Category: Epic of Gilgamesh

Writing is influenced by many factors, such as class, time, and beliefs, just to name a few. These factors vary as literature moves through different time periods and places. It is interesting to find similarities between pieces of literature written in opposite sides of the world and hundreds of years apart. But no matter the distance or time major themes remain constant throughout world literature. The earliest version The Epic of Gilgamesh, written in 2100 B.C.E., shares many of these universal themes with The Odyssey, which was written by Homer in eight century B.C.E. The Epic of Gilgamesh and The Odyssey are both stories of journeys that are influenced by gods, but they have different challenges and reasons for starting with journeys.

The Epic of Gilgamesh and The Odyssey are tales of grand journeys undertaken by a single man. In the Epic of Gilgamesh, King Gilgamesh undertakes a quest for eternal life. Enkidu, Gilgamesh’s best friend, fell ill and died. The death of Enkidu greatly affected Gilgamesh as it caused him to become aware of his own mortality. As he laments Enkidu, Gilgamesh questions, “Shall I not die too? Am I not like Enkidu?” (Gilgamesh IX.3). Gilgamesh travels great distances to find Utanapishtim, who has found a way to become immortal, to learn how to become immortal. In The Odyssey. Telemachus has to travel great distances to find out what happened to his father, Odysseus. Odysseus left for the Trojan War when Telemachus was a baby and has not returned. Everyone, except Penelope, Odysseys’ wife, think he is dead. Therefore, many suitors have to come win Penelope’s hand and take over Odysseys’ kingdom. The suitors are causing terror and Telemachus wants to kill them, but lacks the skills to actually kill them. So, Telemachus decides to find his father old comrades to see if they know what happened to his father.

Gilgamesh and Telemachus both face unforeseen challenges during their travels. Gilgamesh had the hardest journey by far. Gilgamesh’s challenges were physical, where as Telemachus’ were political. Gilgamesh is told that in order to reach Utanapishtim, he has to first travel through the sun tunnel in just twelve hours. Then he is told that he must paddle a boat over the waters of death because he ironically destroyed the Stone Charms, which would have made his journey easier. Eventually he finds Utanapishtim only to fail at his final task, staying awake for an entire week, in his quest for immortality. Unlike Gilgamesh, Telemachus does not face any physical challenges; he faces diplomatic problems. Telemachus travels across the sea to Pylos, where Nestor rules. Telemachus approaches Nestor and inquires about Odysseus. Being a former solider who fought along side Odysseus, Nestor begins a long tale about the Trojan War and eventually tells Telemachus that he does not know where Odysseus is, but to sail to Sparta because Menelaus might know where he is. So Telemachus travels to Sparta, where he meets King Menelaus. Menelaus also, recounts stories about the Trojan War that takes many hours. Finally, Menelaus discloses Odysseus’ location to Telemachus. While these long speeches may not seem like challenges, Telemachus had to actively listen to each one. If he did not the Kings would have taken offense and not have to Telemachus where his father is. So, Telemachus had to master diplomacy in order to find out what he wanted to know, which is hard to do. Each of Gilgamesh’s and Telemachus’ challenges mirrors that person. Gilgamesh is know for being exceptionally large and powerful man so his obstacles challenge the characteristics he is known for. Telemachus never learned how to fight and is not strong like his father. His challenges reflect this because they deal with public relations and not physical problems. If Telemachus’ journey was full of physical obstacles he would fail and his quest would be over before it even started. Gilgamesh and Telemachus, also, differ in their reasons for taking on their journeys.

No one ever does anything without a reason. The same is true for Gilgamesh and Telemachus. Gilgamesh’s reason is selfish, while Telemachus is trying to help his mother and also find closer. Gilgamesh went on his quest so that he could become immortal. His search for immortality was purely for his own use. Gilgamesh had “grown afraid of death” (Gilgamesh IX.5) Fear drove him to travel great distances to find Utanapishtim. Everyone thought that Gilgamesh was fearless because he had fought terrifying monsters before. But his fear of death drove him to wander for weeks across the steppe, travel through the sun tunnel, and cross the waters of death. Dissimilarly, Telemachus decided to under go his quest for information about his father. Telemachus hopes that Odysseus is not dead that way he can get rid of his mother’s suitors, who have been destroying the kingdom. He also wants to know what happened to Odysseus so that he and his mother can have closure because Odysseus has been missing for ten years. Telemachus is thinking about his mother when he undertakes his journey because he cannot stand the way the suitors treat her. Gilgamesh’s and Telemachus’ reasons for undertaking their journeys also reflect their personality. Gilgamesh always got what he wanted to matter what because his citizens were afraid of him. Even if he did change after he meat Enkidu and became a better person, he still is used to getting what he wants. Only this time, he has to go get it himself. Telemachus was only raised by his mother, so he has a great compassion for her and would never want to see her hurt. The journeys in both The Epic of Gilgamesh and The Odyssey are spurred by the actions of gods.

While The Epic of Gilgamesh and The Odyssey have journeys that seem completely different, gods cause both journeys to happen. In The Epic of Gilgamesh, the gods decided to kill Enkidu for encouraging Gilgamesh to kill Humbaba, the guardian of the cedars. Enkidu even says, “Finish him off for the kill, put him out of existence, / Before Enlil the foremost one hears of this! / The great gods will become angry with us” (Gilgamesh V.68-70) Enkidu angered the gods and we all know what happens when you anger the gods. So with Enkidu dead, Gilgamesh realizes his own mortality and decides to find a way to become immortal; hence, his journey to find Utanapishtim in hopes of receiving eternal life. In The Odyssey, Athena convinces Telemachus to undertake a journey to figure out what happened to his father. Athena does this because she hopes that Telemachus can find a way to bring Odysseus back to Ithaca. The gods’ involvement in The Odyssey is slightly different than in The Epic of Gilgamesh because Athena directly tells Telemachus to take the journey. But in The Epic of Gilgamesh, the actions of a god in a previous event cause Gilgamesh to start his journey.

Overall, the journeys in The Epic of Gilgamesh and The Odyssey are mostly different. Gilgamesh encounters physical challenges, while Telemachus faces political. Gilgamesh’s fear drove him to take on a journey for selfish reasons. Telemachus went on a quest to find his father to help his mother get rid of her suitors. Maybe that is why Telemachus was successful with his quest and Gilgamesh was not. However, The Epic of Gilgamesh and The Odyssey both have gods influencing why the person took the quest. In the end, The Epic of Gilgamesh and The Odyssey are similar because they are epic poems about journeys, but they each have their own unique aspects with in the journeys.

The art of storytelling is depicted cleverly in “The Epic of Gilgamesh”. The author takes us on a journey of transformation seen in the life of Gilgamesh. The epic starts by describing who Gilgamesh is and how he came into being. He was the son of Lugalbanda and son of the august cow Rimat-Ninsun and was described as extremely strong. He is also described as two-thirds god and one-third man and the goddess Aruru designed his body. He built the foundations and walls of Uruk-Haven and did all these good things for the people. The people were longing for a leader and a savior and they found one in Gilgamesh. However, Gilgamesh began abusing his power and authority over the people. He took any woman for himself whether she was the daughter of a poor man or someone else’s wife. He did as he pleased, and the people had grown tired of it. So, they called out to the gods for help. Gilgamesh starts out as the hero and protagonist in the epic, hailed by his people for his beauty, his godlikeness, and the good things he did for the people. But he quickly becomes the antagonist and villain in this part of the epic due to his ruthlessness and cruelty to the people of Uruk. Even though this story is considered one of the oldest in the world, we can draw parallels in our modern day. We are wowed by politicians today, promising to fulfill all our desires and needs. Yet when they are voted into power, most of them tend to fulfill only their selfish needs like Gilgamesh. The author reveals an innate part of all of us; we long after power and when we get it we abuse it.

