Category: Equality

Equality is a very important issue in all spheres of life of the contemporary society. The problems and discussions of equality have penetrated the sphere of labour decades ago. However, regardless of various social movements and public efforts, labour legislation and its administration have multiple gaps that become the ground for labour inequality in various countries. Today, such cases are viewed as the violations of human rights, as well as the work ethics that is one of the most important values in the world of nowadays.

Workplaces where the work ethics is not appreciated and where the rights of the employees are violated on the regular basis are known for low job satisfaction, high rates of turnover, and decreased productivity. In the world of business, the respectable and dignified treatment of the employees is the key to success as they represent the core of each business and its main moving force.

This paper attempts to address the question of labour equality in terms of the employees’ ability to get sick leaves when requested. The report is based on the data collected from various sources such as the literature found on the internet (in books, articles, websites) and the information acquired through a survey conducted at an actual workplace among the average employees. The paper relies on the articles from the Labour Laws of the United Arab Emirates, as well as those of the other countries of the world (inside and outside of the Gulf region).

The actual laws and regulations concerning the provision of sick leaves to the employees in the UAE will be compared to the evidential data of the realities in the modern workplaces. Namely, the paper will present the evaluation of the rules concerning sick leave provision in the organisation called Scholarship Office (SCO) located in Abu Dhabi based on the qualitative data collected by means of a questionnaire handed out to several employees.

UAE Labour Law

All the issues concerning labour in the United Arab Emirates are covered by the Federal Law No. 8 of 1980 and its amendments. The individuals governed by the labour law are all the workers employed in the UAE regardless of their origin (native employees and expatriate workers). Article 3 of the Law states that the individuals to whom it does not apply include the workers of Federal Government, armed forces such as police and security, workers of the sphere of agriculture, and domestic servants employed in the private residences (UAE Labour Law, 1980).

Application of the Law

The Law applies to all the aspects of interactions between the employees and their employers. The spheres of labour relationships covered by the Law include the policies concerning employment (the contracts and their termination, regulation as to the employment of minors and females, the length of work shifts, the maintenance of documentation and records, sizes of wages, social and medical care, the protection of the employees’ and the employers’ rights and freedoms, fines and benefits, to name a few (UAE Labour Law, n. d.).

Administration of the Law

The Law is administered by the Ministry that is the main and the first organ to deal with all the labour matters. After the Ministry, the cases may be directed to the courts of the United Arab Emirates (UAE Labor Law, n. d.).

Statement in the UAE Law concerning the Matters of Sick Leaves for the Employees

Article 77 specifies: “The annual leave period is deemed to include such holidays as prescribed by law or as agreed to, and any other periods of sickness, occurred during this leave and is considered as part thereof” (UAE Labour Law, 1980, p. 22).

In other words, the annual leave period is covered by the Law for all the employees to whom it applies. Article 82 states: “If the employee falls sick for reasons other than labour injury he must report his illness within a period of two days at most and the employer must take necessary measures having him medically checked up to ascertain illness” (UAE Labour Law, 1980, p. 23). The employees on probation are not provided a paid sick leave, according to the Law. A sick leave as long as 90 days (continuous or intermittent) is administered for a worker who has completed the probation period and then continued being employed for a period of 3 months. The pay for the sick leave is provided following this regulation:

1. The first fifteen days with full pay.
2. The next thirty days, with half pay.
3. The subsequent period, without pay” (UAE Labour Law, 1980, p. 24).

Besides, in cases when the leave requested by the employee is the result of their misbehaviour (such as excessive drinking or drug abuse), the payment is not administered. Moreover, the UAE Labour Law (1980) specifies that in case if in the end of a sick leave of this type, an employee fails to go back to work, the employer has right to terminate the employment. In any other cases, the employers are not allowed to fire the workers during their leave. If the worker decides to terminate their own employment during the period of the first 45 days of paid leave, they are still entitled to the rest of the pay if their reason for resignation is confirmed as a valid by a Government Medical Officer.

The Realities

The Labour Law of the UAE outlines and mentions all the issues concerning the provision of sick leaves to the employees. The rules and regulations in the Law are fair and just. However, there is evidence of violations of these policies by the employers that resulted in the creation of unfair and unequal working conditions for the employees. This section will explore some of them.

The article by Abu-Shaaban (2015) compares the theoretical and practical reflections of the labour law in the field of construction. The author compares the rules and regulations that are outlined for the employees and the employers in such countries as Jordan, Turkey, Palestine, Egypt, and the UAE. The author finds that many workers do not get paid leaves at all; in fact, some are unaware of the leave regulations in their companies. The failure to communicate and raise awareness among the employees about their rights and freedoms is one of the major errors made by the employers in the UAE, and sometimes it is made deliberately in order to be able to alter the rules and regulations for the employees who have little knowledge of their rights and freedoms under the Labour Law.

The study by the Gulf Research Centre and Bina Fernandez (2014) focuses on the same issue of the rights for the workers in the Gulf region pointing out what kind of frameworks are created to ensure the rights of the workers and raise their awareness. The work by Al-Adawi (2012) outlines the regulations for the sick leave certificates that include various descriptions for the equitable and fair attestation, authorisation and reporting of sick leaves.

The form for the sick leave used for the attestation by the Health Authority is standard and includes basic patient information such as their address and name, the details about their health condition and the reason for the leave, as well as some information about their escort (Health Authority – Abu Dhabi, n. d.). For the protection of the employees’ rights, Health Authority of Abu Dhabi has established a website dedicated to the employees on sick leave.

The system called e-Sick leave is an online application that “supports the issuance and attestation by the medical committees of sick leave certificates issued by HAAD licensed physicians practicing in Abu Dhabi” (Health Authority, 2016). Using the e-Sick leave system, the practicing physicians log in on the website with the help of the secure password provided by the Health Authority and fill in the sick leave forms keeping the patient data private. In terms of equality in the workplace, such service is quite important as it allows the employees to get their sick leaves attested easier and faster and makes the whole system more optimised and accessible.

Scholarship Office of Abu Dhabi

The objective of this paper is not only to introduce the theory of the sick leave provision in the UAE and its laws concerning the employees’ and employers’ rights and duties as to the matter. The work also focuses on the practical side of the question; namely, on how the situation concerning sick leave provision is at actual workplaces such as Scholarship Office of Abu Dhabi.

The goal of the Scholarship Office is to locate and monitor of the best students in the UAE for the further placement in the abroad scholarship programs (SCO, n. d.). The organisation was founded in 1999, and since then it has expanded hiring more employees from the UAE and foreign countries. Just like at any workplace, the question of equality is important for the SCO and its employees.

Research

A brief research was conducted in order to investigate the situation concerning sick leave provision at the Scholarship Office. The purpose of the research was to collect qualitative data in reference to the current employees’ awareness of the organisation’s policies as to the sick leaves, the level of their satisfaction with the present environment, and its equality.

SCO’s Policy as to Sick Leaves

Scholarship Office employee handbook outlines the rules that are in place in the organisation in terms of the provision of sick leaves to the workers. Overall, the rules are very brief and include only three points:

1. If an employee falls sick and requires sick leave, he should notify his Line Manager within 48 hours of becoming sick, if not preventive by a forced situation, and give an estimation of how long he will be absent from work due to his sickness. Failure to do so without forced situation will lead to deducting the same days from the employee annual leave.
2. The sick employee is required, upon return from Sick Leave, to fill automated Sick Leave Form and a medical certificate to HR Department.
3. Sick Leave cannot be carried forward” (SEHA, 2014, p. 26).

The regulations as to the provision of the other types of leaves (educational, seasonal, annual, maternity and paternity, Haj, and public holidays) are described in separate sections and were not taken into consideration for the present research.

Method

The research relied on qualitative data collected with the help of a questionnaire. Overall, it contained five questions and was handed out to the employees of the SCO.

Survey Questions

The following are the questions distributed to the respondents in my organisation for the purpose of data collection for the qualitative research designed to evaluate how the rights of the workers concerning sick leaves are preserved.

1. Can you name your organisation’s rules as to providing sick leaves to the employees?
2. Have you ever requested a sick leave?
3. If yes, were your demands met equitably?
4. Are you aware of any cases of inequality in reference to sick leave provision in this organisation? Do you know any people (without naming them) who were treated unfairly in this reference? (Rejected sick leaves, no paid leave provided, etc.)
5. (In case if the respondent expressed dissatisfaction with the regulations as to sick leaves): do you feel something could be done to change the current inequality?

The questions were designed specifically to identify the areas of problem in the organisation and the workers’ attitude towards the current policies and their administration.

Participants and Confidentiality Issues

The questionnaire was printed out, and its copies were handed out to seven employees; of whom four returned the questionnaire with the answers. Some of the candidates refused to take part in the research as soon as they read the questions. It is possible that such reaction was caused by their suspicion of the authorities’ involvement in the investigation and unwillingness to report their dissatisfaction due to the fear for their security as the employees. However, this version is just a guess and was not proved by any comments of statements of the respondents.

It is important to mention that in order to address the potential reluctance of the respondents; each copy of a questionnaire contained a section that informed the participants about the complete confidentiality of the research and the preservation of their identities. The participants were not asked to specify their names or any other personal information; the questions they were to answer also mentioned that no detailed reports were sought; all they were asked to provide were personal opinions and yes/no answers. Below is the text that was present in every copy of the questionnaire:

“I would be thankful if you help me in my research paper by answering the following questions. Please be informed that the answers you provide will not be published, and this questionnaire will not be used as a means against anyone”.

Sampling and Limitations

The respondents were sampled randomly. The only concern was the demographics. In my opinion, it was important to include diverse individuals in the research. The sample included two males and two female respondents of whom two (one man and one woman) were expatriate workers. The level of professional experience and the number of years the respondents spent working for the SCO also differed.

The final sample turned out to be rather small which means that its validity and transferability are mostly limited. However, the responses provided by the four participants shed the light on some of the equality problems in the organisation. In my opinion, it can be assumed that if the questionnaire distributed to a very small sample of workers managed to reveal some equality issues, the patterns would be even more distinct in a bigger group of people.

Results

Rules and Awareness

The first question was “can you name your organisation’s rules as to providing sick leaves to the employees?” All four respondents answered it in their questionnaires. In their answers, all of the participants gave full and detailed descriptions of the procedures that had to be done in case of a sick leave. Namely, the respondents mentioned the need for the medical certificate attested by the Health Authority, and a form for the HR department the employees are to fill in and sign.

