Category: Erik Erikson

It is important to note that there are eight stages in Erik Eriksons theory of psychosocial development. The conflicts include Trust vs. Mistrust in the first stage, Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt in the second stage, Initiative vs. Guilt in the third stage, and Industry vs. Inferiority in the fourth stage (Cherry & Susman, 2021). The latter is followed by Identity vs. Confusion in the fifth stage, Intimacy vs. Isolation in the sixth stage, Generativity vs. Stagnation in the seventh stage, and Integrity vs. Despair in the eighth stage (Cherry & Susman, 2021). The key emphasis of Eriksons theory is that a person grows through the impact of social experience. The conflict is a central element of each phase, in which the term versus is utilized. It is stated that if people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological strengths that will serve them well for the rest of their lives (Cherry & Susman, 2021, para. 8). However, failure to do so results in the lack or poor development of vital skills necessary for the formation of self.

In contrast, Piagets theory of development has only four main stages. These include the sensorimotor stage from birth to 2 years, the preoperational stage from ages two to seven, the concrete operational stage from ages seven to 11, and the formal operational stage from age 12 (Cherry & Gans, 2022). Piaget proposed that there are both qualitative and quantitative differences between the thinking of young children versus older children (Cherry & Gans, 2022, para. 9). In the first stage, a toddler and infants primarily rely on their sensory experiences and motor functions to interact and learn with the world. In the second stage, language becomes the primary mode of the learning process. During the third stage, a child develops a literal understanding and thinking patterns, which facilitate his or her logic. The last stage is about developing the capability to comprehend abstract concepts and deductive reasoning frameworks; thus, the theories share no notable similarities.

References

Cherry, K., & Gans, S. (2022). Piagets 4 stages of cognitive development explained. Very Well Mind. Web.

Cherry, K., & Susman, D. (2021). Erik Eriksons stages of psychosocial development. Very Well Mind. Web.

E. Erikson analyzes identity not just as a personal structure formed or not formed under the influence of internal or external factors. It is worth noting that they influence the development of a person and largely determine the form and content of his social interactions throughout their life (Maree, 2021). However, the psychologist distinguishes identity as a form of personal being, which unites at the subjective level the inner world of a person and the outer world into a single psychosocial system. Erikson justifies the concept of stages of psychosocial personality development by noting that each age stage concludes with either a favorable or unfavorable resolution of a crisis.

A satisfactory overcoming of a crisis means the transition of a person to the next stage of life and therefore is associated with the positive development of personality. The transition of a person to a new stage of life with the existence of complexes and issues from the previous stage is known as unfavorable overcoming of a problem situation (Gross, 2020). However, it is not possible to go through all the stages only successfully in real life. Each person has all the prerequisites for the emergence of an intrapersonal conflict, which E. Erikson classifies as a crisis of psychosocial development (Susman, 2022). That is why it is necessary to consider this theory in various aspects, allowing for assessing the condition of employees and candidates.

As a result of favorable crisis resolution, identity components are formed. They relate both to the internal needs of personal development and the essential elements of social tradition. They are materialized in the form of social values and meanings; that is, the social situation of development is demonstrated (Darling-Fisher, 2018). The acquisition of a distinctive ego-force by a person is required for the successful resolution of each crisis of developing personality. This energy, which people spend in the necessary institutions of society as part of the process of social functioning, supports the latters viability. At the same time, at each level of growth, distinct reference figures and groups serve as a direct route for such constant exchange.

Erickson suggested that there are psychological stages of the development of the Self, during which individuals establish basic guidelines concerning themselves and their social environment. These guidelines remain throughout a persons life as motivators of activity and resources that a person turns to (Azarfar et al., 2019). Going through the stages indicated by Erikson, overcoming these crises, the personality develops a certain amount of mental energy for this overcoming. Moreover, this potential for overcoming remains in a persons later life (Bharati, 2022). If a person has not yet reached adulthood due to a young age, this does not mean that, for example, they cannot strive for mentoring or do not think about the meaning of their life.

Thus, in any social environment, including a professional, a person allocates his significant landmarks depending on the mental energy concentrated in the crisis zone. If a person, being at their workplace, and performing their work, can rely on the values, if candidates mental energy finds an acceptable way out of the crisis zone, then the professional system is a resource for them (Towler, 2022). On the other hand, it can negatively impact without providing conditions and opportunities for productive work (Jackson et al., 2022). In order to determine meaningful guidelines for employees and candidates, Assessment Centers should pay attention to the psychological stages highlighted by Erikson.

Reference List

Azarfar, A., Alishiri, M., Mohamadi, M. (2019) The effects of the consistency of situation on the advantages of the candidates in evaluation centers, Journal of Research in Human Resources Management, 10(4), pp. 1-24.

Bharati, K. (2022). Eriksons theory of psychosocial development: Why is it still relevant today? [online] Medindia.

Darling-Fisher, C. (2018) Application of the modified Erikson psychosocial stage inventory: 25 years in review. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 41(3), pp.431-458.

Gross, Y. (2020) Eriksons Stages of Psychosocial Development. The Wiley Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences, pp.179-184.

Jackson, D., Lance, C. and Hoffman, B. (2022) The psychology of assessment centers. Routledge.

Maree, J. (2021). The psychosocial development theory of Erik Erikson: Critical overview. Early Child Development and Care, 191(7-8), pp.1107-1121.

Susman, D. (2022). Understanding Eriksons stages of psychosocial development [online] Verywell Mind.

Towler, J. (2022) Psychology in the workplace  Creative organizational design. [online] Creative Organizational Design.

Introduction

The subject is a white male in the early adulthood developmental stage. He experienced emotional and physical abuse as a child and has a history of substance abuse, which affected his progression through developmental stages as defined by Erikson. The first stage of psychosocial development by Erikson is infancy, which is characterized by the conflict of trust versus mistrust. The developmental task of this stage is receiving primary care, which could have been impaired due to the parents attitudes. The second and third developmental stages present challenges of autonomy and initiative, respectively. Despite problems evident in the family of the subject, it is possible that he completed the central tasks presented by these stages effectively. In middle childhood, the primary task is attaining school education, and the completion of this task was also influenced by abuse.