As a result of this abuse of power, the people cry out for another savior who could fight off the cruelty of Gilgamesh, Enkidu. He was as strong as Gilgamesh but did not match him in likeness. Enkidu’s body was covered in hair and he knew only animals. He lived with them, ate with them, and even drank from the same water holes as he did. Like any good story, the protagonist and antagonist face off. It is in our nature to expect good to triumph over evil but in this case, the author took a turn when the antagonist Gilgamesh wins and becomes friends with Enkidu who is supposed to rival him. After becoming friends, they decided to embark on an adventure to the cedar forest to kill the great spirit Humbaba, who also like Gilgamesh, terrorized the humans. In this section of the epic, the plot of the Quest is used. Gilgamesh and Enkidu set out on their journey but along the way, Gilgamesh has a series of terrifying dreams which left him shaken and worried. But Enkidu his friend assured him they were in fact good dreams. The dream sequence is used precisely by the author from the beginning of the epic where Gilgamesh dreams of Enkidu his opposer who would become his brother in arms. Also, in this case, predicting what would happen to them. This shows how the people of that time valued the importance of their dreams and were convinced their dreams were premonitions.

Gilgamesh also saw wisdom as the principal thing, hence his journey to obtain knowledge and wisdom of immortality. Although he was not able to attain the immortality he set out for, he gained a lot of knowledge and experience which translated into wisdom for him. The author sends a message that wisdom can sometimes be acquired only through experiences since experience is the best teacher. The role of love is also essential in this epic and the message it conveys. The most significant love in ‘The Epic of Gilgamesh’ is certainly between Gilgamesh and Enkidu. The author explores how this friendship grows from the beginning, and how it transforms both men for the better in the end. Through his friendship with Enkidu Gilgamesh came to recognize his misgivings against his own people and also his mortality because his relationship with Enkidu ended when Enkidu died. This began to reveal his flaw of mortality, and he finally accepted it. The author wanted to convey the message that, the love in friendship can sometimes be stronger than romantic love.

The Epic also depicts a hierarchy where gods ruled, and men were beneath them. By doing this, the author engages the supernatural and the natural. It speaks volumes about the beliefs of the people who lived in the time of the author. They seem to have attributed a lot of unexplained things to the gods. Some elements of magic can also be seen in the introduction of the bull of heaven. It is depicted as this magical creature sent to punish Gilgamesh and Enkidu who end up killed.

Storytelling has been a part of our nature since the beginning. We have drawn inspiration from stories told over the years and they have been a very effective tool for teaching both children and adults life lessons, morals, and values. As a result, our view of the world and everything in it has been shaped by it. Think of the many life lessons and values you have; you will realize they stemmed from childhood stories passed down from generation to generation either orally or literary. We cannot afford to stop telling stories, for our stories are a reflection of us.

Literature is the basis of knowledge. Everything we know, or claim to know, has come from literature in one way or another. At some point, people realized, an oral presentation wasn’t enough. To improve and develop as a society, people needed to keep records of ideas, experiments, and narratives. By writing down literature, people were able to transform renowned narratives into books, novels, newspapers, and even more famously, epics. Epics were traditionally oral stories that found their way to greater populations. With the help of archeologists, we were able to recover one of the oldest known epics, dating as far back as the early bronze age (2900-2000 BC). The prominent work had no known author and was famously known as, The Epic of Gilgamesh. The epic was a testament to the Sumerian culture of the Neolithic Age, it gives the reader insight into the values and beliefs of the time. The Sumerian culture pervades the epic in its sexual and religious perspectives.

According to archaeological findings, Gilgamesh is seen as the first great hero. His placement as the ruler of Uruk depicts the society and culture he inhabited. Gilgamesh was expected to be a balanced and empathetic leader but his reputation quickly established the outrage over his abuse of power that eventually leads to the creation of Enkidu. With this, the reader can get a glimpse of gender relations and the roles of those surrounding Gilgamesh. He would cause havoc in families by taking their sons and was often promiscuous with women. He was a womanizer that used his power to manipulate people for his pleasure. Women were only seen in a positive light if they were helping the two through their journey, this may be considered an accurate depiction of women’s placement in society because they were expected to act in a “maternal fashion”. Women in Mesopotamian society did not live in a sexual society and their expected roles were unrelated to the political sphere and the masculine military domain. An example would be Ishtar, the goddess of love and war when she is given dedication to the city of Uruk. Since she controlled two facets of human nature, which are ruled by emotion, Mesopotamians believed women were guided by this, rather than the reason of other gods and men. This is an unfortunate truth today; many people limit women to their maternal and emotional abilities, assuming their intellect is insufficient. This sort of poetry was likely written by men for men; there is a certain attitude towards the idea of women and their subsidiary to men. They are used to “humanize” men by coddling them in a motherly way or nurturing those around them. We observe that masculine identity is also important in their culture by looking at the description of Gilgamesh and Enkidu. We see that a leader/king is someone masculine and strong, who dominates his people. The primitive ways of Enkidu showcase their view on the original state and the role of man as well. Enkidu was seen with shaggy hair all over his body, the hair on his head resembling a woman’s, and lived with the animals of the land. Through this, they display their views on “civilized” people. A woman is used here to help him understand sexuality; they believed a person would need to understand the aspect of sex in order to be humanized. He lay with a woman for 7 days and was miraculously humanized as opposed to his previous animalistic roots. The role of women and gender is seen through this as well, she is to be submissive, to comfort, and to take care of the man’s needs. There’s no definitive illustration of the role of women at this time in Mesopotamia, but we do know they are not on the same spectrum as men, nor are they as respectable. Sex, an emotional and instinctive act, is what makes a man mortal in this culture. It’s also seen as a form of pleasure, especially when it is non-productive since Gilgamesh is able to have relations with women without tarnishing his reputation drastically. Sex plays a role in religion too, when a man acts on it, it rids him of the possibility of becoming immortal. This can also be a way for the gods to guide or mislead mortals such as Ishtar and Gilgamesh.