The answers of the respondents made it clear that all of them were informed about the rules concerning the request of sick leave. However, none of the participants mentioned the fact that they had to inform their Line Manager about the need to take a sick leave 48 hours before the leave. This pattern can be interpreted in two ways: either the organisation does not stick with this rule, or it fails to make the workers aware of it, which can be used as a group for unfair treatment for the individuals who fail to provide notice to the Manager.

In addition, one of the respondents said the following: “the number of sick day per year is different for nationals and expatriates”. The Handbook does not mention any different treatment as to the sick leave policy for the native and expatriate employees. The comment of the respondent presented above is a basis to assume that there are some unofficial rules in the organisation according to which the employees may be treated unequally depending on their country of origin.

Practical Experience

The second question was “have you ever requested a sick leave?” Each of the four respondents provided answer to it. The question was placed on the list in order to estimate the validity of the answers and establish whether or not the employees have faced the issues of sick leave provision in reality. Three out of four participants answered “yes”, which means that their answers can be considered as valid because they spoke from personal experience. One respondent said: “No. It is automatically given if a sick note is provided and if the numbers of days are available”. The respondent does not have a practical experience of being on sick leave but seems to be well-informed about the procedure of getting it since their answers to the questions 1 and 2 are very straightforward and confident.

Equity

The third question was: “If yes (refers to the experience of being on sick leave) were your demands met equitably?” Three out of four respondents noted that they were satisfied with how the organisation treated them in terms of sick leave provision. One participant gave no answer since they indicated having no previous experience of requesting a sick leave.

Evidence of Inequality

The fourth question was the following: “Are you aware of any cases of inequality in reference to sick leave provision in this organisation? Do you know any people (without naming them) who were treated unfairly in this reference? (rejected sick leaves, no paid leave provided, etc.)” Three out of four respondents admitted that they had no knowledge of any cases of inequitable treatment of other employees by the organisation in terms of sick leave provision. However, one participant said that they knew about a case of unfair treatment without specifying what kind of inequality it involved.

Possibility of Changes

The final question was: “(In case if the respondent expressed dissatisfaction with the regulations as to sick leaves): do you feel something could be done to change the current inequality?” This question was designed to provide the respondents aware of cases of unfair treatment with an opportunity to suggest a way of addressing the problem. Interestingly, out of three workers, who stated that they did not know about any cases of inequality in the previous question, one skipped the fifth question while two others said that they that nothing could be done to change the current system.

Such answer allows one to assume that the respondents, in fact, were aware that the unfair treatment existed in the organisation but could not be prevented in any way. In addition, one respondent who mentioned being aware of inequitable treatment of workers in terms of sick leave provision said the following: “The employee should be provided with the reason for rejection and be notified if there are any change of the organisation rules and regulations”. This response indicates two problems – the failure of the organisation to provide enough information for the employees to know their rights and the miscommunication from the side of the authorities in reference to the reasons for sick leave rejection. The proposition of the respondent is sound and logical.

Discussion

The research conducted at Scholarship Office Abu Dhabi showed that the organization has equality issues in terms of the provision of sick leaves to its workers. First of all, the overall knowledge of the rules of the acquisition of sick leave among the respondents of the research was good. However, one of them admitted being aware of unfair treatment of a colleague, and another one unwillingly mentioned different rules as to the number of sick days available to the native and expatriate workers that demonstrates inequality.

Overall, it is possible to outline three potential problems in this area – the failure of the organisation to provide enough information to the employees about their duties and rights, and the lack of mutual communication and the explanation why the leave is rejected. The third problem is perceived to be unequal treatment of native and expatriate employees. The size of sample for the research was rather small, and a larger group of respondents is needed for more careful data. However, even the experiment with a small number of participants unearthed several challenges that persist in the organisation.

Conclusion

When it comes to the UAE Labour Law applied in practice, the question of inequality is mentioned by many researchers and in various spheres. This paper provided the introduction of theoretical regulations as to the sick leave provision as stated in the Labour Law of the UAE and in the Employee Handbook of SCO and compared it to the research of practical experiences among the workers of the organisation.

The questionnaire distributed among a small group of employees (4 people only) has revealed three problems – awareness of the employees about their rights, two-way communication between the workers and the organisation, and different treatment of workers based on their country of origin. The last concern is just an assumption that was made possible due to the exposure of the migrant and expatriate workers in the UAE to inequitable practices from the side of the employers (Malit & Youha, 2013).

References

Abu-Shaaban, N. N. (2015). Reflection on labour law-construction industry between text and application. Global Journal of Politics and Law Research, 3(2), 55-70. Web.

Al-Adawi, H. (2012). Sick Leave Certificates Policy. Web.

Fernandez, B. (2014). Essential yet Invisible: Migrant Domestic Workers in the GCC. Web.

Health Authority – Abu Dhabi. (n. d.). Patient’s information. Web.

Health Authority. (2016). A healthier Abu Dhabi. Web.

Malit, F. T., & Youha, A. A. (2013). Labor Migration in the United Arab Emirates: Challenges and Responses. Web.

SCO. (n.d.). Scholarship administration. Web.

SEHA. (2014). Employees handbook – human resources policies. Web.

UAE Labour Law. (1980). Web.

UAE Labour Law. (n.d.). Web.

Introduction

The task of forming a new constitution for the country stressed by numerous military and civil conflicts is a complicated one. In order to include all the necessary points into the new constitution it is advisable that the already existing constitutions of the developed countries are consulted and the works of the reputable scholars in the area of political rights and freedoms are addressed. In particular, in the new Iraqi constitution the special importance should be attributed to the points of order, freedom, equality, and justice in the society. To present the reputable basis of these concepts in the new constitution, the works by Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, and John Rawls should be consulted as the sources of the prominent political thought in the history of the humanity.

Order

Thus, the concept of order is discussed in detail by the famous English philosopher and thinker Thomas Hobbes (1588 – 1679) in his most known work The Leviathan. In this work, Hobbs draws the line between the personal and political freedom and defines order as the milestone notion that delimits personal freedom and the civil freedoms in the society. According to Hobbes (2008), when the civil freedom rules the society, all actions of the human being are done “not in order to his own mind, but in order to the laws of his country” (p. 346). Accordingly, such a vision of order is conformant with the accepted Western perspective of viewing the notion order, as in the Western world this notion is the basis on which the democratic rights and freedoms are guaranteed to people in exchange for the personal freedom they partly referred to the society.

Freedom

The notion of freedom is also of prominent importance for the development of the new constitution in any country, and the work titled The Second Treatise of Government by the reputable English scholar and political activist John Locke (1632 – 1704) is a proper source to consult in this context. Thus, John Locke (2002) stresses the crucial importance of freedom and argues that “freedom of men under government is to have a standing rule to live by, common to every one of that society, and made by the legislative power erected in it” (p. 11). Again, Locke’s idea of freedom is obviously put in the basis of the Western vision of human rights and freedoms as the freedom argued about by Locke is not the natural freedom but the controlled and partly limited freedom, which is limited for every single person in order to provide equal degree of freedom in the society as a whole.

Equality

Further on, the constitution of the country where the citizens are the basic value should also stipulate the equality as the norm of the social life. For this purpose, the Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx (1818 – 1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820 – 1895) can be referred to but not necessarily followed. The point is that the communist idea of equality was the idea of equality in poverty as far as Marx and Engels (2002) argued that “if you want to enjoy political equality, abolish property” (p. 32). The only common point of the Communist Manifesto and the Western view of equality is the idea that “equality should mean equal opportunity, not equal consumption or equal enjoyment” (Marx and Engels, 2002, p. 46). Accordingly, the most applicable notion of equality is the equal opportunity to develop and increase wealth, not the equality in poverty.

Justice

Finally, justice is the basic element on which the relations of the society and its members are built, and the idea of the social justice as fairness by John Rawls (1921 – 2002) is applicable for the task of developing the concept of justice in the new Iraqi constitution. According to Rawls and Kelly (2001), justice in the society is “a complex of three ideas: liberty, equality, and reward for services contributing to the common good” (p. 166). Thus, justice according to Rawls and Kelly (2001) involves all the above elements of the democratic society and adds the reward for socially developing activities. Obviously, the Western vision of the social justice is similar to the one discussed above and can benefit the Iraqi society as well.

Conclusions

The above discussion thus allows making the conclusion according to which the four basic elements of the constitution that promotes the human rights and freedoms are order, freedom, equality, and social justice. Basically, the ideas on these four elements expressed by Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, and John Rawls meet the current state of things concerning the order, freedom, equality, and justice in the Western society, and the Iraqi government can use both the philosophic ideas and the experience of the developed countries in order to combine all the necessary parts in its new constitution that would value the human rights and freedoms and facilitate their protection by the state.

Works Cited

Hobbes, Thomas. The Leviathan. Forgotten Books, 2008. Print.

Locke, John. The Second Treatise of Government and A Letter Concerning Toleration. Courier Dover Publications, 2002. Print.

Marx, Karl and Friedrich Engels. The Communist Manifesto. Penguin Classics, 2002. Print.

Rawls, John and Erin Kelly. Justice as Fairness: the Restatement. Harvard University Press, 2001. Print.

Introduction

Many leaders have had inspiring literature but not many have been inspiring than Martin Luther King Junior. Since his death, King’s works have received criticism from many quarters. Some of the criticisms portray him as a larger that life character.

King’s early life experiences shaped his faith, later life, career and even marriage to a very large extent. Martin Luther King Junior was born and brought up in a strictly religious family. His family; father, mother and grandparents were leaders in the Baptist church in America. For instance his paternal grandfather was a pastor in this church where his father later became a pastor.

Due to their active involvement in church Martin Luther King Junior spent much of his childhood in Ebenezer Baptist church. As he grew up he was saddened by the notable differences brought about by racism. At the age of six he discovered that he could not go to the same school as his white play mate and best friend. This and such experiences lead to the realization of how unjust the American society was. Gradually he engaged himself in civil rights movements to become a renowned religious human rights activist.

He wrote articles and gave inspiring speeches. Even though his works proposed non-violent protests, they still attracted sharp criticism, both positive and negative from various quarters. His writings have come under heavy criticism especially from Africana Studies scholars who question whether they contained the necessary intellectual content to be declared academic.

Furthermore King has also been declared a plagiarist. However not all criticism has been negative. It has been claimed that he was a great leader whose activities had massive effects on the historical human rights movements. Despite all the criticism leveled against him, his works greatly influenced by his early life experiences, have had a large impact in the clamor for equality amongst all races.

The history of inequality in the 1950’s and 1960’s

The foundation of true democratic society that respected the basic freedom, liberty and other basic rights can be traced back to the grate American civil war of 1860s. The south was defeated and as such one of the effects of the war was to help reconstruct this region by putting in democratic laws.