During early and late adolescence, young adults develop their personal and group identities (Broderick & Blewitt, 2013). At these stages of life, the subject was influenced by negative peer group experiences and internal conflicts that affected his progression through these stages of development. Today, the subject is in the middle of his early adulthood stage, which is centered around the ego quality of love. However, his past experiences affected his socioemotional development, making it difficult to form attachments. This paper aims to analyze the subjects developmental history by applying Eriksons theory of psychosocial development and supporting the analysis with Havighursts developmental task theory and Bronfenbrenners ecological theory where relevant. The paper will also provide evidence-based recommendations for solving the current challenges faced by the subject and for completing further developmental stages successfully.

Identifying Data

The subject is a 27-year-old white male. He was never married and is currently single. He lives in a rented apartment and is employed part-time at a local supermarket. The subject has a tendency to switch jobs and states that he is looking for something that would interest him in pursuing a full-time career. He attended a college and studied for a Bachelors degree in computer science, but decided to drop out after the second year. He has a history of unemployment and an unstable overall living situation, which can have a significant influence on his progression through adulthood. He has a casual manner of dress.

For the interview, the subject was wearing a clean t-shirt, jeans, and sneakers, as well as sunglasses and a sports jacket. He appears to be relatively healthy and has no signs of obesity, cognitive impairment, or other health issues. The subjects body shape is slim, and he has a healthy skin color. His general self-presentation is confident, with straight walk and posture. The subject showed the willingness to talk about all of his life experiences, even those that were unpleasant or those he considered shameful, which shows a general openness and initiative for improvement. Overall, despite the history of abuse and unstable living situation, the subject does not present any signs of depression or other psychological issues that could affect his well-being and future life.

Relevant History

The interviewee was born into a middle-class family. His father worked as a legal attorney and was 26 when the subject was born, whereas his mother was aged 28 and worked as an accountant. The subject has no siblings and has not maintained a close relationship with other members of the family, such as aunts, uncles, and grandparents. The subject states that his father had anger management issues, whereas his mother had alcoholism, which affected relationships within the family. The father was physically abusive, whether the mother was sometimes negligent of the child. The subject believes that neglect helped him to become more independent at a young age, which led to the successful resolution of the crisis between autonomy and doubt.

The first episode of abuse that the patient remembers occurred at the age of six and the episodes became more frequent during middle childhood and early adolescence. Although he motivated the subject to be more diligent and achieve success in school education, it affected his relationship with his peers. He was exposed to negative peer influence and started drinking and smoking at the age of 13 due to the pressure from his friends. One of the primary developmental tasks during middle childhood is establishing friendship and learning teamwork skills, whereas early adolescence is characterized by emotional development and peer group membership (Broderick & Blewitt, 2013). However, the completion of these tasks was affected due to family abuse and negative peer influence. The subject suggests that both factors made him wary of people and caused him to avoid friendly and romantic relationships in further life.

The subjects family and personal history present many risk factors for psychological issues, which could develop later in life. For instance, abuse by parents is a significant risk factor for mental health issues. According to a study by Sugaya et al. (2012), physical abuse during childhood is a major risk factor for ADHD, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, and depression. Furthermore, physical abuse is linked to substance abuse in adulthood (Sugaya et al., 2012). Given that episodes of abuse were rather frequent, the subject has a severe risk of developing these mental health issues further in his life: as noted by Sugaya et al. (2012), the frequency of abuse is directly linked to the severity of the risk. History of unemployment and unstable living situation are also important risk factors that can affect the subjects mental health. For example, Strandh, Winefield, Nilsson, and Hammarström (2014) found that unemployment can lead to depressive and nervous symptoms in the long term.

Moreover, unemployment is also positively linked to suicide, especially if there are existing mental health concerns: according to Strandh et al. (2014), unemployment creates heightened vulnerability for later mental illness and suicide (p. 914). Lack of formal education presents as a major risk factor for building a successful career, which in turn could lead to a higher risk of mental health issues resulting from unemployment. The subject also presents several risk factors for substance abuse, which can lead to a relapse. For instance, unresponsive mothering behavior and exposure to alcohol in early childhood are considered to be the risk factors for substance abuse (Sloboda, Glantz, & Tarter, 2012). Moreover, deviant peer group influence, low parental warmth, and early substance use during middle childhood and adolescence are all risk factors for substance abuse later in life (Sloboda et al., 2012). Overall, the subjects personal and family history present significant risk factors for a relapse into substance abuse.

However, there are also certain personal attributes and experiences that can be considered protective factors for developing psychopathology. For example, the patient has managed to develop a strong connection with two of his college classmates, who are now his closest friends. According to the subject, they have a strong positive impact on him, as they are moving through their developmental stages successfully. They also have no history of substance abuse or other mental health problems. As noted by the subject, they rarely drink alcohol, which motivates him to refrain from it, too. According to research, social support is a significant protective factor for a variety of mental health risks.

For instance, Kleiman and Liu (2013) indicate a positive influence of social support on the development of resilience. Moreover, the presence of social support was found to lower the risk of suicide, as it increases feelings of belongingness and increases self-esteem (Kleiman & Liu, 2013). The positive influence of friends also motivated the subject to improve his lifestyle. He admits that he participates in moderate physical activities with his friends and works to improve his diet as a result of their influence. A healthy lifestyle can also act as a protective factor for mental health issues. For example, Cairns, Yap, Pilkington, and Jorm (2014) indicate that risk factors for depression that are evident in the adolescence, such as substance use and dieting, can be moderated by a healthy diet, exercise, and relationships with positive peer groups.