Beyond sex and gender, nature and religion were significant portions of Sumerian culture. Mesopotamians were a polytheistic society, they associated gods with aspects of nature, like fire, water, air, and more. They often personified gods while maintaining the idea that they were reflections of humankind. This often meant that there was a certain humility to them; they were imperfect and needed redemption for their wrongdoings as well. This is seen when Gilgamesh goes on a quest to find redemption and immortality. The reader meets various gods during his search and there is a dark and dangerous glimpse of the afterlife. The polytheistic belief is also seen when mentioning gods like Ishtar, as stated before, the goddess of love and war, Ea, the god of water and the arts, and Shamash, the god of the sun and his wife; the goddess of the moon. Religion in Mesopotamia, as well as the Epic, is heavily personified. Gods can choose a mortal that they want to guide or destroy, similar to when Enlil elected to destroy mankind in the flood or when Ea saved Utnapishtim by guiding him to create a boat and find divine mortality. The Flood story is also ingrained in the beliefs of Sumerian culture because it is said to be the start of civilization. The citizens rely on the gods to control the river and rain they receive and believe they are responsible for events like the aforementioned. When natural disasters occur, it is recognized as a punishment from the gods because they stem from the power of the gods, according to Mesopotamian culture. From The Epic of Gilgamesh, one can see that the belief system in Mesopotamia shines through, being a clear root in the story.

By doing an in-depth analysis of the epic, one can envision the culture of the ancient Sumerians. Their values, religious system, and attitude toward each other find their way into the context of the story. Throughout their culture, we can find parallels in the years to come. Some instances are the idea of a prominent male lead and some sort of council, as well as their perspective on gender relations. We see a masculine identity with a gender divide pervade through the culture. Sex and religion are prime factors in society and are important to future cultures and empires. Religion in the culture of Mesopotamia is seen everywhere. It is seen in the roles gods play in everyday life and also gives reference to the Greeks and their mythology. Overall, sex, culture, and religion are extremely influential and relevant in the Epic of Gilgamesh and paint a general image of Sumerian culture.

The Journey Towards Greater Insight and Death

The Babylonian Epic of the valiant hero Gilgamesh, king of Uruk, consists of a series of episodes, which all primarily center on one theme, human attitudes towards death. By focusing on one person’s struggle to accept death as one of the fundamental conditions of life. The epic stresses the journey to greater existential insight or coming to terms with human mortality. In its own way, the Gilgamesh epic explores many social issues of life, between the extraordinary and the normal man. But most importantly, the epic is a work of literature, addressing several life’s social issues. As depicted in the Epic of Gilgamesh, the concept of heroism manifests itself through Social, Political, and Religious values, in the Sumerian culture.

Social values are ways to teach and provide explanation and understanding of life, to a society. Social values were an important fundamental part of the Sumerians, in relation to patriotism, respect for human dignity, rationality, sacrifice, individuality, equality, and democracy, in order for their culture to survive.

Gilgamesh’s rules were inspired by the Sumerians, and by his Political deeds, The resolution of the conflict between the virtues of individualistic heroism, public responsibility, and leadership will come when a society recognizes that they must give up the illusion of living on an extraordinary plane, learn to value normality, and assume the role of a normal and effective society.

The Sumerians choose a positive relationship with the divine. To them, Religion is important for survival and success during the human lifespan and even beyond it. According to Abusch, the life of heroism loses its meaning, as seen with Gilgamesh, only immortality as a human seems to remain an acceptable option, but such is unattainable, for only gods are immortal while humans must die( Abusch, 621).

Sumerians are inspired by heroism, which is revealed through faith in mankind. In reality, heroism brings change to the individual, it is expressed daily by our deeds. Gilgamesh is presented to us as an individual who lives on a heroic plane and exists in spiritual isolation, but we know that such a life is unbelievable, for no man is an island. The hero characteristics of Gilgamesh can be seen in many traditional Mesopotamia cultures today, through their heroism of aggressive, courageous, and impetuous behaviors, battling strong enemies in their societies (Kirk, 132-52).

Work Cite

1. G. S. Kirk, Myth: It’s Meaning and Functions in Ancient and Other Cultures (Berkeley/Los Angeles, 1973), 132-52;
2. T. Abusch, J. Huehnergard, and P. Steinkeller (Atlanta, 1990), 614

Homer’s Odyssey and the Epic of Gilgamesh are famous mythological ventures that have been attributed to their heroic characters. Comparing these two mythological heroes through literature can assist us on hold close to how unique are their characteristics and heroic ideals. This Comparison of the Odyssey and Gilgamesh has helped in discovering the similarities and differences they have and share. This epic of Gilgamesh and the Odyssey is held in a manner of appreciation through literature as they prove an ancient characterization of the heroes and their companions. This has delivered imagery to our minds when we read them and in accordance with their relation with measurement and the time written. These two epics distinguish an entire lot in their writing styles, characterization detail, and also important ideas. They each talk about the story of a misplaced man discovering his way. This paper is aimed at discussing the journeys undertaken with the aid of the vital characters; in unique one need to focal point on the motives of the protagonists and how each Gilgamesh and Odysseus have been converted in the path of their adventures. This discussion can throw mild on the values and beliefs of humans who need to stay many centuries ago.

The Epic of Gilgamesh and the Odyssey are two tales of regular guys from historical Mesopotamia and historic Greece, who had been given brilliant strengths. However, as they go with the aid of lifestyles they make mistakes actually like regular men. Gilgamesh, the hero from the epic Gilgamesh was once the king of Uruk in Babylonia. He was as soon as a king who had many faults. The human beings said he was harsh, and that he slept with brides on their wedding ceremony night until now than their husbands. He used to be as soon as very confident, and at the beginning of the story, had little compassion for his people, as he would rule over them but would now not guard them. He used to be as soon as very strong and felt most useful over them. (Academy of Ancient Texts, 2001). Odysseus, the hero from the epic Odysseus is the ruler of the island kingdom of Ithaca, a universal Greek leader of the Trojan War. He is also confident. As in distinction to Gilgamesh, Odysseus used to be granted intellectual strengths, was as soon clever, and had an ardor to accumulate expertise and experience. He used to be once totally human and ethical and did now not have divine ancestry. He confronted many challenges whilst returning home when he encountered a number of monsters on the other hand he remained focused. He used to be loyal and human beings cherished and revered him. (Butler, 2009).

Because of their heroism and capacity to accomplish wonderful things, at the same time as dealing with deities and mortal beings alike, the epics of Gilgamesh and Odysseus depict the story of two heroic Odysseus’ from awesome ancient intervals who had been each in search of the skill of life. Gilgamesh is the semi-mythic king of Uruk from early Mesopotamia, whereas the epic of Odyssey is developed in early Greece. However, with all the similarities and conventions of epic poetry, there are additionally many differences, such as personality traits and the nature of obstacles confronted by the heroes as well.

Gilgamesh used to be very famous and crucial to the historians of Mesopotamian culture. Because of his heroism, he used to be accorded absolutely divine recognition as a god. Odysseus used to be equally a very popular hero and was most commonly described in Greek mythology as godlike, almost like the god Zeus. While Gilgamesh and Odysseus went through very challenging hardships during their journeys, everything that happened to Gilgamesh was once due to his fault, while Odysseus’ struggles were viewed to be the result of horrible luck.

Certain features deliver Gilgamesh and Odysseus to being very similar, they each have very godlike sides to aid them to overcome their supernatural enemies. While every possessed such strength, they made selections based absolutely on a lot of power at the same time at different times they made careless ones, simply like any man. They additionally appear to research matters about themselves via prerequisites and assist train lessons about existence with the troubles they get themselves into. In both tales ladies have been additionally the cause of the problems, Gilgamesh and Enkidu having to fight the Bull of Heaven despatched down via a goddess and Odysseus being challenged through the skill of the goddesses. The two recollections appear to mirror each different when it comes to the existence of guidelines that we can observe for the challenges we face in life. As said in the epic of Gilgamesh, ‘As for you Gilgamesh, fill your bell with things: day and night, night and day, dance and be merry, feast and rejoice. Let your clothes be fresh, bathe yourself in water, cherish the little child that holds your hand, and make your wife completely cozy in your embrace; for this too.’