The American human right and equality movement had gone on for quit a while prior to the 1950. The black American had fought courageously for equality and thus ended the inhuman slave trade and labor. However, an equality revolution occurred in the 1950s and 1960s.The revolution heightened in the 1960s, but the events of that was shaped by what had happened in the1950s.

The 1950s America was more peaceful in terms of protest. Americans were fairly tolerable of each other. The economy was good as it was driven by the power of the middle class. However, deep a seated cold war between races eventually gave way in the 1960s. The revolution grew out of the increasing oppression, there rising poverty levels, racial and cultural divisions as well as risk political pressure and tensions (Lewis para 3).

The tensions underlined were heightened in the 1950s by increasing opposition to legalization of racism and inequality by The Jim Crow laws. The laws legalized racial segregation and inequality. The blacks were also denied basic needs such as the right to vote, decent education and jobs. This inequality was justified by its supporters who argue that the whites economic prosperity depended on keeping the blacks at the lowest ebb of the society ladder (Lewis para 4).

Other than the economic reasons, some other factors lead to the increase of human rights revolution in the late 1950 to 19 60s. Some of the blacks had moved from the south to the northern states which had not legalized racism. The blacks in northern states were treated well and enjoyed equal treatment as the whites. As such this motivated the southern blacks to demand for equality. Finally the events after the World War II also inspired the equality movement in America.

This is because America declaration for justice peace and freedom for all. The black in the south thus demanded that the American government hold true its promise of freedom and equality (Lewis para 9- 11). The revolution was lead by a number of activists such as Martin Luther king junior, Malcolm X among others. Early life experiences of martin Luther king influenced his involvement in search fro an equal society

Kings earlier life experiences that influenced his later life

Martin Luther King Junior’s early life experiences had a very large impact on him and his career as a human rights activist. Like all the blacks in the southern states he came into contact with racial inequalities at a very early age. However, there is no record to show that he was unaware of the social inequalities before he was six years old. This is despite the fact that he went to an all blacks Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta.

However, when he turned six and it was time to go to school, he for the first time experienced the ugly reality of racism. At that time he was told that he could not go to the same school as his white best friend because he was colored. This shocking revelation came from the parents of his white best friend. Upon inquiry from his parents, they responded well by explaining to him the history of the racism in America (Fleming 6).

Growing up under strict Baptist parents was another significant and influential development that shaped his life. He grew up under a very strict father who almost forcibly taught his children to respect the Christian commandments and have an absolute belief in God. It is reported that by the time he was five he could recite the Ten Commandments (9). Martin Luther king junior was close to his grandmother than to his parents.

He would therefore accompany her to church and sing alongside her in the church choir. It is probably this early exposure to singing in public that enhanced his commendable oratory skill that later became his chief asset in his works. His opposition to social inequities was evident in his earlier life, such as when he refused to buy shoes from the colored section in a shoes shop as well as when he with his white music teacher refused to sit separately in a bus. Thus his early life experiences prepared him for his career.

An overview of kings works in relation to the fight for equality

One of the characteristic factors of all Kings’ writings is the determined and unhindered fight for equal rights. His writings as well as his speeches justifiably assert the notion that equality of all races is the responsibility of all people. His works fought for equal treatment by providing equal employment opportunities.

He lamented, however that the under privileged had been denied basic education. As such this put them in an unduly disadvantaged position that would only qualify them for poorly paid menial labor. The black, especially, were the largest victims of this unjust treatment in a country that had implemented the equal treatment for all more than a hundred years ago.

The denials of basic education thus automatically put them in lower level jobs t. As such they were relegated to only do menial jobs. Such inequalities are however brought about by the misunderstanding and the different interpretation of the term “equality” (King, King and Harding 8). As such these differences in definition exposed the gaps between the existing realities and the intended goal of an equal society.

King in his Letter from the Birmingham Jail also accused the white of being democrats but practicing the “antithesis of democracy” (King, King and Harding 21). Even though the letter had some religious messages, Martin Luther opted to adopt the intellectual approach in his argument about the need for the church, lead by its clergy, to be at the forefront in the fight for an equal society.

In this letter, he drew many examples on how the church had failed the same society it claimed to serve. He argued that the church’s refusal to support efforts to stem racial inequality was equal to preaching water and drinking wine (King para 25).

His works continued to highlight that the effect of the legalized racism were greater and went beyond the social protests. The economic burden of racism was too big a burned to handle.

Employing the uneducated black in American companies would lead to low quality goods which are an economic waste. Furthermore, the black had to be economically empowered to have the necessary buying power. This is because American as becoming a master of mass production and as such hard to search for markets for its goods. The black community provided a lucrative market.

Doing this would mean empowering the black through education, provisions of better jobs that would lead to better buying power. Furthermore king lamented that the distribution chain of manufactured good had to be improved so as to serve black neighborhood (King, King and Harding 21).

It would have been easy to accuse King of only fighting for equal rights of only blacks in Americans. he proved his critics wrong by also highlighting the need to not only have social equality but also economic equality amongst all members of the society. King was shocked by the fact that white and black civil rights workers had been brutally killed for demanding a justice course for all (King, King and Harding 2).

Scholarly criticism of King’s writings

Martin Luther King Junior‘s works has drawn much criticism from many quarters (Carson 1). His writings have received both negative and positive criticism.

Anthony Cook, an Associate Professor of Law at the University of Florida asserts that King, like many of the Critical legal Scholars who have bravely sought to transform the great American society wrestled with many of the theoretical dilemmas that were the basis of the equality movement (Cook 985).

King did not just stop at that: he and engaged himself in gainful experiences as well the social struggles of the equality movement. Cook adds that martin Luther king junior drew his inspiration and thought from religious as well as the politics of the time. The result is that king created a superior and ideal society devoid of all the social evils that existed in the 1950s and 60s America. Thus his works were beyond mere words.

Carson (1) agrees with Prof Cook and adds that King’s writings contained deep religious messages of love and peace. However, religious messages were less evident in his writings as they were in his oral speeches. This is because most of these speeches were constructed as summons.

As such they had to assume a religious perspective on the issue of inequality. In many of his speeches he pleaded with the masses not to adopt a philosophical approach to understanding God. This, he reasoned, would add to their confusion. Probably his unspoken conviction is that the uneducated black American would have had a problem philosophizing God.

Not all black scholars have whole heartedly accepted King’s writings as purely scholarly. These include some of the most respected Africana Studies scholars such as Molefi Asante and Maulana Kalenga.

These two among many others argue that it is no doubt that King was a respected religious philosopher, well established in his own right. Furthermore they add that King’s leadership skills are unquestionable. However King’s works according to these two is subject to evaluation on whether it contains the intellectual content to be included in Africana Studies (Keatts ii).

Many of the African scholars argue that even though King’s works played a major role in the fight for equality in America they cannot be equated to the works of early human right activist such as W.E.B. Du Bois (6). Scholars are almost in agreement that Martin Luther King Junior’s contribution to the search for an equal and just American society was more prophetic than academic.

Kings activities, which included his preaching’s, his writings as well as social protests on equality have inspired many people over the years. However whether they can be used as valid scholarly sources is a debatable subject. Some of these scholars assert that such prophetic works lack the intellectual validity to be cited as academic sources. As such so many of the Africana Studies scholars have had to ignore king and embrace other black and equality rights activist such as Garvey, Nkrumah and Malcolm X (Karenga 3).

Conclusion

The contributions of Martin Luther King Jr., have had great impact not only on him as a person but also on many other people. His works and thoughts are documented in his writings. Scholars have applauded his works as prophetic as they crated a vision of an ideal society. However such woks are debatable whether they can be included as academic sources as they lack the scholarly content. This is not intended to take away any criticism away from his works. They have still inspired the search fro equality in America.

Works Cited

Carson, Clayborne. “Editing Martin Luther King, Jr.: Political and Scholarly Issues.” In palimpsest: Editorial theory in the Humanities edited by George Bornstein and Ralph G. Williams, 305-316. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993.

Cook, Anthony. “Beyond Critical Legal Studies: The Reconstructive Theology of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.” Harvard Law Review. 1990. Web.

Fleming, Alice. Martin Luther King, Jr.: A Dream of Hope. New York: Sterling Publishing Co. 2008. Print.

Karenga, Maulana Introduction to Black Studies, Third Edition. Los Angeles, CA: University of Sankore Press. 2002. Print.

Keatts, Quenton. “A Discourse Analysis of the Centered and Critical Scholar-Activism of Martin Luther King Jr.” 2010. Web.

King, Martin Luther. “Letter from Birmingham Jail.” Mlkonline. 2011. Web.

King, Martin Luther, King, Coretta Scott, Harding, Vincent. Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos Or Community? Massachusetts: Beacon Press. 2010.

Lewis, Chris. The Black Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s. 2002. Web.

The US has had a number of colorful events in its history as regards to liberty, equality and power. Many have lost their lives while fighting for the three social values. Actions aimed at restoring democracy and human freedoms can be traced back to the works of classical scholars.

The social contract that is alleged to have been signed by men brought about the fundamental rights and freedoms. People agreed to live together and co-exist harmoniously. Liberty is the freedom to do anything desired by an individual. Such freedoms however should not interfere with the rights of others. It is true that as an individual claims to be free, he/she has a responsibility of behaving according to societal laws and regulations (Owens 97).

The US has a long history of struggle towards liberty. The first major struggle was against colonialism in which the US managed to liberate itself from the colonial rule. During colonialism, Native Americans were not allowed to take up jobs in government with the reason that they were illiterate. The only thing they could offer was manual labor. The whites exploited Americans for long before they organized a revolution to liberate themselves.

Democracy and respect of human rights are some of the important tenets of liberty. Democracy means that each individual should be allowed to participate in governmental decision-making. Usually, people participate in governance by electing their representatives. Americans have constantly engaged in conflicts, with an intention of being recognized and treated equally.

Murrin and Johnson do not appreciate the fact that justice can be achieved through violence (40). Americans fought for their rights, they never acquired them through soft means. Again, the writers are ignorant as regards to the rights of the minority in US. The black race and other people of color have not enjoyed the rewards of sovereignty.

Ever since, Africans have supplied their labor free or at very lost cost. Their struggle to liberation resulted to a deadly Civil War which cost the lives of many, including senior government officials. The inconsistencies between the Southerners and Northerners will remain as one of the most important historical events in the US. Through the Civil War, Southerners were lastly freed but their social interaction in society has not been pleasant. The American society still feels that African culture is inferior to other cultures.