The analysis of the subjects family history, as well as the risk factors for psychopathology, suggests that the patient is at high risk for developing depressive symptoms and suicidal tendencies later in life. Moreover, there is also a risk of relapse of substance abuse, which is especially high due to the subjects past history of substance abuse in late adolescence. Nevertheless, there is also an opportunity to ensure the moderating effect of protective factors, including social support and a healthy lifestyle. In order to prevent unwanted mental health issues, it is crucial to increase the number of protective factors, for instance, by forming a stable romantic relationship and developing realistic career goals to prevent unemployment.

Environmental Factors During Key Developmental Periods

The subjects key developmental periods were full of challenges that affected the fulfillment of developmental tasks. Most of these challenges occurred in the subjects microsystem, which involves the immediate environment, such as home and school. Applying Bronfenbrenners model to the subjects history can help to understand the impact of various stressors and supports on the subjects development.

Stressors

According to Bronfenbrenners ecological theory, proximal processes occurring in the childs microsystem are the key factors influencing his or her progression through developmental stages of life (Broderick & Blewitt, 2013). In the subject, these processes were greatly affected by central stressors, such as parental abuse and neglect. He was also influenced by deviant peer behavior in late adolescence, which affected his psychosocial behavior, eventually leading to substance abuse. However, the subject indicated no significant peripheral stressors that had an influence on his life and development.

Supports

The primary sources of support for the subject throughout his development were interpersonal relationships and education. First of all, the subject admitted that in early and middle childhood he had a lot of friends and enjoyed spending time with them. Having a strong circle of friends throughout childhood mediated the effects of a negative home environment, allowing him to complete most of the developmental tasks for these stages successfully, as interpersonal relationships are a significant part of development in both early and middle childhood (Broderick & Blewitt, 2013).

The subject also indicated that he had a good relationship with his teachers, which probably helped with the completion of developmental milestones in middle childhood by assisting him in developing crucial skills and succeeding in school education. School success was also an important part of the support scheme for the subject, as he excelled in most of the school disciplines until the age of 13. Successful completion of education can help in developing adequate self-esteem; moreover, it can equip the person with the skills and abilities needed to progress through further life stages. Although the subject dropped out of college, his school experience shows great potential for acquiring knowledge, which can help him to build a stable career, thus contributing to his further development. Interpersonal relationships remain the primary source of support for the subject in his current early adulthood stage.

Interpersonal Style and its Development

The subjects interpersonal style is complex, as it was influenced by a variety of factors throughout his development. There are three main categories of relationships that are currently present in the subjects life, and his interpersonal style in these relationships is somewhat different.

Family

The patient has a distant relationship with his parents, which is probably due to the negative experiences that he faced as a child. His family lives in another town, and he rarely visits his parents except for holidays. Although the relationship between the subject and his family is no longer characterized by physical and emotional abuse, he has a tendency to withdraw from contact where possible and exhibits a significant degree of mistrust towards his parents. It is likely that the subject is still affected by the abuse inflicted by his parents and this causes a strain in his relationships with them.

Friends

As mentioned above, the subject has a strong network of close friends that he has known for almost ten years. He has a mature and trustful relationship with them, which allows him to receive social and emotional support when needed. It is also important to note that the subjects friends are more successful at moving through the early adulthood stage of life, which makes them a source of positive influence and advice that could potentially help the subject to resolve his current challenges.

Romantic Relationships

The subject indicated that he has never had a serious romantic relationship in his life. Most of his relationships were purely sexual and lacked the emotional component. The subject actively pursuits women but tends to withdraw before growing an attachment. This could be a result of his negative relationship with parents and the resulting fear of emotional attachment. For instance, maternal neglect impaired the fulfillment of the first developmental stage by Erikson, which was focused on the conflict between trust and mistrust. Failure to move through this stage successfully could have affected the subjects ability to form social attachments. Moreover, abuse that occurred in early childhood could have affected the subjects sex-role identification, whether negative peer influence and substance abuse in adolescence most likely disrupted the formation of sexual relationships and sex-role identity.

Current Challenges

In order to understand the current challenges faced by the subject, it is crucial to review both the Eriksonian theory and Havighursts developmental task theory. The subject is now in the middle of his early adulthood developmental stage. According to Eriksons theory, this period of life aims to develop the ego quality of life by creating stable relationships and planning a family (Broderick & Blewitt, 2013). A similar approach to early adulthood is taken by Havighurst. Havighursts developmental task theory expands on the principles outlined by Erikson by separating early adulthood developmental tasks into five categories: a romantic relationship, family life, job life, social life, and physical changes (Hotteman, Hennecke, Orth, Reitz, and Specht, 2014).

For instance, selecting a mate and learning to live together with a romantic partner are the main developmental tasks for the romantic relationship section (Hotteman et al., 2014). Starting a career, on the other hand, is the primary focus of job life in early adulthood (Hotteman et al., 2014). Both tasks present a significant challenge for the subject, as outlined above. To progress through the life stage successfully, the subject has to fulfill these goals. Another important challenge faced by the subject is the need to resolve the conflict with parents. Despite the abuse and neglect in the past, his parents show the willingness to establish a supportive connection. However, if the trauma is too strong, it is unlikely that the subject will be able to form an adequate relationship with his parents again. Instead, he needs to seek a way to overcome the trauma and manage the effects that it had on his other interpersonal interactions.

Conclusion: Prognosis and Recommendations

Overall, the subject had a complicated history of development and was affected by a variety of factors during his key developmental stages. Stressors such as parental abuse, deviant peer influence, and unemployment had a significant effect on the evolution of his personality. For instance, impaired relationships with parents led to the difficulties in building a stable romantic relationship, whereas negative peer group influence caused the subject to develop substance abuse later in life. The subjects history affected his progression through developmental stages as outlined by Erikson (Broderick & Blewitt, 2013). Moreover, past stressors and disorders also present significant concerns about the subjects future development. For instance, they pose a risk of depression, suicide, and relapse to substance abuse, as indicated in the above sections. Nevertheless, the subject also has some significant protective features, such as social support and stress resilience, which will likely mediate the effect of risk factors on his further life.