First, it is essential to speak about the motives that brought about the epic heroes to leave their homeland. For instance, one can point out that Odysseus used to be once forced to go to the Trojan War. At the very beginning, he preferred to stay at Ithaca, however, he was once as soon compelled to be phase of the army of Agamemnon and Menelaus. In contrast, Gilgamesh was as soon inclined to undertake this journey. Moreover, he is pushed through the way by numerous motives. For instance, he is inclined to go away with a semi-god known as Humbaba due to the fact this victory can reap his reputation and focus on special people. On the whole, this example can throw moderate on the variations between the lifestyle of Ancient Greece and Sumer. The behavior of Odysseus shows that Greeks emphasized devotion to domestic America or family. In turn, the subculture of Sumer related significance to electricity and glory. Additionally, it is quintessential to discuss how the day trip affected each Odysseus and Gilgamesh. In the route of his travels, Odysseus encountered many difficulties and in some cases, he had to use cunning, brutal force, and every so often even cruelty to continue to exist and return to Ithaca. Furthermore, he can also want to continue to be with Calypso. Nevertheless, he stays loyal to his spouse Penelope and his homeland. In turn, Gilgamesh will become modified in the path of his adventures. It is difficult for him to accept the notion that he is mortal. In turn, Odysseus does not even strive to accumulate the repute of a deity. Again, the experiences of the vital characters can replicate very crucial editions between the cultures of Greece and Sumer. Greeks identified the boundaries of a human being. Yet, one can say the same element about the Sumerian way of life in which human beings might also prefer to claim the fame of a deity.

Odysseus and Gilgamesh are similar in how they each strive for recognition on their risky missions, then again what motivates them and helps them enhance as heroes at the top of the story are what matters and what differs. When Odysseus enters the land of the Cyclops, he ought to discover a way to escape. During this 2nd of pressure, Odysseus is questioning saving no longer only himself but additionally his crew with the regular of getting domestic to see his family. Odysseus’s selflessness and capacity are on display while displaying his real intentions of trying to save his people. However, Gilgamesh the prideful king seeks to kill Humbaba solely to show the human beings of Uruk that he, a mere mortal, killed a god. Gilgamesh says, ‘I, Gilgamesh, would see! The one whose title resounds throughout the complete world, I will hunt him down in the forest of cedars. I will make the land hear’ (The Epic of Gilgamesh, Tablet 2, 206-209) Gilgamesh is inclined to kill to show a point. In the beginning, Gilgamesh’s motives at the return of most of his selections are definitely to are seeking attention, then again when his high-quality friend, Enkidu, dies a surprising eventful trade hits Gilgamesh, and his motivations change. Gilgamesh comes to receive the divine order of things and is higher blissful in his feature as king. What initiates this trade is eventually his love for Enkidu and the flood of Utanapishtim, which is when Gilgamesh realizes that it is higher to keep a lifestyle than to damage it. Thomas VanNortwick explains that ‘While it is puzzled whether or not or no longer that Odysseus encounters a lot of non-public development’ (Nortwick, 126) as Gilgamesh, some can see how he learns to adapt to the trials destiny has in store for him. Odysseus finds methods of use lots less and a great deal much less violence in his adventures, on the other hand, later Odysseus is considered a static character.

Odysseus and Gilgamesh are each character in epics who come to be heroes with the aid of the challenges they face on their respective journeys. During each character’s journey, he learns the traits that a genuine chief and hero have to possess. They each begin as fallacious guys and leaders ‘and the checks they face on their journeys teach them to overcome their flaws and cease up greater leaders as excellent heroes. An authentic chief has to be comfortable in his solitude and capable to act alone. In every epic, both characters are in stipulations of the place they are both isolated and experience overwhelmingly loneliness. Gilgamesh encounters loneliness increased than once at some point in the epic. In the beginning, he is so lonely that he acts like a tyrant, ignores his duties as a king, and pursues young adults and maidens all via his kingdom in a quest for companionship. Later on, Gilgamesh will become lonely once more after the demise of Enkidu which sets him off into deep melancholy and he feels as though he has no reason for residing any longer. Odysseus, on the exceptional hand, is caught on an island with Calypso for seven years with almost no hope of returning home. He longs to return domestic to his spouse and son, however, he has no ship and no crew to assist him to get there.

The customary theme present is heroism in each Epic tale. They are men with magnificent electricity and supremacy. The heroes provide us sheer power in wondering and on the different hand, perception of heroic bodily energy in particular. Both heroes face the loss of lifestyles and trip through their paths bravely and honorably with Odysseus`s family dealing with hardships due to his remote experience in pursuit of knowledge and wealth. Both the characters harm themselves into heroes and tyrants. Gilgamesh succeeds with his lesson about the truth of man being mortal soon. He additionally understood that not taking note of what one`s achievements are, even if they are godlike as a long way as Gilgamesh is concerned, one has to cherish the smaller things. It took Gilgamesh a single day whilst Odysseus`s journey multiplied to twenty years to apprehend that everybody has to find out the of life. Gilgamesh and Odysseus had been designed to confront the outer limits of human existence and then to deliver back knowledge extracted from this intense perspective (Launderville). Gilgamesh shows no mercy to the beast and slays it taking an apt suggestion from Enkidu, who says: Kill the beast now Gilgamesh. Show no weak or silly mercy in the course of so sly a foe. Taking the advice, Gilgamesh cuts the beast. Odysseus, on the different hand, even though Athena`s divine assistance, alongside Telemachus, and a couple of herdsmen manages to kill all of the suitors. The katabasis is normally referred to amongst many others as a time out to the supernatural underworld. Katabasis is moreover adverted to a trip via this world to some other aircraft in this incident the day out to the underworld (Launderville).

Overall, the contrast of these literary works can make bigger readers’ appreciation of Sumer or historic Greek culture. Homer`s epic indicates such values as marital fidelity, devotion to a homeland, and acceptance of human limitations, mainly mortality. In turn, the Epic of Gilgamesh stresses power, fame, and the center of attention of others. Both legendary heroes have proven that actually all of us have the attribute to take up challenges and research from experiences. Thus, the universal theme of each of the legendary texts offers that attributes of heroism can be attained through all humans provided they are geared up to face challenges. Still, there are some aspects in which Odysseus differs from Gilgamesh very much. The latter, for instance, is concerned with manipulations, whilst the former traditionally cares for those who encompass him.

The use of the savage to contrast civilization is one that has long been utilized, established back in literary pieces such as The Epic of Gilgamesh as well as the story of Rama the Steadfast. Eventually, it was the Greeks who further defined the savage as a barbarian or someone who was foreign, non-greek, or did not speak the same language. This Greek term, Barbaros, emphasizes the idea of someone speaking gibberish, or nonsense. However, this definition does not mean these so-called savages or barbarians were uncivilized, in fact, the Greeks still often marveled at their accomplishments and even adopted many of them.

