they do a couple with how they react to their surroundings. For instance, children that learn to use the potty at this stage become confident in their capabilities. Conversely, children that fail to grasp this basic activity may feel unconfident about their abilities and autonomy. Caregivers can assist children at this stage by letting them make choices about what to wear, eat, or the kind of toys to play with. This freedom of choice creates a sense of autonomy, which ultimately instills confidence in children concerning their capabilities.

3 – 6 years

During this stage, Freud underscores the role of sexual desire in children while Erikson majors on the interaction between children and parents and peers.

Freud calls this phase the phallic stage where children start recognizing their sexual orientation (Scott 69). Boys are drawn towards their mothers in what Freud calls the Oedipus complex while girls experience the Electra complex where they are drawn towards their fathers (Scott 69). Girls start feeling threatened by their mothers based on the attention they both get from the father figures in the family.

On the other side, this stage is the initiative vs. guilt according to Erikson (Bee and Boyd 92). At this stage, children that have undergone the first and the second phases successfully take initiatives that point to a certain direction in life (Bee and Boyd 92). They are confident of their abilities and thus they can easily take initiatives and face challenges independently. Erikson notes that this stage is characterized by conflict between parents/caregivers and children (Crain 106). This scenario emerges because children want to make certain choices, which might not be popular with their parents. Nevertheless, undergoing this stage successfully creates a sense of purpose in children and they grow up to try new things without fear of failure. Those that fail at this stage suffer from guilt, which breeds the feeling of inadequacy in one’s abilities.

7 – 11 years

While Erikson holds that children at this phase continue to develop more skills on independence and competence, which were initiated in the previous phase, Freud sees this level as a transition period between childhood and adolescence.

This latent period, according to Freud, is characterized by suppressed libido, which allows children to focus on other activities like hobbies, making new friends, and becoming better in school among other duties (Schaffer and Kipp 90). This stage plays a critical role in the development of social skills coupled with improving one’s self-confidence. Failure at this point leads to individuals becoming social misfits characterized by a lack of self-confidence.

However, Erikson asserts that during this industry vs. inferiority stage, children continue to improve on their independence and competence in different areas (Bee and Boyd 97). The expanding social world at this stage allows children to make decisions that are in tandem with their choices. School plays a critical role during this stage as children are exposed to an environment where they can explore their competence in different tasks whether in the classroom or playground. Children at this stage start appreciating personal accomplishments, which goes a long way in determining the kind of adults that they become. On the contrary, children that fail that this stage struggle with incompetence later in adulthood.

Adolescence

Both Freud and Erikson agree that during this stage teenagers become aware of their sense of identity. During this genital stage, according to Freud, teenagers start to pursue romantic relationships (Schaffer and Kipp 90). On the other side, Erikson calls this phase the identity vs. role confusion stage, where teenagers become aware of their identity (Newman and Newman 87). With the necessary support, teens develop a strong sense of self and clear direction of what they want to achieve in life. Failure to navigate this stage successfully may lead to lifelong confusion about oneself and purpose in life.

Adulthood

Freud’s theory does not explore this stage as it holds that development happens from childhood to adolescence, which spills over to adulthood. However, Erikson splits this stage into three phases. First is the intimacy vs. isolation stage (19 – 40 years) where individuals pursue love and companionship (Slater 65). In the second phase – the generativity vs. stagnation stage (40 -65 years), individuals seek to build the legacy by undertaking activities that will live on after death like educating children and other positive societal deeds (Slater 65). Finally, after 65 years of age, individuals enter the integrity vs. the despair stage where they look back at their lives with a sense of accomplishment or regrets.

Conclusion

Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual development theory and Erikson’s psychosocial development theory focus on the different stages that individuals go through from childhood to adulthood. While Freud focused on five stages, Erikson expanded that to eight stages of development. As highlighted in this paper, Freud majored on the psychological and sexual aspects of development while Erikson incorporated the social aspect into the process. Nevertheless, the two theories hold that the events that occur during the formative years of growth contribute significantly to how one turns out as an adult.

Works Cited

Bee, Hellen, and Denise Boyd. The Developing Child. Pearson, 2009.

Crain, William. Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. Pearson, 2011.

Newman, Barbara, and Philip Newman. Development Through Life: A Psychosocial Approach. Cengage Learning, 2017.

Schaffer, David, and Katherine Kipp. Developmental Psychology: Childhood & Adolescence. Wadsworth, 2010.

Scott, Jill. Electra After Freud: Myth and Culture. Cornell University Press, 2005.

Slater, Charles. “Generativity Versus Stagnation: An Elaboration of Erikson’s Adult Stage of Human Development.” Journal of Adult Development, vol. 10, no. 1, 2003, pp. 53-65.