The subjects interpersonal style and lack of formal college education also affect the fulfillment of Havighursts early adulthood developmental tasks, which include finding a partner and starting a career (Hutteman et al., 2014). At the moment, the subject does not seem to be concerned about getting started in occupation and beginning a stable romantic relationship. However, it is unlikely that the subject will be able to live a fulfilling life without improving his interpersonal style or finding a proper job. To improve the subjects psychosocial processes causing these challenges, as well as to prevent depression and substance abuse in further life, it is recommended that the subject receives cognitive behavioral therapy alongside social-emotional training (Southwick & Charney, 2012).

Cognitive-behavioral therapy would help the subject to establish positive coping mechanisms and strengthen his executive function, thus improving resilience to depression (Southwick & Charney, 2012) and minimizing the risk of relapse to substance abuse. Social-emotional training, on the other hand, would help the subject to improve interpersonal skills (Southwick & Charney, 2012), which would assist in fulfilling developmental tasks for the early adulthood life stage. With the aid of these interventions, as well as the existing social support, the subject will likely be able to enhance his life both in the short term and in the future, thus moving through further developmental stages successfully.

References

Broderick, P. C., & Blewitt, P. (2013). The life span: Human development for helping professionals. New York, NY: Pearson Higher Ed.

Cairns, K. E., Yap, M. B. H., Pilkington, P. D., & Jorm, A. F. (2014). Risk and protective factors for depression that adolescents can modify: A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Journal of Affective Disorders, 169(1), 61-75.

Hutteman, R., Hennecke, M., Orth, U., Reitz, A. K., & Specht, J. (2014). Developmental tasks as a framework to study personality development in adulthood and old age. European Journal of Personality, 28(3), 267-278.

Kleiman, E. M., & Liu, R. T. (2013). Social support as a protective factor in suicide: Findings from two nationally representative samples. Journal of Affective Disorders, 150(2), 540-545.

Sloboda, Z., Glantz, M. D., & Tarter, R. E. (2012). Revisiting the concepts of risk and protective factors for understanding the etiology and development of substance use and substance use disorders: Implications for prevention. Substance Use & Misuse, 47(8-9), 944-962.

Southwick, S. M., & Charney, D. S. (2012). The science of resilience: Implications for the prevention and treatment of depression. Science, 338(6103), 79-82.

Strandh, M., Winefield, A., Nilsson, K., & Hammarström, A. (2014). Unemployment and mental health scarring during the life course. The European Journal of Public Health, 24(3), 440-445.

Sugaya, L., Hasin, D. S., Olfson, M., Lin, K. H., Grant, B. F., & Blanco, C. (2012). Child physical abuse and adult mental health: A national study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 25(4), 384-392.

Personality Development

The concept of personality is one of the most discussed in psychology. There are several psychological theories that accentuate and discuss the stages of the personalitys development by focusing on different aspects that can be considered as influential for the personalitys progress. Eric Erikson is the author of the theory of personality development, which bases on the influence of social factors that determine eight stages of the development process.

Eric Eriksons theory is often compared with the theory provided by Sigmund Freud, who influenced Eriksons visions in spite of the fact that his theory depends not on the factors of personal sexuality, but on the social experience and influence of parents. To analyze the peculiarities of the psychological development of children, it is necessary to examine the first four stages described in Eriksons theory.

Thus, to work out the stages and the factors which can be considered as decisive for their development, Eric Erikson focused on such notions as the ego identity, personal identity, and social identity. According to Erikson, social interactions can be discussed as the key aspects of the progress of ego identity, personal identity, and social identity. Moreover, a successful personal development at each stage depends on the peculiarities of overcoming definite conflicts that determine these stages (Moony). The psychological growth at a definite stage influences the development of a personality at the next stage (Giorgis and Glazer). The first four stages which are associated with the age of children are the periods of infancy (birth-18 months), early childhood (toddlers, 2-3 years), preschool (3-5 years), and school (6-11 years) age (Erikson).

Infancy (birth-18 months)

The first stage of development is based on the conflict between an infants feelings of trust and mistrust. Erikson discusses this stage as the fundament for the progress of the other stages. That is why parents are responsible for care for their children because it is necessary for them to feel safe and secure at this stage. Children depend on their parents, and the quality of care and maternal relationship can influence the childs feeling of trust in the world greatly. In order to avoid childrens further mistrust and fears, it is necessary to pay much attention to the communication between parents and children, their visual and touch contacts. Erikson accentuates the fact that the main concept of this stage is hope as a result of trust (Erikson).

Early Childhood (2-3 years)

At this stage, children become aware of themselves as independent personalities. That is why the main conflict of the period is based on the relationship between autonomy and shame. Childrens autonomy appears in their necessity to control their actions (toilet training, body functions). However, the opposite side of this process is a feeling of shame, which can be affected by the inability to cope with this or that skill and function (Moony).

The childrens progress at this stage results in the development of their self-consciousness and independence in controlling definite aspects of their lives. Thus, Erikson concentrates on the development of the notion of will like the basic one (Erikson). Children begin to choose food and toys, revealing their independent preferences. This stage is important for forming the childrens feeling of confidence in their actions (Giorgis and Glazer).

Preschool Age (3-5 years)

The third stage of the development process greatly depends on the second stage because childrens world perceptions and their ability to control in this period play a significant role in their social interactions. The sense of independence and control transforms during the process of playing. Children begin to play the roles of adults, which are the results of the visions of life and social interactions between people. Moreover, it is important for children to express the initiative while playing in order to emphasize their autonomy and definite abilities. The main conflict of this stage is between initiative and guilt.

The feeling of guilt appears when children experience some difficulties with expressing initiatives and playing active roles. Erikson also focuses on the significance of the sexual aspect of this phase (Erikson). During preschool age, children can experience many challenges connected with their social identity and which can result in the development of such complexes as Oedipal struggle. The major concept of this period is purpose. That is why children begin to ask many questions about the reasons and purposes of these or those actions and phenomena (Moony).