In The Epic of Gilgamesh, we are first introduced to a savage when we meet Enkidu. Enkidu is wild, untouched by humans. He was born into the forest and runs with the animals, freeing them from traps set by hunters. There is a purity in him celebrated by the authors and Gilgamesh alike. He’s the quintessential noble savage, meaning he is a perfect representative of primitive humankind, symbolizing the innate goodness of humanity when free from the corrupting influence of civilization. In this way, he contrasted hugely with the Gilgamesh portrayed at the beginning of the tale, who was greedy and cruel. After Enkidu dies tragically, Gilgamesh says;

Enkidu, your mother is a gazelle, and your father who created you, a wild ass.

You were raised by creatures with tails, and by the animals of the wilderness…

The paths going up to and down from the forest of cedars

All mourn for you, the weeping does not end day or night.

(Tablet VIII)

Gilgamesh conveys his sadness onto the natural landscape so that it seems as if the entire world mourns for Enkidu. His speech hints at Enkidu’s wild origins, and despite having been born without society and considered savage, Gilgamesh finds beauty and simplicity in Enkidu’s birth and existence.

In Rama the Steadfast, on the other hand, we are met with many savages in the form of demons. As their name describes them, and in contrast with Enkidu, these savages are evil and destructive yet skilled in many ways.

The savage essentially opposes civilization, which is one of mankind’s greatest successes, in that it gave rise to virtue, morality, and beauty, alongside other things. The Genevan philosopher and composer, Jean-Jacques Rousseau gave credit for nobility to the savage when he coined the term “Noble Savage” as explained earlier. Since then, it has become common to seek out all evidence of enlightenment possible among primal societies.

Another way savages are often portrayed is with the aim to manage nature for their own benefit. In this way, there is generally only a matter of control, whether effective or not. Control produces material benefits. So in other words, the savage frequently has only one option if they want to survive, and it almost always involves violence. Therefore, the savage has often been portrayed as having no moral structure because they essentially do not need them.

Nobility is generally defined as having personal qualities of high moral principles and ideals, often belonging to the upper class. This term changes from culture to culture, depending on what values and ideals they hold most dearly. This idea of nobility paired with the term savage is essentially a person who is ___.

In The Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh is the King of the great city of Uruk. Throughout the start of the epic, Gilgamesh is depicted as an oppressive and cruel king who worked his people to death and took what he wants from them without contest. This leads to the people of Uruk to plead to the Gods for assistance in hopes of better lives. The Gods listen and have Anu, the Goddess of creation, create someone strong enough to stand up to him and ultimately defeat him. Enkidu is born, a hairy wild man who lives in the wilderness alongside the animals. One day a trapper sees Enkidu and is frightened. After consulting with Gilgamesh, the trapper returns with Shamhat, a temple prostitute, and she and Enkidu mate because of this the animals no longer accept him and the two set out for civilization, more specifically Uruk. Enkidu learns that Gilgamesh will lay with a newly married bride on her wedding night prior to her own husband. He is outraged and decides he must stop Gilgamesh. The two meet in Uruk and a fight breaks out between them, in which Gilgamesh is ultimately triumphant. The two men become companions and proceed to adventure with one another in search of eternal fame. They journey to defeat the monster Humbaba and succeed in doing so, and because of this, Gilgamesh catches the eye of Ishtar. Gilgamesh rejects Ishtar and she becomes outraged and releases the Bull of Heaven to punish Gilgamesh, which he and Enkidu defeat. For their behavior, the Gods decide that one hero must die. Enkidu soon falls ill and ends up dying. Gilgamesh is shattered. Gilgamesh is afraid and decides to seek out Utnapishtim, the one human who was granted immortality by the Gods. After a long and arduous journey, Gilgamesh meets Utnapishtim, who tells Gilgamesh that immortality is for the Gods alone and that mortals must learn to accept death. He learns of a magical plant at the bottom of the sea that can restore one’s youth and retrieves it. On his way back to Uruk, a serpent steals the plant, leaving Gilgamesh weeping. He returns to Uruk and upon seeing the great city, understands that it is his legacy and that if he rules well, it will be his greatest legacy. Gilgamesh comes to understand that the most important thing in life is to have lived and be loved well. This revelation first becomes obvious in the following line when Gilgamesh says to the boatman;

“Study the brickwork, study the fortification; climb the ancient staircase to the terrace; study how it is made; from the terrace see the planted and fallow fields, ponds, and orchards.

One league is the inner city, another league is orchards; still, another is the fields beyond;

over there is the precinct of the temple. . . . ,

Three leagues and the temple precinct of Ishtar.”

Measure Uruk, the city of Gilgamesh.

(Tablet XI)

These words mark one of the most astonishing transitions in literature. Only a few lines earlier, Gilgamesh was in despair because he lost his magical plant and his opportunity for immortality. But this loss was also the moment of truth. As he approaches the vast, beautiful urban expanse of Uruk, Gilgamesh, seeing it anew, regards it with pride and awe. Gilgamesh repeats, word for word, the opening lines of the epic. This is my city, he says. My place. He has quested to the ends of the earth for the meaning of life and found it at last in his own home. Thus ends The Epic of Gilgamesh.

In Rama the Steadfast, Rama is born while a demon named Ravana is terrorizing the world. Rama is the prince of Ayodhya, capable of accomplishing what no man has ever done; stringing the bow of Siva. By doing he has rewarded marriage to the elegant Sita. Just when he is about to sit upon the throne of Ayodhya, his father Dasaratha is required to exile him for fourteen years to the forest. Rama willingly accepts his exile and his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana accompany him. In the forest, the brothers must kill many demons and end up interacting with many enlightened people. The demon Ravana hears of Sita’s beauty and kidnaps her. Ravana attempts to seduce her, but she refuses him for almost ten months through many tests of faith. In an attempt to get his wife back, Rama and his brother form an alliance with the monkey king Sugriva and attack an army of monkeys. Following several brutal battles, Rama succeeds in defeating Ravana and wins back Sita. However, he is worried that she has been adulterous during her captivity with Ravana so she must undergo a trial by fire to prove her chastity. After she proves to be faithful, Rama takes her back and they return to Ayodhya and rule successfully and happily for many years. Ravana, despite being a demon and savage is praised at one point in the quote;

“One should never discount the majesty of Ravana. The evil he was, but he was also the greatest of all the created beings of his time. He had dominated the known universe for centuries, and even Deva women felt weak with desire just to see him. He was matchless at arms, in his generosity, his intelligence and knowledge of the sacred lore, and his indomitable courage. He was Ravana, the peerless, the invincible. There was no one like him, as complex, as powerful, or as wise.”

Ravana is established as a worthy adversary for Rama; he is no mean villain, but instead a complex and powerful nemesis. Intriguingly, this passage emphasizes Ravana’s majesty rather than his wickedness, highlighting some of his virtues, such as his intelligence and his desirability to women.

The Epic of Gilgamesh and the Rama the Steadfast are two of the oldest heroic poems to date. While both epics have many similarities, there are also some distinct differences between the two having to do with each main character’s journey. Both stories display the typical characteristics of a hero, having traits such as courage, wisdom, selflessness, etc. The development of these characteristics, however, marks significant differences between the two stories. Both of these characters embody the predominant values of each of their respective cultures and times. The Epic of Gilgamesh and Rama the Steadfast reveal the importance of religion, love, good rule, and family values.