During the World Wars, agitation for liberty and equality reached at a surpassed level whereby other members of society previously neglected started demanding for their rights. Women in particular capitalized on the President’s speech, which posited that the war intended to restore democracy and equality. This implied that despots such as Benito Mussolini of Italy, Adolf Hitler of Germany and monarchic regime in Japan had to be overthrown.

The allied forces indeed managed to do this, which further gave women courage to fight male patriarchy. Women were determined to pursue their rights since they knew that it was possible to achieve equality. Men erected barriers that derailed women from achieving their rights for a long time (Robertson 21). The world war provided a good ground for a revolt. Women were granted some rights and freedoms that untied them from male domination.

Even though American people have achieved rights as well as freedoms, the society does not recognize the existence of some members. The societal structure is so rigid and skewed to an extent that citizens do not have options but to comply.

Just like in earlier years, women are still economically powerless. The gap between the rich and the poor is widening. The minorities in society continue to face the injustices implanted by societal structure. People of color have little capital, which impedes them from participating in economic development.

They are incorporated in the economy as underdogs meaning that their role is provision of labor. The owners of the means of production are the Whites. Therefore, women and African race are compared to the proletariat who produces goods for the rich. This trend is not expected to change soon due to development model employed by the state. Capitalism will always generate few rich individuals and several poor people.

Another problem that interferes with individual liberty is state power. The state claims to be sovereign and for that case, it has the power to exercise jurisdiction over life and property. The state has a right to terminate life or to recover individual property when state security is in danger. In real terms, state sovereignty or power is incompatible with individual liberty. The state is seen to exercise authority over individuals in a number of ways.

It can therefore be concluded that state power and capitalism subjugates and oppresses the poor, including women. The state is a property of the ruling class that is employed to protect property. The bourgeoisie co-opts the state because it has coercive powers. State machineries have always been used throughout history to perpetuate the poor and women. Governments come up with laws that prohibit certain behaviors from individuals. The American states have recently enacted immigration laws that repress other races.

Works Cited

Murrin, John and Johnson, Paul. Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People since 1863. 3rd ed. New York: Wadsworth Publishing, 2003.

Owens, William. Freedom: Keys to Freedom from Twenty-one National Leaders. Memphis, Tennessee: Main Street Publications, 2008.

Robertson, Henry and Merrills, Graham. Human Rights in the World: An Introduction to the Study of the International Protection of Human Rights. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996.

Historically, the role of the government has been to maintain law and order, provide public service, and protect the rights and freedoms of all citizens. This essay seeks to highlight the major hits and misses in the role played by the three branches of the U. S. federal government in the struggle for black equality.

Based on the following discussions, it will become apparent that the federal government struggled to protect the interests of African Americans by establishing laws and policies meant to improve the race relations between blacks and whites while providing equal opportunities to all citizens.

Nonetheless, the federal government in its commitment toward improving race relations and providing equal opportunity did not realize much until the 1950s and 1960s. This is because the laws and policies developed by the federal government and its agencies encountered many challenges including resistance from white supremacists and lack of political will.

The Executive

The executive’s contribution to the struggle for black equality goes back to the Reconstruction Era (1865-1877). Immediately after the end of the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln’s administration introduced many remarkable changes in the laws that existed.

Notably, the enactment of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1865 helped to end slavery (Dickerson 6). Subsequently, the executive began to contemplate on the possibilities of granting the free citizens compensation for the suffering they endured in the hands of their masters.

More specifically, President Lincoln directed officials in his government to establish policies that would enable the freed slaves to obtain compensation. Accordingly, General William T. Sherman advanced one of the most promising proposals in which the liberated black slaves were to receive land as compensation.

This move was prompted by various factors such as the need to provide the free slaves with the means to start over away from their masters (Fairclough xi). However, the freed slaves never received any land because after President Lincoln’s assassination and the change of leadership, most black slaves went back to their old life of misery (Dickerson 10).

Following the assassination of President Lincoln and the rise to power of President Johnson, most of the political changes that came with the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation ceased to exist. Hence, the executive began to play a negative role in the struggle for black equality. For instance, President Johnson initiated the Presidential Reconstruction (1865-67) program, which extended pardon to most white citizens from the South who had previously lost their political rights (Dickerson 15; Fairclough xii).

Moreover, President Johnson spelt out the terms that governed the creation of new state governments. In the new system of governance, state governments reserved the freedom to manage their affairs without interference from the national government (Dickerson 16).

While President Johnson’s administration was driven by the need to promote the civil rights of the American people on one hand, it created fertile grounds for increased oppression and discrimination against black people on the other.

For instance, after the establishment of independent state governments, most Southern states passed Jim Crow laws, which repressed the former slaves by specifically segregating the black race because of its perceived inferiority to the white race (Fairclough xii). Moreover, under the Jim Crow laws, most black citizens lacked access to white-only schools or any other public space whereby the white people existed.

In addition, most state governments in the South imposed hefty taxes on any black person who expressed interest in political affairs; hence, crippling any chances of a black person taking part in the voting exercises.

This meant that only the white people elected state officials, specifically in the South. On the other hand, the state governments elected by the white people did not want to offend their electorates, and as a result, they passed laws that fuelled further oppression and racial discrimination against the black race (Dickerson 23; Fairclough xiii).

However, in the 1950s and 1960s, the executive began to play a more positive role in the struggle for black equality by ratifying most of the Civil Rights Acts of the 1960s (Fairclough 44). A good example of the executive’s positive efforts in the struggle for black equality involves the establishment of the President’s Committee on Civil Rights in 1946 by President Harry Truman. Subsequently, in 1957, President Eisenhower signed the first Civil Rights Act into law.

This move saw the establishment of both the Civil Rights section under the Justice Department and the Civil Rights Commission. These developments brought hope to the Civil Rights movements and activism among the black people; hence, the fight for more equal rights intensified (Fairclough 155).

The Legislative Branch

While the executive’s efforts to promote black equality produced mixed results, the legislative branch of the federal government was very active in the struggle for equality by developing and passing laws that were more inclusive.

For instance, in response to the on-going oppression and racial discrimination against the freed slaves, particularly in the South, the United States Congress in 1865 began a series of concerted efforts aimed at trimming the powers of state governments and creating a state of governance that upheld the rights of all American citizens. Consequently, most moderate Republicans agreed that it was important to start by not recognizing the elected Congressmen and Senators from the Southern states (Dickerson 28).

Furthermore, in 1866, the Congress adopted and passed the Freedman’s Bureau and Civil Rights Bills, which aimed at extending the operational period of federal agencies concerned with the installation of freed slaves as American citizens as well as defining what constituted the American citizenship (Dickerson 30).

The two bills were specifically targeting the black people since they promised to safeguard the civil rights and citizenship of all freed slaves and any individual born in America. Nonetheless, the United States Congress did not achieve much in terms of modifying President Johnson’s style of governance considering that the president did not sign most of the bills on equality (Dickerson 34).

The Judiciary

The struggle for black equality in the years before the 1950s and 1960s was marked by less direct participation by black people. However, in the 1950s and 1960s, the real struggle for black equality and the Civil Rights movement began to take shape (Clayborne et al. 1; Patterson 21). More specifically, many interest groups affiliated to the black people began the fight for their Civil Rights.

Subsequently, many landmark cases appeared in the United States Supreme Court, which managed to reverse some of the discriminative and prohibitive laws instituted against the black race. For instance, in 1946, the Supreme Court determined that it was unconstitutional for interstate bus service providers to discriminate against black people (Eubanks 56).

In yet another court case in 1954, Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court stated that it was unconstitutional for schools to discriminate against black people (Patterson 46). The Supreme Court based its decision on the previously ratified Amendments to the United States Constitution including the Thirteenth Amendment (1868) and the Fifteenth Amendment (1870). These two Amendments had strengthened the Civil Rights of the black people by recognizing them as American citizens (Clayborne et al. 64).

Although the determination of the abovementioned court cases showed signs of black people winning against racial discrimination and oppression, the white people were unwilling to cede ground and allow blacks to study in their schools and ride in their buses (Silverstein 24).

Across different Southern states, cases of lynching, particularly targeting blacks and some of their white sympathizers, increased shortly after the court’s determination that most of the laws that existed were in direct contravention of the United States Constitution (Wexler 14).

Moreover, in other parts of the country, blacks could not ride in white-only buses or even attend white-only schools (Wexler 85). For instance, in 1956, a female African American named Lucy dropped out of the University of Alabama because her life was in danger. Later on, a federal judge approved her reinstatement, but after a few days, she was expelled again (Wexler 87).

In another incident, about nine black students attempted to force their way into the Little Rock’s Central High School, but they could not enter the school, and it took the intervention of President Eisenhower for the school administration and the local state Governor to allow the students into the school (Patterson 118).

The above-mentioned incidents show that white people were not ready to allow equality, despite increased pressure from the judiciary and other federal government institutions. In conclusion, the federal government and its agencies played a pivotal role in the struggle for black equality; however, its attempts to reverse the status quo received increased opposition from the white people and some local state governments, particularly in the South.

Works Cited

Claybourne, Carson, et al. The Eyes on the Prize: Civil Rights Reader – Documents, Speeches, and Firsthand Accounts from the Black Freedom Struggle, 1954 1990. New York, NY: Penguin Books, 1991. Print.

Dickerson, Donna L. The Reconstruction Era: Primary Documents on Events from 1865-1877. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc., 2003. Print.

Eubanks, Ralph W. Ever is a Long Time: A Journey into Mississippi’s Dark Past, a Memoir. New York: Basic Books, 2005. Print.

Fairclough, Adam. Better Day Coming: Blacks and Equality, 1890-2000. New York: Penguin Books, 2002. Print.

Patterson, James T. Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2002. Print.

Silverstein, Clara. White Girl: A Story of School Desegregation. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2013. Print.

Wexler, Laura. Fire in a Canebrake: The Last Mass Lynching in America. New York: Scribner, 2004, Print.

Introduction

Coretta Scott was born on April 1927 in Perry County, Alabama. Her parents were Obadiah Scott and Bernice McMurry Scott. The family owned a small farm from where they earned their livelihood. Unfortunately, the family was not among the wealthiest families in the region (Academy of Achievement par 1). However, Coretta managed to acquire education up to the university level.

Throughout her life, Coretta had a great thirst for education and music. The development of these interests can be attributed to her mother who played a significant role in her life.

For instance, she learned to play musical instruments at a very young age. She learned how to play music instruments like the trumpet while she was still at school where she sang as a soloist. Coretta’s sister was the first black student to study in Antioch College, Ohio. Coretta met her husband Martin Luther King Jr at Boston University after which they married after sixteen months.