This paper is aimed at discussing the theories of human development which were introduced by Erik Erikson and Jean Piaget. Much attention should be paid to the way in which these psychologists explain the role of culture that includes a set of values, beliefs, and attitudes that shape the behavior of an individual (Matsumoto, 2001).

Overall, it is possible to argue that Erik Erikson’s approach better explains the role of culture and its impact on the behavior of an individual. These are the main questions that should be discussed more closely. In both cases, researchers identify specific stages which can be viewed as the main milestones in the psychological development of an individual.

For instance, Erik Erikson identifies eight stages, while Piaget distinguishes six stages. Both theorists argue that the development of a person follows certain sequential patterns (Staudinger, 2003, p. 170). Yet, one should mention that Piaget attaches importance to the cognitive skills of an individual, for instance, it is possible to mention a child’s ability to distinguish cause and effect (Lerner, 2013).

Moreover, much attention is paid to aspects as creativity, memory, deductive and inductive reasons, and so forth. In turn, the stages described by Erik Erikson can be viewed a series of conflicts that a person should resolve in the course of his/her development (Staudinger, 2003, p. 170). For instance, one can mention the choice between trust and mistrust, initiative or guilt, intimacy and isolation.

The way in which a person resolves one of these conflicts can shape his/her later development. For instance, if this person chooses in favor of mistrust, he/she may become less sociable. The difference between models does not imply one of them is superior to another. To a great extent, they can complement one another.

Furthermore, one should point out that Erikson’s model covers the entire lifespan of a person while Piaget’s approach focuses on the first twenty years. These are the main differences that should be considered. Overall, it is possible to argue that Erikson’s model better explains the impact of culture on the development of a person.

For instance, the choice between initiative and guilt can be partly affected by the cultural and family background of an individual. For instance, in some cultures, initiative can be encouraged, and a person is not prohibited from taking independent steps. In contrast, some cultures lay stress on the respect for authority figures whose permission is required a person who wants to take a certain step.

So, culture is one of the forces that should be considered. These are the main issues that should be singled out. To some degree, Erik Erikson’s model enables researchers to consider the role of culture. In particular, it influences the inner conflicts within an individual. In contrast, Piaget’s model is aimed at demonstrating that cognitive development is not dependent on culture. This is one of the issues that should be identified.

On the whole, this comparison indicates that the theories of human development do not explain the role of culture in the same way. According to some of them, psychological development is not affected by a set of values, attitudes, or beliefs imbedded in the society.

This argument is particular relevant if one speaks about Jean Piaget’s model of cognitive development. Other theorists provide more opportunity for incorporating culture into this discussion. This argument is relevant if one speaks about Erik Erikson’s approach which enables a person to examine the influence of external factors, including culture.

Reference List

Psychology Press.Lerner, R. (2013). Concepts and Theories of Human Development. New York, NY:

Matsumoto, D. (2001). The handbook of culture and psychology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, US.

Staudinger, U. (2003). Understanding Human Development: Dialogues with Lifespan Psychology. New York, NY: Springer Science & Business Media.

Temperaments in human beings come in opposing pairs. One could either be emotional or unemotional, independent or dependent, aggressive or passive, adventurous or cautious, optimistic or pessimistic, leader or follower etc. Most of the mentioned character traits are inborn but some are developed based on past challenges and support.

In his study, Erik Erikson discovered the dependence of behavior on culture and external stimuli like depression and wars. This paper explores the psychosocial theory of Erik Erikson and analyses its application in professional practice (Cherry, 2010, p. 1).

Erikson’s psychosocial theory basically divides life into eight “psychosocial crises” that determine growth and personality. Each of these crises has a “syntonic and a dystonic” which are the two opposing emotional forces/dispositions. Although the stages are experienced in a fixed sequence, their timings depend on individuals and circumstances. Thus Erikson did not use strict age definitions in his theory. The crises are as follows:

• Trust V Mistrust. Erikson stipulated that a healthy balance between the two dispositions is achieved if an infant is taken care of and not over-protected or over-indulged.
• Autonomy V Shame & Doubt. A child develops basic confidence or over-reliance on other people from his/her parents reactions during early stages like the potty stage.
• Initiative V Guilt. The level of encouragement of children to indulge in game playing and adventure makes them develop the ability to devise projects or the fear of disapproval.
• Industry V Inferiority. A child who positively succeeds, especially, during school years will be industrious. Contrarily, a child who fails in an activity will get a feeling of inferiority and uselessness and thus he/she will fear purposeful activities.
• Identity V Role confusion. During adolescence, people either develop individuality or lack of identity (identity crisis) depending on their experiences.
• Intimacy V Isolation. This is also known as young adulthood. People seek companionships and love in this stage. A person will therefore decide to be intimate or lonely depending on earlier experiences.
• Generativity V Stagnation. This stage determines if a person will be selfless in giving and caring especially for his children. It can also be extended to productive activities. Its negative side is self-absorption and self-interest.
• Integrity V Despair. At this stage, a person is either in peace with himself/herself and the world or he/she feels that he/she has not lived the way they ought to have lived. It is therefore a review of one’s own life even before old age (Winters, 2005, p. 1).