The Epic of Gilgamesh was written in ancient Mesopotamia, the framework of civilization, and so it became known as the first great epic in history. Not only is it believed that Gilgamesh is the epitome of the epic hero, but he is also viewed as a symbol of Mesopotamian culture itself. The Mesopotamians were polytheistic people, meaning they believed in many Gods. They both loved and feared these Gods and did everything within their capabilities to appease them, whether it was by building ornate temples or performing ritualistic sacrifices. This is why it comes as no surprise that they believed Gilgamesh was actually two-thirds God and only one-third man. Gilgamesh was in fact a real king and Uruk was a real city at the time. Based on how devoutly religious the Mesopotamians were it is understandable how they would think a person who was both parts God and a strong man would be the ideal ruler. In ancient Mesopotamia, men were assumed to be firm leaders and steady providers of the household. Gilgamesh was in fact a firm king, and even after his journey with Enkidu, Gilgamesh was still a shining example of an alpha male.

The epic, Rama the Steadfast, also had a strong influence on its culture. Much like Gilgamesh, Rama is also a divine being as he is the embodiment of the God Vishnu, who was responsible for preventing the destruction of the universe. In Indian culture, however, there is some division between polytheistic, henotheistic, and monotheistic people but the majority of these people can agree on the idea of purushartha, samsara, and nirvana. While other Gods take part in a variety of occurrences in the story, the most prevalent one is Vishnu, so it is no surprise that many monotheistic Hindus believe in Vishnu as the sole God.

Another notable quality Rama has is his constant faith in dharma and trust that his fate will lead to finding nirvana. Throughout Rama the Steadfast, Rama always chooses the route he believes to be fate, including when he is banished from his own kingdom. Hierarchy and family respect are two important elements when it comes to Indian culture. Not only is Rama at the top of the hierarchical chain, being the heir to the Ayodhya throne and also part God, but he is also an amazing example of both a son and husband. He is very knowledgeable and always listens to the advice of the elders, even when their wishes are not his own. For example, when Rama is banished, he accepts his fate humbly and makes no effort to go against his father’s will, even after his father passes away. As a husband, he provides for Sita and does whatever is necessary to keep her safe from harm or suffering, even if it means hunting down the supposedly indestructible demon Ravana. Because of these traits, he is considered a shining example for Indian men to follow in life.

Rama is accomplished, especially for his age. He is enlightened and devoted to his religion, both of which are dominant virtues within the Indian culture. At one point these virtues are essentially listed in the quote;

‘Integrity, bravery, righteousness, gratitude, dedication to his beliefs, a flawless character, compassion for all living, learning, skill, beauty, courage beyond bravery, radiance, control over his anger and his desires, serenity and a lack of envy. In these very times, such a man was born into the world. His name is Rama.’

This quote presents a list of Rama’s personal virtues, which are a central focus of the poem. Significantly, Valmiki notes that not even gods necessarily possess all the virtues that Rama does.

Both Rama and Gilgamesh are distinguished and celebrated for their divine traits and capabilities including physical strength, beauty, and nobility. In both stories, each hero begins their journey in a position of power within their respective societies. The most obvious distinction between the two heroes is the way their journeys to becoming such renowned heroes unfold. Gilgamesh begins as a selfish tyrant, whose oppression over his people is so cruel that they feel the need to turn to the Gods to find refuge. At this point, it is very easy to mistake him for a villain and expect Enkidu to defeat him in battle. Instead, he surprises us all by befriending his so-called enemy. This plot twist in the story leads him on a path toward revelation and enlightenment, which Gilgamesh eventually acquires, and once he does he is transformed into a valiant and worthy King, one his people can look up to. It is Gilgamesh’s quest that makes him a hero. In comparison, Rama is wise and well-loved by his subjects at the beginning of the story, prior to the beginning of his journey. He already possesses admirable qualities such as chivalry and good manners and decides to trust his Dharma, which only deepens his subject’s devotion and respect for him, in fact, once he is exiled from his kingdom, it and his people begin to suffer. Even his brother Bharata did not want to take the throne away from him, knowing he could never rule as competently. Rama’s innate wisdom and trust in fate send him on a mission that ultimately leads to the completion of his destiny and a satisfying life.

When it comes to comparing the relative importance of each of these quests, is difficult. As I mentioned earlier, these heroes and their journeys embody their culture’s crucial and most sacred ideals and values and because of this, their significance is only relative within their own society.

In Rama’s story, he proves himself to be the hero we already knew him to be which contrasts deeply with Gilgamesh, who has to prove that he is a hero as well since it is not so obvious from the start. In the end, however, both heroes have more in common than not. They are both famous and beloved idols in their societies and around the world too. Both Rama and Gilgamesh set the example for what a hero’s values and qualities should be, as well as what a man should strive for in their respective societies. They both portray the values and potential dangers of their religions, presenting the ideal path to satisfaction. Both epics teach many lessons that many societies and cultures around the world have learned.

Savagery and nobility are common themes found throughout literature and these words evolve and take on new meanings over thousands of years within all cultures. Depending on the values held highly by specific societies, these words can have either positive or negative connotations, one can be either savage or noble or both and even be praised for being so.

The famous playwright Euripides once said, “One loyal friend is worth ten thousand relatives” (Inspringquotes.us). The presence of friends makes our life worthwhile, but it is difficult to find a decent companion who will be with us in all the circumstances of life. In the ancient Babylonian epic Gilgamesh, we can observe a close bonded relationship between Gilgamesh and Enkidu. The two men, who are equally strong, uniting their courage and fear, grow together emotionally and physically, thus making a perfect team. Through the death of his beloved friend Enkidu, Gilgamesh feels an enormous abyss and refuses to recover from it. The most significant plot detail in the primary scene of Gilgamesh is the establishment of friendship between the two characters. Towards the end of the episode, it serves to introduce the theme of friendship and the pain of loss as a humanizing element. To illustrate his grief towards the dead, Gilgamesh builds the statue of Enkidu, dresses like him to reenact his existence, and sings songs about him. Additionally, his actions reveal an unhealthy way to grieve since he cannot get over the fact of human mortality.

From the beginning, Gilgamesh never had an equivalent to share his vitality, quality, and experience until he met Enkidu, who is physically similar to him. A friend that is willing to fight with someone from your side is a friend to keep. When a hero fights someone evil because of their negative impact, people become closer under struggle. To illustrate this, fighting with the Bull of Heaven is an incident of physical fellowship. Both warriors contribute to murdering the bull, where Enkidu skillfully controlled the Bull of Heaven, and Gilgamesh butchers it between its shoulders and the base of its horn. They work together as a team and become closer soul mates, thus making their bonding even stronger.

Togetherness and support are central themes of friendship, and this is continually present between them. Their fellowship is established through their battle with the beast Humbaba, who resides in the Cedar Forest. Where Enkidu seeks to prevent Gilgamesh from fighting and entering the endless forest, however, the self-driven king refuses to do so. His future notoriety and glory mean a great deal to him: “Listen, dear friend, even if the forest goes on forever, I have to enter it, climb its slopes, cut down a cedar that is tall enough to make a whirlwind as it falls to earth” (Mitchell 92). Even though Gilgamesh is courageous, he depends on his friend to guide him in the unknown land.