During her lifetime, Coretta spent most of her time fighting and advocating for equality and promotion of un-discriminatory policies across the world. During the Civil Movements of the 1950s and 1960s, Coretta Scott King was among the people who played a pivotal role. During this period, she made a great contribution by encouraging Martin to realize his goals.

She played an important role in consoling and giving advice on the best course of actions. Her encouragement forced Martin to remain focused on his goals. The major contributions made by King’s wife can be clearly seen after the assassination of her husband. This was the time when she took a tough stand in fighting for racial equality and actively being involved in Women’s Movement (Academy of Achievement par 3).

In 1955, Coretta Scott King played a very important role in Montgomery Bus Boycott (McPherson 100). In connection to this, Coretta actively advocated for the civil rights legislation.

In 1962, Coretta made a very important contribution in disbarment efforts when she served as women strike for the peace delegates to the seventeen nations Disbarment Conference held in Geneva. Soon after her husband’s death, Coretta rose to perpetuate the pending work he had already started. She fully devoted her life to King’s work where she continued to help many people until her her death in 2006.

Early Age and Education

Coretta was born in a family of four siblings where she was a third born. She was born together with her two elder sisters Edith and Eunice and a younger brother Obadiah who was born in 1930 (McPherson 69). As already noted, her family had a small farm but they were not among the wealthy people in the community. During her childhood, Coretta Scott King assisted her parents to pick cotton from their small farm.

Although her parents did not go to school, they were totally determined to ensure that their children received the required level of education. In connection to this, they took Coretta to an elementary school that was located far a way from their home. Later, she joined Lincoln Normal school. The school was located very far from their residence. However, Coretta did not have any alternative because it was the only black school in the region.

Coretta was exposed to the social injustices when she was a very young girl where she was forced to face the wrath of a segregated society, that is, the society where the native and the African Americans were treated as two different entities. The society was characterized by a lot of discrimination ranging from education to economic opportunities.

For instance, she was to walk for a long distance to reach the nearest black school while her fellow white students were riding in buses to schools nearby (Gelfand 87). This was one of the factors that triggered Coretta’s urge to fight for the civil rights later in her life. She was determined to dissolve the existing arrangements.

While in college, Coretta studied music; the field in which she was very interested. She was assisted by Walter Anderson, who was the first African to head a department in the institution.

While at school, Coretta was angered by the racial discrimination that was practiced by the school management. Consequently, she was actively involved in civic rights movements. For instance, she was a member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People as well as the Race Relations and Civil liberties Committees (Academy of Achievement par 5).

As it was required by the curriculum, students were usually supposed to perform their second year teaching practice as a partial fulfillment for the award of a certificate. However, Coretta was denied a chance to teach in Yellow Springs Public schools (McPherson 12). Coretta attempted to convince the college administration but in vain.

Some years later, Coretta was forced to move out of Antioch after winning a scholarship award at New England Conservatory Music that was located in Boston. This presented a very good opportunity for her to exploit her talent in singing and playing musical instruments.

Meanwhile, she met Martin Luther King, Jr who was later to become her husband. Martin Luther King Jr was a theology student in the college. During the time, Coretta had become famous in singing because she was already actively involved in civil rights movements. She took advantage of her talent and integrated her singing with civil rights activities. She used it as a tool to meet her goals to fight for equality for both black and white Americans.

Family Life

After meeting with Martin Luther King, Jr, their relationship strengthened and they supported each other in their activities. They shared one interest since they were both interested in civil rights. Both were determined to fight for equality and for the rights of all citizens despite of their color.

In June 1953, Coretta and Martin were married. Their marriage ceremony was led by Martin’s father and it took place at Coretta’s family compound (Academy of Achievement par 4). However, Coretta called for elimination of the vow that required her to promise that she will obey husband. This was a courageous step that was not common by then.

By 1954, Corretta was through with her degree after which together with her husband moved to Alabama (Montgomery). This was where Martin Luther King was going to become a pastor of Dexter Avenue Baptist Church (Academy of Achievement par 8). Soon after landing there, Coretta and her husband joined the Montgomery bus boycott. Meanwhile, Martin was elected as a leader of the movement. This was a major step in their struggle for the civil rights.

Their activity in the modern civil right movements came soon after the event where one of the passengers in a city bus refused to give a seat to a white passenger. According to the city orders, all the white people were to be given priority in the public conveyances. Therefore, this event led to Rosa’s arrest for going against the city orders. Soon after the arrest, the black Americans led by Martin Luther, Jr rose in defense of the lady.

This led to boycotting of the city buses in the regions. This was one of the major steps that Martin and Coretta took in fighting against the social injustices. This particular event attracted the attention of many people across the world on the issue of racial discrimination that was taking place in United States of America. The pressure from the movement led by Martin forced the court to scrap off all the local orders that drew boundaries between the white and the blacks in the public transport.

Coretta was particularly determined to fight for the civil rights. She was ready to commit her whole life for the society. She was determined to fight for the liberty of the oppressed and the marginalized section of the society. This movement had world wide implications and was not only interested in meeting liberation for the local community. It had significant global implication.

After their marriage, Coretta and Martin had four children. These include Martin Luther III, Albertine, Scott, and Denise. However, both Coretta and Martin were engaged in a continued conflict because Martin wanted Coretta to refrain from public involvement with the movement whereas Coretta was more determined to take a public leadership role. This was contrary to Martin’s view who wanted Coretta to spend more time taking care of their four children.

However, they both managed the situation and Coretta continued to pursue her goals to realize equality among the people. Coretta was forced to withdraw from music in order to take care of their children. However, she managed to use poetry and perform in freedom concerts where she used her talent to pass the message and the call for equality. She also used music to tell about the Civil Rights Movements. She performed in many concerts that helped in raising funds for the movement which her husband was leading.

Later in April 1968, Martin King Luther, Jr. was assassinated. This was a major strike for the Human Rights Movements since he was like the pillar. However, Coretta was determined to perpetuate the work that her husband had already started. In connection to this, she built The Martin Luther King, Jr. Center for Nonviolent Social Change in memory of her husband and his work.

It represented his dream and life in the struggle for the human rights. After her husbands’ death, Coretta was not intimidated to continue with her struggle through the Human Rights Movements. In fact, she was directly involved in the causes that her husband had started.

Contribution in the Civil Rights Movements and Equality

From 1960 to 1950s, Coretta made a very significant contribution in the civil rights movements of the time. In fact, Martin Luther King admitted that were it not for the support of her wife, he would not have managed to fulfill his goals in fighting for the liberty of the oppressed fraction of the society.

Corretta was involved in non violent matches and led marches to the city together with her husband. By then, her husband had already become famous in civil rights movement and, therefore, was called to lead marches in different cities (Lohr par 4). In these marches, Coretta played a pivotal role in encouraging both the white and the black to reject the orders that encouraged segregation.

This was not, however, welcomed by the proponents of racism in America. They faced stiff opposition from the leaders who were encouraging racism in the country. As a result, their home was bombed by the white supremacists in 1956 (Academy of Achievement par 9). Coretta and her child narrowly managed to escape from the attack.

Later, Coretta’s fame spread all over the world as the leader of international struggle to break the chains of racial discrimination and other social injustices that takes place in the society. Her contribution had a significant implication throughout the world as a call for human liberation from all forms of oppression including colonialism.

For instance, they travelled to Ghana in 1957 to celebrate the country’s independence (Stanley and Henderson 56). The couple also went to India in honor of Mahatma Gandhi who is widely known for his philosophy of peace. This implies that their interest was not in the national level but across the world. Martin Luther King Jr was later awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace where he was accompanied by his wife Coretta to receive it. In other words, Coretta played a pivotal role in supporting her husband.

With time, Coretta’s demand as a public speaker increased significantly. She became the first woman to deliver the Class day add tress at Hazard (Academy of Achievement par 10). She was also the first woman to preach at St. Paul’s Cathedral in London. She also played a pivotal role in promoting economic equity in America. She was determined in fighting for economic justice in the society. For instance, she formed the Full Employment Action Council whose main agenda was to push for equal economic opportunities.

This council was composed of religious, businesses, labor women and civil rights movements that were committed in promoting equal opportunities and full employment. By then, the white were given privilege in employment opportunities. Some positions were reserved only for the white. For instance, the blacks were not allowed to access top positions even if they had qualified. Coretta used this movement to fight against such discrimination in the society.

During her mission to serve the global human rights, she travelled across different countries including Africa and Latin America. In 1983, she led one of the greatest marches in Washington that included more than 800 human rights organizations (Academy of Achievement par 9). This was the largest demonstration that took place in the city during the time.

Coretta was also actively involved in the campaigns which demanded the establishment of Kings’ birthday as a national holiday. Her campaigns yielded positive results when the January 15 was made a public holiday through the Act of Congress (Academy of Achievement par 6). Since 1986, King’s birthday has been marked as an annual celebration in more than 100 countries.

In 1995, Coretta handed over the leadership of The King Center to her son. However, she remained devoted in the causes of economic and racial justice. She also devoted some effort in AIDS education and preaching against the gun violence.

Coretta also made some significant contribution in promoting LGBT equality. She emphasized that homophobia is like racism and other antisocial forms of discrimination. Her support for gay people was received with a lot of opposition from most of the African-American pastors who were opposed to homosexuality. She argued that such people were not informed and that it was the will of Martin Luther King to promote a world of inclusion and equality.

Coretta’s battle against apartheid intensified in 1980s when she led a series of protests in Washington DC. These efforts were directed against South African racial policies, which were oppressive to the black.

Death

At the age of 77, Coretta began to experience health complications. This led her to being hospitalized in 2005 after deterioration in her condition. Medical results revealed that she had a heart condition. She later suffered frequent strokes and minor heart attack. Consequently, Coretta was forced to cancel a number of her travels. She continued undergoing physiotherapy from home.

Coretta Scott died in January, 2006 from cervical cancer and stroke in Oasis Hospital. She died while undergoing a therapy for his ovarian cancer that was already in its advanced stage by then. Soon after her death, the clinic was shut after being discovered that it was not allowed to perform most of the procedures they were taking by then. Her death is attributed to the respiratory failure that came as a result of cancer.

More than 14, 000 people attended her funeral to pay their last tribute to Coretta. Her funeral ceremony took place at New Birth Missionary Baptist Church. This is where her daughter Bernice is a minister. Many former U.S. presidents attended the function including the then President George Bush.

After her death, Coretta was honored as a champion of human rights for dedicating her life to peace and justice (Lohr par 9). Her contribution was recognized since she had opened the way for many. By then, Coretta had managed to dissolve racial discrimination to a greater extent in the United States. Even after her death, Coretta has remained inspirational to many people from all parts of the world.