Successful transition through each stage is achieved by balancing of the conflicting extremes. Therefore, inclination towards the desirable extreme will lead to under-development. Thus Erikson shows that too much of syntonic dispositions do not translate to a well-balanced personality (Cherry, 2010, p. 3).

Erikson was a humanitarian as well as a psychoanalyst and therefore his theory has extensive applicability in practice. The theory is applicable in all situations involving personal development and awareness.

With its strength in explaining the development of behavior in people, it can be used to ensure healthy behavioral development. It can also be used to mitigate the effects of negative behavior developed by a person in earlier stages. Thus the person can be controlled to ensure that his/her later stages are not affected by failures in earlier stages.

From the above explanation, Erikson’s theory is applicable in parenting, managing and coaching, self understanding, dealing with conflict, teaching, etc. Given the contemporary pressures on relationships and personal fulfillment and development, Erikson’s theory is, probably, more applicable today than when it was first outlined (Cherry, 2010, p. 2).

The theory also shows the undeniable influence of generations on each other. He shows how parental actions can affect the development of a child and how a parent’s psychosocial development can be affected by the pressures of raising their children. This analysis can be very useful in guiding parental actions to ensure that parents do not affect the psychosocial development of their children negatively.

This will have dual productivity by leading to well-balanced psychosocial development of the child and the parent since a parent’s Integrity V Despair stage is highly determined by the success that the parent has achieved in raising his/her children. The outcome of most of the discussed stages is dependent on the maintenance of a positive attitude in challenging situations.

The theory can therefore be applied by psychiatrists to identify challenges that could impact the psychosocial lives of their clients and ensure that the effects of these challenges are mitigated (Harder, 2002, p. 1).

Reference List

Cherry, K. (2010). Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development. Web.

Harder, A. (2002). The Developmental Stages of Erik Erikson. Web.

Winters, A. (2005). Erikson’s Theory of Human Development. Web.

Erik Erikson’s theory is anchored in the notion of epigenesis, inferring that human growth is progressive and that every person must cross eight phases of life influenced by environment and context. Every stage establishes the basis for the next phase, and the transition is delineated by a crisis that must be fixed. Erikson detailed that the main psychosocial assignment for middle-aged adults between the ages of 45 and 65 is to create generativity. Generativity entails the desire to increase one’s commitment and influence on family, society, and posterity while it encompasses productivity, commitment, interpersonal care, and creativity (Rathus & Nevid, 2019). Therefore, middle-aged adulthood pertains to establishing and shaping future generations. Contrarily, the middle-aged adult who does not create generativity faces stagnation with its related invalidism, self-indulgence, and midlife crisis.

Midlife can be described as a period of reassessment that results in interrogating long-held values and beliefs. The midlife crisis might also prompt an individual to change jobs, divorce a spouse, or even change the place of residence from the city to the outskirts. During midlife, Erikson posits, it is the struggle between stagnation and generativity (Rathus & Nevid, 2019). Moving away from generativity creates fear of stagnation that may contribute to the midlife crisis. In contrast, emphasizing generativity by establishing something for posterity might help resolve the midlife crisis (Rathus & Nevid, 2019). The theory highlights virtues in all stages of development, noting that care is the virtue that arises when someone attains generativity. The model further detailed that middle-aged adults should use and take care of products, ideas, and persons to contribute to guiding future generations. Moreover, generativity can be attained optimally when a person has resolved matters of intimacy and identity. A logic of stagnation happens when an individual is not vigorous in procreative issues; however, stagnation can cause an individual to forward energies into more expressive actions.

In conclusion, Erikson’s theory demonstrates the progressive nature of human development in an eight-phased process influenced by setting and context. The main psychosocial task during midlife is to realize generativity. However, individuals who fail to accomplish generativity encounter stagnation, a sense of lethargy coupled with a lack of interest and participation in personal and public affairs. Deviating from generativity creates stagnation and may trigger midlife crises, invalidism, and self-indulgence.

Reference

Rathus, S., A & Nevid, J. S. (2018). Psychology and the challenges of life: Adjustment and growth. John Wiley & Sons.