School Age (6-11 years)

School-age reveals the significance of such a concept as competence. During this period, children begin to develop their creative and learning skills. That is why they need the support of their parents and surrounding in spite of the fact the authority of parents begins to decrease. When childrens abilities and actions are encouraged, the sense of industry develops. This sense is in conflict with the feeling of inferiority, which can become a result of the lack of support and belief in childrens skills. Thus, at this stage, the feeling of confidence should be supported with the feeling of competence in doing such socially significant actions as learning and creating (Moony).

According to Eric Erikson, the first four stages of the personalitys development are extremely significant because they form the base for the further personalitys progress, and they are influential for the development of each next stage. A possible persons successes and failures can be a result of the peculiarities of these stages development.

Works Cited

Erikson, Eric H. Identity and the Life Cycle. USA: W. W. Norton & Company, 1994. Print.

Giorgis, Cyndi and Joan Glazer. Literature for Young Children: Supporting Emergent Literacy, Ages 0-8. USA: Prentice Hall, 2008. Print.

Moony, Carol G. Theories of Childhood: An Introduction to Dewey, Montessori, Erikson, Piaget and Vygotsky. USA: Redleaf Press, 2000. Print.

Introduction

The process of human development is complex and quite intricate. However, several theories can be distilled as the foundational premise for understanding the subject matter. These are Piagets, Freuds, and Eriksons ideas of cognitive and social development. Although the three theories seemingly have very few characteristics in common, further analysis shows that they share quite a number of underlying ideas.

Discussion

At first glance, there are noticeable differences between the three theories that make them quite far apart from one another. For instance, Piagets and Freuds theories focus on childhood, whereas Erikson encompass the entirety of human development (Sigelman & Rider, 2021). Moreover, Piagets theory incorporates four stages, whereas Eriksons includes eight, with two of them matching the age that Piaget splits into four stages (Sigelman & Rider, 2021).

In comparison, Freuds theoretical framework includes five stages, with a focus on the development of sexuality. However, all three theories view infancy to childhood as the essential formative stage at which core behaviors and perceptions are shaped. Furthermore, the theories in question seek to examine the changes occurring to an individual as a part of a larger social group (Sigelman & Rider, 2021). Thus, the three theories in question shred the foundational understanding of human development.

Conclusion

Despite a surface overview of the theories by Piaget, Freud, and Erikson might lead to the false assumption that these theoretical frameworks have nothing in common, a more detailed assessment of the three perspectives demonstrates that they have multiple points of contact. Specifically, the propensity toward viewing development as a linear process and considering each stage instrumental in building essential skills is present in all theories. Finally, the concept of progressing and encompassing a greater range and complexity of ideas is evident in all three theories. Overall, despite surface-level differences, all three theoretical perspectives share a common idea.

Reference

Sigelman, C. K., & Rider, E. A. (2021). Life-span human development. Cengage Learning.

Introduction

Having an understanding of the core aspects and stages of human development is critical for identifying the relevant issues and determining the core factors affecting a specific psychological concern. Presently, several perspectives on the phenomenon of human development exist. These are represented by the framework designed by Piaget, Vygotsky, and Erikson (Bradbury, 2019). Since Eriksons model allows embracing different age groups, the specified framework should be deemed as the foundational one in understanding the subject matter.

Discussion

The application of the specified theories allows the development of a proper concept of human development as a complete process. Specifically, Eriksons theoretical framework allows for distilling the stages of infancy, toddlerhood, preschool, early school, adolescence, and young, middle, and late adulthood (Bradbury, 2019). Combining it with Vygotskys approach, one can isolate the criteria such as pre-verbal thought, practical intelligence, and inner speech as the main characteristics of achieving the core developmental stages in childhood (Bradbury, 2019). In turn, the core criteria for achieving the specified stages are the development of trust, autonomy, initiative, industry, and identity, and acceptance of intimacy, generativity, and integrity (Bradbury, 2019). Therefore, by incorporating an amalgamation of the three theoretical perspectives into the analysis of human development, one will be able to identify core criteria for each.

Conclusion

Though different perspectives on the concept of human development exist, the approach offered by Vygotsky should be regarded as the most exhaustive since it details core developmental changes both in childhood and adulthood. Nonetheless, integrating essential aspects of Piagets and Eriksons theories also helps identify major landmarks of each developmental stage. Thus, the developmental criteria such as the ability to identify concrete and abstract concepts, as well as embrace the complexity of the social environment, can be incorporated into the understanding of human development.

Reference

Bradbury, J. (2019). Narrative psychology and Vygotsky in dialogue: changing subjects. Routledge.

Erik Erikson was a 20th century psychologist who developed the theory of psychosocial development and the concept of an identity crisis.

EARLY LIFE

Erik Erikson was born in Frankfurt, Germany, in 1902. Erikson never knew his own father; he was raised by his mother and stepfather, who married in 1905. He struggled with his identity throughout his youth as he felt his stepfather never fully accepted him as he did his own daughters. Erikson grew up using his stepfather’s surname; he eventually adopted the name Erikson in 1939.

After meeting Anna Freud while working in Vienna, Erikson decided to pursue the field of psychoanalysis. He studied child development at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute through the Montessori method, which focused on psychosexual and developmental stages. Erikson received a diploma from the institute, but he never received a formal degree. Instead, his knowledge was based upon his experiences and extensive reading.

Erikson married Joan Serson, a dancer and artist, in 1930, who helped him to develop his psychosocial development theory. Erikson, his wife, and young son fled the Nazi uprising for the Unites States in 1933. The couple raised three children.

PROFESSIONAL LIFE

The Erikson’s first settled in Boston, where he became the first male to practice child psychoanalysis in the Boston area and also served at the Harvard Medical School, Judge Baker Guidance Center, and Harvard’s Psychological Clinic, where he came into contact with psychologist Kurt Lewin and anthropologists Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson. Between 1936 and 1939, Erikson worked at Yale’s Institute of Human Relations and as a professor at the Yale School of Medicine. While there, he conducted a year-long study of Sioux children at a South Dakota Indian reservation.