Conclusion

From this discussion, it is clear that Coretta was among the people who played a major role in fighting for equality across the world. She was exposed to a humiliating form of racial discrimination at a very young age where she suffered from racial segregation. Throughout her life, Coretta was actively involved in Civil Rights’ Movements.

Since her undergraduate studies, Coretta demonstrated concern with the existing arrangements where there was much racial discrimination and other forms of oppression in the society. She was actively involved in marches where she convinced both white and black to defy against all the laws that encouraged segregation in the society. She used her music career in concerts where she narrated about the story of Civil Human Rights Movement.

She also used poetry to pass her message about the need for equality. Before her death in 2006, Coretta had managed to successfully push for significant changes in the United States where the difference between the whites and blacks has significantly decreased. For instance, both the white and the black students can now attend the same schools. People are more differentiated in terms of income rather than their races.

Works Cited

Academy of Achievement. “Coretta Scott King Biography. “achievement.org, 2010. Web.

Gelfand, Dale. Coretta Scott King: Civil Rights Activist. New York: InfoBase Publishing, 2006. Print

Lohr, Kathy. “Coretta Scott King Honored As Civil Rights Champion.” Npr, 2006. Web.

McPherson, Stephanie. Coretta Scott King. Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books, 2007. Print

Stanley, George, and Henderson Meryl. Coretta Scott King: First Lady of Civil Rights. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2008. Print

Traditionally, a Chinese woman is known to have lived a very tough life, through continuous humiliation from their men. No woman had a right to education, but they were supposed to live according to the Confucian guidelines. These guidelines stated clearly that women should not be equal to men, and during her childhood she should always obey her father and her male siblings.

A woman was not given any name in the family, but they were named numerically as daughter no 1, 2, or 3. Once they get married, women were supposed to act as slaves to their husbands. The women voices could not be heard anywhere in the family (Shaughnessy, 102). A Chinese man could have as many wives as possible, but a woman could not remarry if her husband died, and if she happens to remarry a death penalty would be given to her. The main activity of a Chinese woman was to bear sons, and failure of which she was divorced.

Some of the famous women who existed in traditional culture of china include, Empress Wu who used to challenge the guidelines that were meant to be followed by women, when she was the Empress ruling china. Her main theme was to raise the status of a woman in china. During her reign several temples and sculptures of caves were made until when she died (Chinnery 59). She also managed to come up with matriarchal rule in traditional china.

The mother famous Chinese woman in those old days was Xi Shi, who gained popularity as she was behind the fall of Wu kingdom. After the king approved her beauty, she was taught noble manners and ordered to work closely with the Prince of Wu. Her heritage is remembered even today in china.

Mulan took the responsibility of being a warrior. This was a non traditional role of a Chinese woman, although through it she manifested how powerful a Chinese woman can be in her activities. She managed to fight courageously and came back alive from the battle such that taking over her father’s role in war. This step acted as an inspiration to many young Chinese girls.

The story of Nuwa who was also referred to as a beautiful and full of mercy goddess has some lessons of how a woman can be determined and hardworking. The mind of a woman here is portrayed to be beyond just what was expected by the Chinese men (Shaughnessy, 113). More than giving birth, a woman was portrayed by Nuwa as an equal human being who can achieve even more than men can do. To many Chinese girls, a lesson was learnt that a woman given a chance and freedom she can achieve many productive things.

The reign of Wu Zetian was marked by several rules. Such rules included raising the status of Buddhism, preserving the 7 generations of that land ancestors, creation of a crown prince and placed the name of Wu on this prince. There was a time when she declined the request of Wang to promote Wu chengsi with the crown of a prince.

Also during her reign, Wang was beaten to death by her official just because she was angered by Wang visiting her too often (Chinnery 61). She enjoyed much the work of looking for the talented workers, and elevating their status as she knew these were the people to raise the status of the whole society for the benefits of all the citizens.

The Confucian historians criticized the ruling of Wu Zetian because as she violated the normal tradition beliefs of a woman being a wife and not a ruler. In addition, she was criticized as she managed to form a secret police branch to enforce her in retaining her authority. Apart from elevating the status of a woman in the society, she brought more scholars into the central government.

Yang Guifei was a typical figure for beauty, and her beauty made Huaqing Chi also famous as she used to take her bath there. She is ranked among the four well known beauties in traditional china. Although the girl child was discriminated, her beauty changed the whole perception.

During her time, parents stopped the act of favoring boy child only and started giving attention to girl child as well. It was a wish of every parent to have a daughter who was as beautiful as Yang. Due to her beauty, the king started falling in love with her and finally married her (Shaughnessy, 85).

Due to her presence in the king’s palace, her people were all over as the government officials. Despite the fact that her people were not well educated and had bad manners they were the officials and her family became famous and very rich making other people very angry. Although she was the source of the world appreciating baby girls, she was considered to be the source of conflict and was hanged.

The Tang Dynasty is considered to be the china’s greatest because of what was achieved during that period. The government operations were improved, technological progress was realized, and the improvement of the culture. This great dynasty started declining when Tang fell in love with concubine Yang, as he neglected much of his responsibilities and started delegating them (Chinnery 60).

Tang concentrated much on the issues of this beautiful lady and the operations of his government started collapsing due to uneducated official who came to serve other citizens.

Many people considered this lady as ruthless because of killing her own son, and they in turn associated her negative traits with Tang their ruler. The weakening of this great dynasty was associated with Tang because, if he concentrated with his work without delegating his responsibilities he would be keen and ready to meet the challenges of the rebellious groups.

In the song dynasty, despite that women were on lower status than their men, there were several privileges that were to enjoy. The song dynasty continued to become more advanced day by day, and the parents started receiving large dowries for their daughters. With time, women started even owning some legal items. Women started getting education and passing the same to their offspring. Some women went to an extent of becoming literature writers and poets as well.

The traditional Confucian family system came to an end during the song dynasty, and the Chinese women gained power over several things. At homes, a woman would now be allowed to make some decisions. Even if a woman failed to bore a son, there was no right to be divorced or be considered useless (Chinnery 56)

Incase of death of the husband a woman had a right to remarry depending on her wish. Children were treated all the same whether it’s a boy or a girl. Right now, it can be the best time to be a Chinese woman as they know their rights and no form of discrimination is imposed on them. In matters of investments, women have power to invest just as men as well as owning properties.

In conclusion, a modern Chinese woman has evolved from an unbearable environment to what can be referred to as paradise. Such a tradition is unhealthy to any human being as it may be a cause of psychological problems due to inferiority complex. Gaining confidence by such a person in future may be a great challenge. Such traditions should be buried completely to give people equal chances in this

Works Cited

Chinnery, John. Family and Society. Beijing: Michigan press, 2003.

Shaughnessy, Edward. China: Empire and Civilization. London: Oxford University Press, 2005.

Introduction

Martin Luther King is one of the most celebrated human rights fighters who fought for the second liberation in the United States. Historians and journalists have written a lot about his life and the contributions he made towards the fight against racial discrimination in this country.

Martin Luther King came out strongly to fight for the rights of the blacks and other minority races in this country when it was clear that the time for equality had come (Hermann 94). Hermann says that the credit given to Martin Luther was well deserved because of the devotion he had given to that fight.

Although many human right activists had come before him and the others came after, he is generally considered as an icon in the fight against racial discrimination and injustices that were very common during his era. Sitkoff (55) attributes his popularity to his eloquence and his level of knowledge. He made very moving speeches that touched the hearts of people. The fact that he took the non-violence approach in his confrontation also played part in his growing popularity.

King became even more popular after his assassination as many linked his death to his fight against racial discrimination. However, there has been a question of whether he deserved the attention that was given to him or not. This research is focused on determining if objective truth is possible to obtain in regard to Martin Luther King’s role in the fight for equality in the United States.

Historians and Scholar’s View of Martin Luther King’s Role in the Fight for Equality in the United States

Historians and scholars have made a lot of contributions to discovering the life of Martin Luther King and his role in the fight for equality in the United States. According to Helg (67), King was one of the people who made massive contribution to the fight against racial discrimination.

He made moving speeches and engaged in high level talks with various members of the society in an attempt to end the discrimination. During his fight to end the discrimination, he was generally seen as a man who was sincere to his people and was always focused on achieving the main agenda of equality for all the members of the society.

Baldwin (112) says that although many other human rights crusaders came before and after him, most of them were hypocrites who were only interested in achieving benefits for themselves. The scholar further says that other activists who were before him were majorly interested in gaining fame and financial affluence. Most of them were even used by the government and other powerful organizations to jeopardize the fight for freedom. However, King gave his life in order to achieve the most important objective of equality for everyone.

Martin Luther King made a lot of contribution in the fight for the second liberation in the country (Hermann 94). This scholar says that before King could rise to fame as a human rights crusader, he had made several sacrifices as an individual interested in achieving equality in the society.

Although he had received a good education and secured a well-paying job, King liked associating himself with the poor members of the society who were the most affected by the social discrimination in the society. This could be partially what made him look like a hero. Most of the other people of his class preferred leading a quite life of affluence. However, King did not consider such life necessary when other members of the society were suffering because of discrimination.

Sitkoff (31) notes that Martin Luther King was a hero who did not fear of confronting the mighty members of the society who strongly believed in racial superiority. He says that King was always ready to face them and tell them that it would be a better place if everyone were given equal rights and opportunities. There were cases where King faced a number of threats before he was finally assassinated, but he did not relent in the fight for equality.

The fact that he was finally assassinated is a clear demonstration that the threats he had been receiving were real (Hermann 98). People who were not pleased by his conviction that there is need for equality were ready to do everything to stop him. He knew that these threats were real.

He was aware that some clandestine groups were planning his murder because of the movement he had started and was leading in this country (Helg 89). However, this did not stop him. This made him even more convinced that there was need to fight for freedom of the blacks and other races that were discriminated against in that society.

He always insisted that it would be better to sacrifice his life for the sake of liberation of million of others who were suffering from the heat of discrimination (King 67). This explains why Martin Luther went on with his fight for equal rights of Black Americans. Of all the prominent people in the United States who championed for equality, King stands above the rest because of his sincerity, and the conviction he gave towards the fight for equality for all the Americans (Hermann 56).

Can objective truth be obtained in regard to Martin Luther King’s role in the fight for equality in the United States?

This is one of the most important questions that many scholars have been asking about the role played by King in the fight for equality in the United States. The above short analysis has given a general picture of what historians and journalists have been reporting about Martin Luther King Junior. King has gained a lot of fame after his death. When he was assassinated, many people attributed his death to his fight against racial discrimination (Hermann 56).