To protect his only friend, he leaves him on a treacherous journey. All along the way they had to camp together and find needs for survival while comforting and taking care of one another. Basically, they were parenting each other. During the night, Gilgamesh got terrifying dreams that shook his determination about winning the battle against the fire-breathing monster. His five dreams foreshadowed the idea that death may be approaching in the future, or that something dangerous is about to happen next. A piece from his third dream uses imagery that implies death “By the time the flames died out, the ground was covered with ashes” (Mitchell 110). The brave king might say that he is courageous but is also scared. He continually needs reinsurance of comfort from Enkidu since he becomes tensed after watching every dream. This is another moment in which the brotherhood between the two grows further. They encourage each other along the way and hope for the best in their favor. As Enkidu says a few last words of encouragement to Gilgamesh, he exclaims, “Courage, dear friend. Close your ears to Humbaba’s curses. Don’t listen to a word. Slaughter him! Now!” (Mitchell 127). When Enkidu convinces Gilgamesh to kill Humbaba, the epic reveals that influential friendships will always have a positive outcome. A feeling of achievement will occur and a will when determining something ambitious. A friend can only provide this since they are the ones who understand you the most.

Loss can mean two things, one being a failure at hard work and the second, being death. Gilgamesh was never a slothful king, but death was something that he was never prepared for. After combating two mighty devils, Enkidu dies. Gilgamesh feels lost and helpless because his mighty strength could not save his friend. Rather than dying gloriously in a battle, he instead lays in his bed and leaves the world. Furthermore, instead of burning him, he keeps him in that bed for six days until the seventh day, a maggot fell out of his nose. Even after his death, he was holding on to the hope that just maybe his friend would wake up somehow. It took him seven days to finally realize that he is powerless against death, and eventually, every human must die, including him. Even though he is half-human and half-mortal, Gilgamesh refuses to accept the fact of life and visits his family ancestor Utnapishtim in the underworld. During the conversation with Utnapishtim, he describes, “When gods assemble, they decide your fate, they establish both life and death for you, but the time of death they do not reveal” (Mitchell 179). Humans cannot forever stay young and keep on living. This is the reason why parents have kids; there must be someone who must come after and keeps the family tree present. The ancestor guides him towards a leaf that is underneath the water and is supposed to keep Gilgamesh young. However, failure strikes and the snake eats the leaf.

The mighty king is in such a state of depression after his friend’s death that he cannot move past it. Gilgamesh finally gives his friend a lavish burial ceremony, laying him to rest in what he describes as a perfect resting place. “I will lay him down on a bed of honor, I will put him on a royal bier, on my left I will place his statue in the seat of repose, the princes of the earth will kiss its feet” (Mitchell 155). Additionally, Gilgamesh also serves many offerings to the rulers of the underworld so that his friend is taken care of. It is essential to realize true friendship where companions matter more than anybody else.

In addition, his grief does not end here. He expresses his loss through mourning practices, which include building a statue, dressing like him, and singing songs. He calls on his craftsmen and has them build a statue in the image of his great friend covered in gold and other precious metals and stones to forever immortalize his friend. This is exceptionally impactful for Gilgamesh to do such a magnificent thing to remember his friend. The statue is like a representation of God. Instead of communicating with God, he would now communicate with Enkidu and devote his time to him in this way. His heart is metaphorically connected with the statue in a way that cannot ever be detached. In ancient times kings built statues that are personally connected to them, but building a statue, in this case, is the only way for Gilgamesh to see his friend in his proper glory.

The wild man, Enkidu, is assumed as half animal, but his physical appearance shows him as a pure human. The wilderness boy left his footprint and deep sorrow on Gilgamesh to follow his path. Gilgamesh leaves his lavish home behind and goes to wander in the deep forest in order to remember Enkidu’s presence. He dressed like an animal “with matted hair, in a loin skin” (Michelle 155). Gilgamesh went to where Enkidu came from. It evokes his dead companion’s wild origins as he personifies the meadows and landscape and projects his grief upon them. In other words, nature also symbolizes separation or getaways since there is not a solid door, there is a transition for Gilgamesh from civilization to the wilderness, to spend some time by himself and think about his best friend. Enkidu is transformed, leaving behind the world of animals and nature and entering the world of humans. In the same way, Gilgamesh is also leaving the world of humans and joining the wild.

Singing songs for his dead friend is another action performed by Gilgamesh. It provides him the satisfaction that his friend might be listening to him and might later respond to him. In this way, singing songs also relates to singing performances held in churches. When people sing in churches, they are trying to remember God and absorb his goodness in their hearts. This is exactly what Gilgamesh is trying to do. He is representing his devotion to his friend instead of God. As a result, he is communicating with Enkidu to get peace and finally accept the reality of death.

While the setting of Gilgamesh is set in ancient Egyptian times, it set a standard of death in modern-day society. More specifically, humans are still petrified of the idea of death. Therefore, we can all learn from Gilgamesh that we might be living in a kingdom that fully provides one individuality, expression, and hope, unfortunately, every human must depart this earth one day. As a result, it is imperative that we all live our lives in the present and not focus on what we have lost.

Dear Mr. Gilgamesh,

You had probably passed away a long time ago or maybe you have gained the immortality that you were seeking. Although I am writing to let you know that you have completed your mission and your goal in this life. You had succeeded in stamping your name in our minds. However, some people think that you were not even existed, that you were a lie, and that you were a fake king. What I really think is that you existed, but were not as powerful as you were in the epic. I believe that you were a normal king, but a king with such high ambition. Especially when you wanted to kill Humbaba whether you will die or not. Gilgamesh, befitting your epic hero status, I believe that you wanted to fight and kill Humbaba to prove to your people that they should not be afraid of Humbaba and that the gods are able to be defied by mere mortals. Also, perhaps as a secondary motive, you wanted to be able to inspire the youth of Uruk with your mighty deeds to encourage them to be great and powerful in the same way that you were. And then you will drive out evil from the world. “Time passed quickly. Gilgamesh said, “now we must travel to the Cedar Forest, where the fierce monster Humbaba lives. We must kill him and drive out the evil from the world.” (book III). However, I really want to ask you, what was your major motivation for seeking a fight with Humbaba? Was it for your kingdom or for yourself?

As I told you, some of the people here do not really like you because most of the time you were a bad, unfair, and merciless king. You were that kind of king, who cares only about himself and his own benefits. So, please be a more merciful and fairer king, people will love you as a king. Also, you do not have to worry about your mortal life because as you told Enkidu, “why afraid then, since sooner or later death must come?” (p.93). In addition, instead of looking for an immortal life, you can enjoy every moment left in your life. Remember what Shiduri had told you, “enjoy your life, spend it in happiness, not despair. Savor your food, make each of your days a delight, bathe and anoint yourself, wear bright clothes that are sparkling clean, let music and dancing fill your house, love the child who holds you by the hand, and give your wife pleasure in your embrace. That is the best way for a man to live.” (p.168-169)

I hope you receive my letter.