When the Eriksons relocated to California in 1939, he worked with the Institute of Child Welfare in California and served on the faculty of the University of California at Berkeley and San Francisco. He continued studying Native American children, and he worked closely with the Yurok tribe. Erikson remained on faculty at the University of California until 1951, when he was required to sign a loyalty oath claiming he was not a Communist. Erikson refused to sign the oath based on First Amendment grounds, even though he was not a Communist, and he was subsequently forced to resign from the university. Erikson returned to Massachusetts, where he continued to focus his attention on emotionally challenged youth at the Austin Riggs Center. Erikson finished his professional career with a final stint as a professor of human development at Harvard, while he continued to conduct behavioral research and publish essays. Erikson passed away in Massachusetts in 1994.

CONTRIBUTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Erikson impacted psychological theories by expanding upon Sigmund Freud’s original five stages of development. Pioneering the study of the life cycle, Erikson believed that each person progressed through eight stages of development. Erikson emphasized that the environment played a major role in self-awareness, adjustment, human development, and identity.

Each of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development focus on a central conflict. In Erikson’s theory of development, children don’t automatically complete each stage on a predetermined schedule. Instead, people face generalized challenges throughout life, and the ways in which they answer these challenges determine whether they develop further or stagnate at a particular stage of development. Erikson’s eight stages and associated challenges include:

1. Infancy: basic trust vs. basic mistrust. A baby will either develop basic trust in his or her caregiver or will grow to view the world as a dangerous place, depending upon whether the baby gets sensitive, nurturing care.
2. Early childhood: autonomy vs. shame and doubt. Children can either develop a sense of competence and independence or deep shame. This development is intimately related to toilet training.
3. Preschool years: initiative vs. guilt. Children develop a sense of initiative if they are able to explore their environments and discover they are able to do things on their own. If a child is made to feel guilty about making his or her own choices, the child will develop a sense of guilt rather than initiative.
4. School age: industry vs. inferiority. A child compares self to others during this phase and either develops a sense of industry and work ethic or feelings of inadequacy.
5. Adolescence: identity vs. role confusion. During this period, teens may have an identity crisis, questioning their roles in the world and future goals. If parents allow youth to explore the world, they’ll develop their own identities, but those who are punished for autonomy may develop role confusion.
6. Early adulthood: intimacy vs. isolation. The development of strong friendships and healthy intimate relationships help people develop intimacy, but people who fail at this task may become isolated.
7. Middle age: generativity vs. stagnation. People who develop a sense of purpose—from parenting, hobbies, or a career—excel during this period, but those who find no purpose or value in their activities may stagnate.
8. Old age: ego integrity vs. despair. People may look back on their lives fondly or feel an overpowering sense of regret and despair.

Erikson’s wife added a ninth stage based on the couple’s experiences in very late old age. She argued that as the body breaks down, autonomy may no longer be possible. The challenge during this stage is to begin to see oneself as connected to others and to see death as a natural part of the process of life.

Erikson further developed the field of ego psychology by emphasizing that the ego is not merely an avenue for the id to fulfill its desires as Freud claimed, but an important psychological structure in its own right. Erikson expanded on Freudian psychoanalysis in the widely acclaimed book, Childhood and Society, published in 1950.

Erikson’s book Gandhi’s Truth: On the Origins of Militant Nonviolence won Erikson a Pulitzer Prize and a National Book Award. He also wrote Young Man Luther: A Study in Psychoanalysis and History, based on Martin Luther. He was selected to give the Jefferson Lectures in the Humanities in 1973.

The studies of children and their brain has been around for a long time. There are in fact many theories in the world that describe how a child’s mind works, but one in particular stands out. Erik Erikson, a well known psychiatrist, discovered that in life you go through many different stages which in turn forms your personality.

Erik Erikson discovered that as children age they go through different stages where they face problems which makes a big impression on their future life. Stage one starts at infancy which introduces the conflict of trust vs. mistrust. After infancy comes early childhood which has the conflict of autonomy vs. shame and doubt. Stage three introduces preschool which makes the child face the conflict of initiative vs. guilt. After stage three is stage four which is school age, and the conflict for this stage industry vs. inferiority. Adolescence is the next stage which has the conflict of identity vs. role confusion. Stage five introduces young adulthood where people have to deal with the conflict of intimacy vs. isolation. Next would be middle adulthood which has the conflict of generativity vs. stagnation. Lastly would be stage eight which is maturity, and has the conflict of ego integrity vs, despair. The amount of detail and substance that Erikson produced in his theory suggests that he has one of the best theories out of all of the other theorists.

One of the things that Erik Erikson explained in his theory was that the things that happen in our earlier stages of life end up impacting our later years. Another theorist named Sigmund Freud also had this same idea. Freud also concluded that the events that took place in the early stages of life had a role in what that person’s personality would be like. Erikson also agreed with this theory. One thing that is different about Erik Erikson and Sigmund Freud is that Sigmund Freud mainly focused on the early stages of life while Erik Erikson looked at all stages of life, and how that impacted people.

Abraham Maslow and Erik Erikson differed on many things, but one thing they both had in common was that they both said that problems that occured in their needs/ stages would have a big impact later on in life. Maslow introduced the thought that there were needs that needed to be met for a person to be successful. ( Physical, security, social, ego, and self actualization). This was different from what Erikson said. Erikson said that the key to later life was dealing with conflicts that arouse while Maslow said that there was a hierarchy of needs that has to be met for later life.

A well known psychiatrist named Erik Erikson is in my opinion the best theorist because the information he gave made the most sense in my mind. All of the other theorists were mostly correct and still had good information, but Erik Erikson really hit the nail on the coffin. Erikson’s theory on the stages of life and how the conflicts that appear during them impact later life is a really good indicator of how good of a theorist he is. Although many things have been discovered and many theories made, there is always room for more expansion of knowledge. Maybe in a couple of years or decades, a new psychologist will come along and produce theories that end up being better than Erik Erikson. Until that psychologist produces that theory, Erikson will remain the best.