He was therefore seen as a martyr who died in order to liberate other members of the society from suffering. Death made him be associated with success that was later achieved in the fight against discrimination. Begag (90) says that this could have been the reason why many historians and scholars have been full of praises when writing about his life. According to this scholar, there is a possibility that in most of these historical accounts, much has been ignored in regard to King’s life, especially issues that could be considered defamatory.

It may be very challenging to obtain the objective truth about the contribution of King in the fight for equality in the United States because most of his contributions were made after his death. Most of the historians and journalists have been highly dependant on his moving speeches when recounting his contribution in the fight against discrimination.

In the short analysis done above, there may be given an impression that there were no other human rights crusaders who championed for equality in this country but Martin Luther King. Nothing can be further from the truth. There were other activists who made serious contributions to that fight, but their ideas have been ignored by the historians. The deeds made by King could have overshadowed them, but they made remarkable contributions that should not be ignored.

Some scholars believe that it is possible to obtain some objective truth in regard to Martin Luther King’s role in the fight for equality in the United States. Several historians and journalists have taken time to dig into the life history of King. Most of their reports have been very objective in reporting about the activities that King engaged in before his assassination (Hermann 56).

Although most of the available reports differ in the approach taken in analyzing the life history of King, they concur in the specific roles that King played in fighting for equality. King’s life history has been retold, and as Cohen (26) notes, at some points, there have been some distortions based on the interests of people interpreting his contributions.

The fact that King died because of his human rights activism earned him a lot of respect and admiration among the historians and journalists who have reported about his contribution towards equality. Many people have considered looking at his activities from just one angle – the positive impacts he had on this fight. Following his assassination, the American society experienced massive reduction on racial discrimination.

Begag (87) also holds that objective truth can be obtained in regard to Martin Luther King’s role in the fight for equality. This scholar says that King made massive contributions to fighting for racial equality in the country, and this has widely been reported by historians and journalists.

Most of the materials available from many historians and journalists have extensively discussed his positive impact on fighting racial injustices. King has been seen as a saint not only in the United States, but also in other parts of the world. The late Nelson Mandela and King have been seen as the icons in championing for equality. For this reason, most of the readers are always interested in knowing how King participated in the war, what speeches he delivered, which challenges he faced, and how he managed to overcome them.

The fact that he was assassinated on a day when he had planned to join a group of poor Americans to champion for their rights will always convince people that he was a true hero in this fight. As Fairclough (49) notes, this made most people associate him with the success in fighting racial discrimination. Given that readers are always looking for his positive contributions, historians and journalists have been reporting on positive events associated with him.

The most appropriate time of recording a real contribution made by King towards the fight for equality would have been immediately after his demise. This would have been done successfully if the scholars involved in recording these accounts took an impartial position in their work. However, the society was full of support for him, and any slight attempt to publish any negativity about him would have been seen as a betrayal in the fight for equality in the USA.

The society was full of praises for King and sympathy for his family, and for that reason, many of the scholars avoided negative comments about him. Most of the historians were carried away by the admiration the society had for the King following his assassination (Jadueson 89).

However, researchers who may be interested in understanding his actual contributions to the fight for equality can easily get to know the objective truth. King was born in 1929 and died in 1968. The main part for the fight for equality in this country was played from the late 1950s to 1968 when he was assassinated. Some people who lived in that era are still alive, and they can help in finding the truth about his contributions.

People who are interested in discovering the truth of him can easily do so by conducting objective research on his life and work. The specific activities that King engaged in can be documented during the research on his life. Using available documents about his life may be the first step in finding the objective truth about him. For instance, it would be interesting to understand the reason why the Federal Bureau of Investigation closely monitored his movement though he was not a criminal.

The reports made in regard to his activities before his assassination would offer invaluable source of information about the real contributions he made in the fight for equality. The newspaper reports and other periodicals of that period may offer insight into his true contributions. This is so because at this time, judgments of the journalists were not clouded by the sadness caused by his sudden brutal murder.

These documents would report on the activities he engaged in as soon as they took place. The next step would be to engage those who actively got involved in his activities in one way or another. Some scholars, especially those who were close to him, can also help in telling the truth about his activities in fighting racial discrimination. For this reason, scholars who are determined to know the objective truth can easily obtain it through research.

Some scholars have argued that it may not be easy to achieve the objective truth in regard to the contribution of Martin Luther King in the fight for equality in the United States. The contributions made by King in fighting racial discrimination are great (Hermann 94). However, the magnitude of his movements has been magnified that it becomes very difficult to extract the truth.

This scholar says that in his fight for human rights and racial equality, King engaged in various activities, some of which may not pass as a war against racial discrimination. In the 1960s, America was involved in Cold War with the USSR, especially it concerned ideology.

Most Americans believed in capitalism, while the USSR was strongly pushing for communism. Although there was a general belief that government of the United States was not keen fighting racial discrimination, it was not justifiable for King to associate with the communists who were generally seen as enemies of the country.

Shah (78) says that King accepted finance from the communists in his movement, people who were considered enemies of this country. However, such engagements are not always given priority by historians who have been writing about his life and the civil rights activities. This is lack of objectivity in their reporting. King was a normal human being, bound to make some normal human mistakes.

When reporting about his contribution, it would be appropriate to mention both the positive and the negative impacts he made in this fight. This way, it becomes easy to obtain the objective truth about what he did to help this society abolish racial discrimination.

Manheimer (45) notes that it may be very complex to get the objective truth about the contributions King made towards the fight for equality. According to this scholar, most of the success story about the fight for equality in this society during his era has always been associated with him. This is so even in cases where other human rights crusaders played leading roles in the fight.

Conclusion

It is clear from the above analysis that Martin Luther King made a lot of contribution to fighting against racial discrimination. Many scholars have claimed that it is difficult to obtain the objective truth about the work made by King in the fight for equality in the country.

While this claim may have some facts, the truth is that a detailed research into the life of King would easily reveal the objective truth about his contributions to this fight. With a detailed research done on his activities, it is possible to obtain this truth.

Works Cited

Baldwin, Lewis. To Make the Wounded Whole: The Cultural Legacy of Martin Luther King, Jr. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992. Print.

Begag, Azouz. Ethnicity & Equality: France in the Balance. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2007. Print.

Cohen, Warren. Profiles in Humanity: The Battle for Peace, Freedom, Equality, and Human Rights. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2009. Print.

Fairclough, Adam. Martin Luther King, Jr. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1995. Print.

Helg, Aline. Our Rightful Share: The Afro-Cuban Struggle for Equality, 1886-1912. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995. Print.

Hermann Top of FormMubetM, Harvard. The Long Struggle for Racial Equality in America. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2010. Print.

Hermann, Spring. The Struggle for Equality: Women and Minorities in America. Berkeley Heights: Enslow Publishers, 2006. Print.

Jadueson, Troy. Becoming King: Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Making of a National Leader. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2008. Print. Top of Form

King, Martin. The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Print.

Manheimer, Ann. Martin Luther King Jr: Dreaming of Equality. Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books, 2005. Print.

Shah, Ruchir. Martin Luther King, Jr. Barrington: EZ Comics, 2007. Print.

Sitkoff, Harvard. Toward Freedom Land: The Long Struggle for Racial Equality in America. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2010. Print.

Education is an essential part of human life. Considering the problem of education in different parts of America and the history of its development, the education of Afro-Americans in the ex-slaves status can be interesting to dwell upon. It is possible to consider the problem of democratization of the society and an attempt to make education democratic and free for all.

The author of the book under discussion The Education of Blacks in South, 1860-1935 by Anderson states that popular education system and democracy should be inseparable.

Thus, considering the situation which took place in late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, it is possible to state that proclaiming democratic ideas in the education, the main goals of Hampton/Tuskegee idea (despite the reputation of the Hampton Institute) were directed at training freedmen to educated people and to be prepared for subordinate role on the territory of the New South.

It can be noticed that some of the actions which took place in the educational system of ex-slaves were directed at maintaining social supremacy of whites under blacks. Thus, the Hampton/Tuskegee idea implemented in Hampton Institute may be considered as both consistent with the democratic ideals of self-determination and equality and not. The closer consideration of the problem is necessary with the discussion of the specific examples which may help understand the situation.

The problem of education was sharp for the society as having agreed on the Fifteenth Amendment of the Constitution, many people still could not accept the idea of equal schools for both races. Black people did not stated on equal with white population education. According to Anderson (1988), black population set two goals before them, short-range and long-range.

The short-range purpose was directed at offering black population the basic literacy skills in the democratic society. The long-range purpose of the education for black population of the New South was to create free and equal society (Anderson 1988, 31).

White population was against offering black one classic liberal education. All parties agreed that a new system of education was necessary, but they could not agree on the details. Samuel Armstrong solved the problem and offered the Hampton/Tuskegee idea which was directed at the popularization and democratization of the education for black students offered for Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute in Hampton, Virginia.

However, “new curriculum offered the possibility of adapting black education to the particular needs and interests of the South’s dominant-class whites” (Anderson 1988, 31). Armstrong was a representative of a social class whose ideas did not coincide with those provided by freedmen. So, he attempted to create a form of education which could be satisfactory for black population but at the same time which would not make those equal to whites.

The special instruction offered particularly for black students carried hidden purpose. White population of America had decided that it was better to reorient the main idea of the social education for ex-slaves rather than tried to destroy it. The elimination of the education for black population might lead to struggle which was undesirable. The decision to implement special instruction was really innovative.

Implementing knowledge in students’ minds with Armstrong’s philosophy, new teachers were trained who could be able to substitute northern teachers in the region and teach other generations the same ideas. One of the main ideas of the Armstrong’s special instruction was the preparation of the ex-slaves for the role of subordinate population in the New South by mans of the methods which were unnoticed for black peoples (Anderson 1988, 36).

The implementation of industrial education in the Hampton model was another step for reaching the purpose of making ex-slaves dependent on southern whites. Hampton Institute did not offer its students neither trade nor agricultural training, only teacher certificates for the first several years (Anderson 1988, 34). This phenomenon can be explained by the main idea of the program.

Whites wanted to remain dominant. Giving an opportunity to trade with other lands by personally grown products made the domination a delusive hope. Black population would have an opportunity to become economically independent and whites could not allow this.

Teaching was a profession which was really important for implementing the ideas whites wanted in the black society. Further, ex-slaves had to teach their children what they knew and in a couple of years when Armstrong’s philosophy was strongly rooted in the black’s society, they were allowed to trade and cultivate lands.

Returning to the problem of industrial education, it should be stated that many people considered it as more intelligent. It was also stated that if black population were offered to work mentally, they would not want to accept manual labor.