Erik Erikson was a psychologist that came up with a theory that was divided into eight different stages. His theory is based on the epigenetic principle. Erikson believed that we continue to go through development and stages throughout our lives. His theory was that there were eight psychosocial developmental stages that everyone goes through. They go through each of these stages from the time they are an infant all the way into adulthood.

Erik felt that infants had a developmental issue where they learned to trust or not trust others. He believed that if caregivers took good care of an infant that they would gain trust and would be able to use this trait as they grew older. It was thought that if the infant could develop trust from being treated fairly and nurtured properly that it would contribute to their social interactions later on in their adult life. If the child was mistreated and not nurtured well then. They would most likely have a difficult time moving on to the next stage and issues as an adult with their social interactions and trust in the world.

The next stage that Erickson believed came next was in toddlerhood. He felt this was the stage when children became more independent from their parents and wanting to try new things on their own. Many frustrations would occur at this stage as they learned to accomplish things on their own. Erik Erikson believed that at this stage the child learned shame and doubt and How to come up with the coping skills to deal with this stage in life. His next stage in his theory was in early childhood and it was during this time that the child would want to explore more of the environment and what was around them. Children at this stage sought independence and learned new skills that would help them go on to the next stage in life.

The next stage that Erik Erikson thought came next was during the middle of childhood when a child would learn about guilt and depending on how they are affected would help them to go onto their next stage in life and cope as an adult. In this stage, certain factors can cause them to have a hard time interacting with others. How they deal with Interaction with their peers can leave them wondering if they have a purpose in life. Erik also believed it affected how they carry out their control over choices as adults.

Erik’s theory was that the next stage of development was based on the period of time as an adolescent. During this developmental stage, the individual learns how to form his or her personality. The person learns to decide how they will exist in their society. At this stage in the development, they use other factors and experiences from the previous theories they have gone through to help guide them as they journey through this point in life. He believed that this stage helped set up a platform to be able to pass on to the next stage of development as a young adult.

The next stage after adolescence was based on a person’s ability to form close relationships with others. Erik Erikson believed that in the period of time that an individual was a young adult they gained skills to either positively interact and gain and maintain relationships.

If the person had a bad experience or was unable to gain the skills necessary at this stage they would struggle with forming close relationships and bonds with other people. If the individual had difficulty during this stage it could cause fears and avoidance of certain relationships with other individuals. Erik Erikson’s theory at this developmental moment was that if the person was unable to form close relationships and trust they would struggle with intimacy and could possibly isolate themselves from future relationships with others which could make them uncomfortable due to not being able to gain the skills they needed to go onto to the next stage in their development as a human being.

There are two more stages that Erik Erikson felt occurred in the development of a person. In his theory, he theorized that the next stage after early adulthood was the transition into middle adulthood. It was a time when the individual either wanted to help other people or contribute to the community. They would either have a family and leave a legacy or possibly do something of meaning that would help others. If they did not choose this then their other path might lead them to tend to their own needs and wants. At this point, if the person feels

If they are unable to contribute and succeed they can feel disconnected with society and Other individuals and it would be hard for them to move on to their next and final stage in life. Erik’s theory of the final stage of development in later adulthood. During this stage in his theory, he believed that this was the time in life that a person would gain a sense of meaning in life and if they had a successful life with value or if they hadn’t accomplished anything worthwhile during their lifetime. At this time, being their last stage of development as a person the individual would reflect on their contributions to society and if they had made a positive or negative impact on others, and how it had affected those individuals involved. they could either feel that they had a sense of accomplishment and integrity or the complete opposite and feel bitter and resentful of how they had handled their life and circumstances and the action they had taken to help or not help others.

Erik Erikson was born in Frankfurt, Germany in June 15th, 1902. He was raised by His mother and a physician father, whom he later found out was not his birth father. Erik’s mother was a young Jewish woman and his birth father was not present in his life. He grew up without his birth father and was not informed about the situation until he was older. The truth seems to rattle him as an individual and cause some identity crisis issues. These identity issues directed him into the path he took to study psychoanalysis. Upon choosing this career it opened doors for him to explore this field and essentially begin his theory on the development of human Beings.

Despite the impact that Erik Erikson’s theory has had on child development and his insight on how we grow as individuals throughout our lifetime, there are critics. I guess there always has to be at least one disagreeable party in every theory that someone has made available. After extensive research, I was unable to find any credible source that was biased against Erik Erikson’s theory of development. I am sure there have to be critics out there somewhere.

Upon trying to research ethical issues about Erik Erikson’s theory I also hit a stone wall as I had to try to research critics of his work. I feel that his theory and views on development have helped people in many ways. During my research efforts, I discovered that his theory seemed to be posted on a lot of mental health sites and he seemed to have more positive feedback rather than negative feedback.

I think that Erik had a wonderful viewpoint on development and his theory is very unique and useful in modern times. I believe he decided to go outside the box of other theorists and was quite successful in doing so. Erik Erikson’s theory contributed to the study of child development along with other studies of psychology.

Work Cited

1. Cherry, Kendra. ‘Erik Erikson Biography (1902-1994).’ VeryWellMind, Dotdash publishing family, 23 May. 2018, www.verywellmind.com
2. McLeod, Saul. ‘Erik Erikson’s Stages Of Psychosocial Development’, SimplyPsychology, Creative Commons, 3 May. 2018, www.simplypsychology.org
3. Levine, E. Laura. Munsch, Joyce. Child Development An Active Learning Approach, SAGE Publications, Inc. 2018

As humans, we seek to achieve happiness by becoming successful and complete beings. To achieve said happiness, we have to understand how we grow and develop from a psychosocial perspective. Erik Erikson was a theorist who took Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and modified it to create his life span theory of personality development, which he divided into eight stages. Three films that portray some of these stages of development include The Breakfast Club, which portrays Identity vs Role Confusion; Forrest Gump, which portrays Intimacy vs Isolation; and Lost in Translation, which portrays Generativity vs Stagnation. Each film has one character, in particular, that is going through the aforementioned developmental stage. I trust that as I discuss these characters and their journey to resolve their life crises throughout these films, you will have a better understanding of these three stages of development in particular.