Stating on the intellectual importance of industrial education, whites wanted to make blacks more dependent, still, some black spokesmen placed under question the motives of industrial education (Anderson 1988, 64). However, industrial education was implemented and students received it. Whites also pursued the goal to eliminate the number of criminal cases and poverty as black people were given an opportunity to study, find job and earn for living.

The supremacy of one race under another one was the main purpose of the Hampton/Tuskegee idea. Whites understood that black population was better adapted to the Southern conditions. Thus, to teach back people work with their hands was a good idea, but to make those suitable citizens, they had to be educated. Thus, Hampton/Tuskegee idea was a perfect decision.

The implementation of industrial education gave black people an opportunity to get education which confirmed them that they had to work with their hands, do not wish too much, and remain in their cultural and natural environment (Anderson 1988, 82). Thus, black people received what they wanted, education and equality, even though it was an illusion, and white people, nevertheless, implemented racial hierarchy.

Anderson (1988) tries to provide the idea that the Hampton-Tuskegee model of black education “emerges as a politically expedient device to reconcile hostile southern whites to the idea of universal common schooling for black children, and not so much as a unique form of second-class education to reinforce the social oppression of black southerners” (80).

Still, reading the book under discussion it becomes obvious that the conversation about implementation of equal public education on both white and black citizens is held only during the southern education movement which took place in 1901-1915. During this time white population expressed absolute dissatisfaction with the idea to provide equal public education (Anderson 1988, 101).

It should be mentioned that the fight for equal education for both races lead the movement for struggling for civil and political equality (Anderson 1988, 108). Here comes the question, “Isn’t it the main reason for white Americans’ reluctance to implement equal educational principles?”

Having considered the whole situation from the very beginning up to the end, it may be stated that the unwillingness of white society to implement equal rights of whites and blacks in the education were mostly based on the reluctance to implement equality in other parts of life.

Having created the vision of equal education consistent with the democratic ideals of self-determination, white Americans tried to show black population that they were offered freedom and equality they desired, but at the same time, whites knew that the equality in education was fictional, only its vision was created.

At the same time, it is impossible to argue the fact that Hampton-Tuskegee model cannot be considered as the first step to democratic ideals of self-determination and equality. Black people were given an opportunity to experience freedom, even though it was illusion. Black people understood that they had a dream, having become educated they could formulate a goal and try to reach it.

So, the educational program which was aimed at making black population of the southern part of America dependant on white people provoked the free ideas in the black society. Being educated, black people had an opportunity to think that allowed them to make conclusions and understand who was ruling the society and provide actions to eliminate that domination.

The Hampton/Tuskegee education has never been created to make black society democratic. Proclaiming the idea of equal education, it was aimed at making black people more dependent on white population, but education is a great power. It makes people think, no matter what information they are offered.

The understanding of the hidden motives of the industrial education allowed black society to defend their rights. Looking at the modern situation in the USA makes it possible to conclude that black people managed to reach their aim and become equal with white people, still, they had to struggle for their rights severely.

Thus, it may be concluded that being aware of the blacks’ desire to get freedom and equality with white population, Hampton/Tuskegee idea was implemented in life. On the one hand, black population was shown that their rights are considered and they have an opportunity to get education.

On the other hand, the rights of black people were as distant from those of the white people as before the Hampton/Tuskegee idea implementation. Thanks to the idea of industrial education, Afro-American teachers fulfilled the country that allowed northern white teachers leave the New South.

Having offered black people the idea that they were equal with white people, the supremacy of white people in political, social, and economic life still was present. Furthermore, all the ideas implemented under the Hampton/Tuskegee model were directed at rooting the thought in the minds of black population that they have achieved exactly what they wanted and there is nothing to struggle for.

This was necessary for white Americans for ignoring freedmen and continuing building white dominated society. So, it may be stated that the Hampton/Tuskegee idea was not aimed at being compatible with the democratic ideals of self-determination and equality. This was just a cover which helped white Americans build their dominated society and keeping black people ignorant of this.

Reference List

Anderson, James D. 1988. The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.

Introduction

America has a long history that characterizes its development as home to diverse groups of people such as Native-Americans, Africa-Americans, Asian-Americans, women, and the LGBTQ community. Specifically, this paper discusses this history while at the same time comparing and contrasting the struggle for equality among the afore-mentioned groups.

History

Native-Americans are said to have settled in America thousands of years ago (Rutman 59). Besides, their consequent contact with the Europeans had a thoughtful influence on their history. Native-Americans observed a Clovis culture that is mainly detected by the use of a fluted spear point. Black Americans consist of a group of Africans who were compulsorily taken to America where they were held hostage from 1555 to 1865. It is argued that most of the Negros originated in Africa. In addition, African-Americans comprise of Blacks from the Caribbean whose descendants settled in the US during the slavery period. Slaves came from different ethnic groups, primarily from the west and central Africa. However, they lived a similar way of life, despite having different customs, religious beliefs, and language. According to Rutman, the Asian-American history is mostly connected with racial and cultural groups from the Asian descendants (60). Asian-America was an impression conceived in the 1960s. It was destined to bring together Japanese, Filipino-Americans, and Chinese for calculated political drives. As time passed by, other Asian groups, for instance, Koreans, South Asian-Americans, Hmong, and Vietnamese were included. The Chinese, Hmong, and the Japanese came to the US to provide labor in places such as gold mines and rail construction among others while the rest of the Asian-Americans came as slaves. As Morrison reveals, the history of women in the US can be traced in the colonial eras that happened during the colonization of America (88). Women who found their way to America mainly migrated from England and Wales. They had come as settlers.

A few other women came from Scotland and Ireland. For example, in New England, immigrants came with their integrated religious culture that created a social arrangement that upheld the issue of submissiveness among women to their husbands, including their commitment to nurturing children with good morals. On the other hand, the way women were treated depended on their ethnic backgrounds. For instance, England settlers’ wives never worked with their husbands in the field while German and Dutch women immigrants enjoyed more control of their husbands’ assets. According to Lin, LGBTQ history in America traces its roots to the period immediately after the country’s independence (573). In the 19^th century, many states in America limited people against strolling and solicitation of sex in public places, targeting to tame the same sexual advances among LGBTQ members. However, the dawn of the 20^th century was marked by many same-sex groups that performed their activities in undisclosed places to avoid persecution. During this century, the groups developed to the extent that they could demand their homosexual rights from the US government and even the global community. Despite facing tough restrictions in the 1920s, the LGBTQ group was employed to offer entertainment assistance in urban locations in cities such as New York.

Similarities

The movements by Native-Americans, Asian-Americans, African-Americans, women, and the LGBTQ community are alike in various aspects. All the actions the groups participated in aimed at fighting for their equality rights. They wanted to be treated equally as American citizens. They were fighting against racial segregation and discrimination in society. They also fought for the right to own property, as well as housing for those who were poor. These movements endeavored to be allowed to take part in the whereabouts of the state, for instance, participating in voting during elections.

Differences

The actions taken by the above-mentioned groups differed from one movement to another. As O’Brien, the Black-American movement fought for the abolishment of slavery institutions since most of them came to America as slaves (359). On the other hand, according to Rutman, the Asian-American movement was a social crusade against racial injustice among the Asian community living in America (61). The Native-Americans’ struggle took place in the 1950s when the Natives were moved from their reserved properties to the cities. They sought to not only fight for their tribal lands but also recover what was taken from them illegally. According to Morrison, women struggled to be recognized in the community and to be treated equally with men in society in terms of work, salary, and professional programs (89). The LGBT community fought to be accepted by the public since it faced discrimination even at their places of work. This movement promoted equal treatment just like any other gender in American society.

Reactions from the Public and Opposition

According to Lin, the movements received different reactions by the public and the opposition (575). The LGBTs were subjected to discrimination in the community since they were observed to be living against the Disorderly Conduct Law. Many of the LGBTs were detained for sodomy or even hospitalized in facilities that dealt with homosexuality-related mental problems. According to Morrison, women experienced some challenges since men would not allow women to enjoy equal rights, especially at the workplace (90). On the other hand, the Native-Americans encountered a tough battle with the general population that had grabbed their land since they were not willing to return the illegally acquired property. African-Americans received a hostile reception from the slavery organizations since their freedom was to cost the institutions free labor and resources that they used to provide. According to Rutman, the Asian-American movement was not received well by the colonies and the elite in the society since it was regarded as elevating the social status of the Asian community (62).

Success Stories

According to O’Brien, every struggle of the groups had positive results (361). For example, the slavery that targeted Africans ended. Besides, Native-Americans received their land rights when they first won their guaranteed victory in 1967 over issues of land and water. Women’s fight for their empowerment rights bore fruits since they could participate in politics and/or acquire higher education among other things. The Asian-American movement was successful since many Asians received good housing. Discrimination against them also ended. On the other hand, the LGBTQ received a boost for their pursuit when activists and prominent business people joined efforts to fight for their rights and acceptance in society.

Setbacks

Several setbacks were experienced during the struggle. For instance, the women’s movement split in the 1970s. The confrontation became common during the Natives movement. Black Americans acquired their freedom, although it took many years of struggle to acquire liberty from the white settlers. As Lin observes, the LGBTQ community got its rights, although members were not accepted fully in society (577). They still face internal discrimination even today. The Asian-Americans’ struggle continues up to date since not all what was stipulated in the constitution has been fully embraced.

Conclusion

Today, the quest or struggle for equality continues in the LGBTQ community. This group faces opposition from individuals and groups across the world, claiming that it encourages unacceptable behaviors in society. However, the US and other western nations have legalized same-sex marriage, despite the stiff opposition from the global community. It will need much sensitization for the public to appreciate the LGBT community to avert discrimination and stigmatization.

Works Cited

Lin, Yen-jui. “Development and Validation of a Psychological Sense of LGBT Community Scale.” Journal of Community Psychology, vol. 40, no. 5, 2012, pp. 573-587

Morrison, Karen. “Afro-Latin American Women Writers and the Historical Complexities of Reproducing Race.” Meridians: Feminism, Race, Transnationalism, vol. 14, no. 2, 2016, pp. 88-117

O’Brien, Joseph. “Equality in U.S. History: Where Great Persons, Literacy, and Historical Evidence Intersect.” History Teacher, vol. 49, no. 3, 2016, pp. 359-382.

Rutman, Shira. “Native Generations: A Campaign Addressing Infant Mortality among American Indians and Alaska Natives in Urban Areas.” American Indian & Alaska Native Mental Health Research: The Journal of the National Center, vol. 23, no. 6, 2016, pp. 59-77.