In the film, The Breakfast Club, one of the major themes is role confusion, which Erikson describes in the 5th stage of development – Identity vs Role Confusion. The film focuses on five teenage high schoolers from different walks of life who wind up in detention and get to know one another on their quest to find their identity. According to Erikson, this stage’s major “characteristic is adolescence and therefore occurs between 12 and 20 years of age. The stage involves a shift to issues of ‘Who am I?’ and ‘Where am I going?’” (Baucum). One character in particular that faces this identity moratorium is John Bender, (or “The Criminal” as he is portrayed in the film). He is referred to as the criminal because he puts on a tough front and paints the stereotypical image of a person with disregard towards authority, who gets in trouble for attention, appears cold and heartless, often skips school, and is involved with substance abuse. John is a character that exhibits the traits of someone that “fails to establish a sense of identity within society, which can lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society” (McLeod). When he finally starts to come out of his shell, he tells the group that he is physically abused at home by his father, which is the root cause of his crisis and causes him to take his confusion out in rude and unfavorable manners. As the group gets to know one another a little more, they reveal who they truly are to each other and discover how much in common they all had. By forming a bond with the other students, John is able to achieve success in resolving his crisis and develops the virtue of fidelity. “This is characterized by the self-esteem and self-confidence that are requisite to associating freely with people and beliefs on the basis of their value, loyalty, and integrity” (Psychology Notes HQ). John realizes that the pressures and fleeting freedom of adolescence is only a part of youth.

A great film that exemplifies Erikson’s 6th stage of development – Intimacy vs Isolation, is the film, Forrest Gump. Erikson described this stage as “corresponding to young adulthood, which usually occurs between 20 to 40 years of age” (Baucum). This is a film about a simple-minded man with a mental disability who lives his life based on the values taught to him by his mother. As Forrest tells his story from childhood to adulthood, he goes through many developmental stages, but the most reoccurring theme is intimacy. Forrest struggles with intimacy in both aspects – sexually and emotionally. “Intimacy focuses not only on forming close friendships, but also achieving marital intimacy and companionship” (Baucum). Forrest faces an isolation crisis whenever he attempts to get close to Jenny. Jenny is a character that appears and reappears throughout the film while she attempts to resolve her own personal struggles. Jenny is a troubled young woman who was abused by her father and is facing a crisis of her own. In one particular scene, Forrest confesses his love toward Jenny, but he is not able to fully grasp the concept and therefore she wouldn’t reciprocate his love. “This can be particularly difficult as these individuals watch friends and acquaintances fall in love, get married, and start families. (Cherry)”. In another instance, Jenny attempts to be physically intimate with Forrest, but due to the fact that he is mildly cognitively impaired and he was inexperienced in the matter, he becomes uncomfortable. Toward the end of the film, Forrest is able to resolve this crisis and develop the virtue of love by being physically and emotionally intimate with Jenny. “Erikson’s theory suggested that at this stage, young adults develop the capacity to offer love, both physically and emotionally, and to accept love in return” (Psychology Notes HQ). Forrest and Jenny have a child together and become married and despite his tough upbringing, he is finally able to understand the meaning of love.

Lost in Translation is a film that focuses on Erikson’s 7th stage of development – Generativity vs Stagnation. Erikson believed that this stage is “characterized by middle adulthood and thus occurs from ages 40 to 65” (Baucum). The main character in the film, Bob Harris, is a middle-aged man that develops a friendship with a young woman named Charlotte while stuck in Tokyo. While both characters face an existential crisis, Bob is the character that faces the dilemma of generativity. “Generativity applies to both achieving a productive work life and successfully rearing children and taking care of family” (Baucum). From the very beginning of the film, it is obvious that Bob is dealing with a stagnation crisis when he receives a fax from his wife reminding him that he forgot his son’s birthday. “These individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole” (McLeod). We continue to see Bob struggle as he and Charlotte form a bond over an intimate conversation about each other’s personal troubles. Charlotte tells Bob about the uncertainty of her future with her husband, while Bob shares the troubles of his marriage. When Bob tells Charlotte that he has been married for twenty-five long years, Charlotte tells Bob, “You’re probably just having a mid-life crisis. Did you buy a Porsche yet?” (Lost in Translation). At this stage, “some people may experience mid-life crisis and struggle with finding new purposes in their lives” (Psychology Notes). People at this stage begin to reflect on their own life and worry about “making their mark on the world by caring for others as well as creating and accomplishing things that make the world a better place” (Cherry). Towards the end of the film, Bob is able to resolve his existential crisis by developing a virtue of care. Bob helps Charlotte by answering her questions regarding life and direction, while Charlotte helps Bob by reminding him how much he loves his children and his wife.

Three of Erikson’s stages of development are depicted throughout these films. The Breakfast Club included a teenager, John Bender, whose major struggle was role confusion. John was able to achieve fidelity and resolved his identity crisis by letting his guard down and discovering who he really is. Forrest Gump featured a simple man who had intimacy issues. Forrest was able to achieve the virtue of love when Jenny and him were able to solve both of their struggles and were finally able to love one another. “Lost in Translation” involved a middle-aged man undergoing a midlife crisis. They both helped each other by bringing together two people who are very alone and finding part of themselves in one another.

Works Cited

1. Baucum, Don. Psychology. Barron’s, 2006.
2. The Breakfast Club. Directed by John Hughes. Universal Pictures, 1985.
3. Cherry, Kendra. Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development (2019). Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/intimacy-versus-isolation-2795739
4. Forrest Gump. Directed by Robert Zemeckis. Paramount Pictures, 1994.
5. McLeod, Saul. Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development (2018). Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html
6. Lost in Translation. Directed by Sofia Coppola. Focus Features, 2003.
7. Psychology Notes HQ. Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development (2019). Retrieved from https://www.psychologynoteshq.com/erikerikson