Happy endings are common in literature and they end the story with a positive resolution or outcome. I believe that happy endings are also predictable in the sense that you can make the assumption that the protagonists will have everything work out in their favor before reaching the end of the story. However, not all endings are happy or have a favorable outcome, they will sometimes end in a tragedy or a situation that is not resolved. My thoughts as to why less-than-happy endings often occur in great literature are that it adds a touch of reality, the hero doesn’t always win, or the situation doesn’t always come out positive. I also think that the value of a less-than-happy ending is worth more than a happy one because it sticks more. Tragic endings are ones that are hard to forget, and I feel that writers will sometimes purposely make the ending tragic so it sparks more emotion and will be a memorable event. A tragic ending will also create debates as to why it had to end that way and can also allow the reader to create new scenarios as to how the story could have ended. But most importantly, a tragic ending will oftentimes teach a valuable lesson.

For this discussion, I will draw examples from The Epic of Gilgamesh and Antigone and discuss the possible reasons for their tragic endings. In The Epic of Gilgamesh, the reader learns about the protagonist, Gilgamesh, and his journey to seek immortality. Throughout the story, we see the journeys and hardships Gilgamesh had to face, and finally, we see Gilgamesh achieve immortality, almost. Even though Gilgamesh had fought and searched for immortality, and even lost his best friend Enkidu, the end result was that he did not receive his gift and the story concludes with him living as a mortal being. This sad ending brings a sense of reality which is that if you cannot appreciate what you have then you will never appreciate the better things in life. I believe that it was on purpose that Gilgamesh does not achieve immortality, because it helps Gilgamesh learn the value of life as his days are dwindling down. The ending for The Epic of Gilgamesh is a lesson almost. It seemed Gilgamesh did not appreciate what he had and was greedy, so the ending was purposely written to enforce this moral lesson. This moral teaching can be used in the real world today, for example, let’s say a person wants a better car, one that has luxurious features and advanced technology. The current vehicle that the person has is very basic but gets the job is done which is to get from point A to point B with no problems. If the person does not appreciate the current vehicle they own, how will they ever appreciate the new car they want? Because once the person receives that vehicle, they will always want a better one. The Epic of Gilgamesh has a purposely tragic ending to teach a valuable lesson, which is to appreciate what you already have.

In the ending for Antigone, we see that Kreon loses his niece, his son, and his wife, because of his decision to not bury Polynices. This result is a very tragic ending because the ones he cared for all die a tragic death, but this was preventable. Kreon did not have to lose his beloved family members because he had a choice, whether to follow the law and not bury Polynices or disregard the law and put his family’s needs first and bury Polynices. I believe that this tragic ending serves a purpose and that is to convey certain moral lessons. The first lesson could be that in some cases the law is not always the right thing and that sometimes the law has to be broken. This is a far-fetched thought; however, I will prove this moral lesson with an example. Imagine that you are in a parking lot on a hot summer’s day, and you see a dog that is in a car, the car is turned off, and it’s clear that the dog needs to be let out or it will die of heat. In this situation you have a choice, break the law and shatter the window to rescue the dog, or follow the law and let the dog die. It’s up to you to decide but it’s clear that one ending is less tragic than the other. Another lesson that can be taken from Antigone is that your public image is not worth sacrificing your life or others. Kreon did not want to bury Polynices for a number of reasons, and one of those was he would ruin his reputation. If Kreon buried Polynices the people would see him as a weak ruler, and they would potentially not trust him. It’s clear that Kreon cared what the people thought and, in the end, resulted keeping his reputation but losing his beloved ones. The last moral lesson that can be taken out of Antigone is that in some cases it’s better to suffer a minimal loss than risk a heavier loss. If Kreon buried Polynices, his reputation would be damaged, but his family would still be alive. However, Kreon put his family at risk and decided not to bury Polynices, as a result, he suffered more. The lesson learned here is that in a situation where you will be losing something, it’s important to evaluate which outcome will be worse and then act accordingly. Kreon had choices and each one had consequences. If He were to evaluate each choice it would be clear to him that burying Polynices would have been the better option for his situation, this lesson could easily be used in daily life. For example, if a child does something their parents restrict them from doing, like playing video games at night, and their parents find out, it’s better for the child to tell the truth instead of a lie because even though the child will be punished it won’t be as severe as the child telling a lie and the parents finding out.

In conclusion, some of the great works of literature will have less than happy endings for various reasons, and one of those could be to convey a lesson of some sort. It is more powerful to use a tragic ending to convey an important lesson than use a happy ending. Because the ending can provide a clear example as to what would happen if you do not follow it. The Epic of Gilgamesh teaches readers to value the things that they already have, and Antigone teaches readers to evaluate their options and choose the one that is least damaging to their life.

Invisibility of women

The role of women in different periods and countries of each text is almost the same and women are equally evaluated during different times. The main role of women is presented as a mother who cares for children and who is responsible for their safety and prudence. Except for men’s women-relatives (mother, sister, etc.), there are other women in whom men see sexual partners or cut-price housekeepers. Even if men marry women not only as a way out, their duty as underrated wives is already determined by social norms and narratives. What is more, women are considered potential perverts who tend to spoil the family and further the whole country because women are the main source of evil in the World. In a patriarchal society, a female ruler is a stranger to society, because a woman’s place is in the kitchen and she is considered as a mentally weak being who cannot be trusted with deeds that require mental capacity. The role of women is to be behind men, to meet their physical needs, and not to have the same rights as men.

The main role of women is to be a mother, and they are well-presented only as mothers. A woman is presented primarily as a wise mother, who advises her son to make the right decision. In the epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh’s mother presents as a wise and omniscient woman: ‘The mother of Gilgamesh was clever and wise, well versed in everything…’ (Gilgamesh 3). In the epic, Gilgamesh’s mother does not play the role of an ordinary mother, who is far from her son’s governance and who lives her personal life with her own care. She is a chief advisor and takes part in the life of the son and rules the city. She influences Gilgamesh’s important decisions such as the interpretation of his dreams (since dreams play a very important role for the Sumerian people, Gilgamesh trusts his mother), and blesses the friendship of Gilgamesh and Enkidu. In the case of Saint Augustine’s mother, her main role is formed around religion, and at the beginning the impression that she is not influential for her son due to the rejection of Christianity and distance from her and her father. Opinion changes when he joins Christianity and calls it the true path. The main reason finding himself, Saint Augustine claims that it is his mother and her prayers for him: ‘… For she has done all in her power that you, my God, maybe my father truer than he is, and you have so helped her in this that she has triumphed over her husband, whom she served – though she was the best of the two-because in so doing she served you who gave her this command…’ (Confession 11). Saint Augustine even admits his mother more than his father is noticeable by the way he writes a lot about his mother and nothing about his father. Saint Augustine’s mother, Monica is not only influential during his joining Christianity, but however in her son’s personal life. Monica, the mother of Saint Augustine, decides to marry her son to a socially equal young woman and sends his concubine to Africa (Confession 96). Judging by how his mother behaves, we can assume that she is very tactful and knows how to work for a long-term result. She is not a counselor like Gilgamesh’s mother, but still has respect on the part of her son. Similarly, in Baburnama’s records, his mother plays the role of the ordinary mother of the ruler of Eastern countries. In Muslim countries, harems exist for rulers and other powerful people. The main harem is the mother of the harem owner and she is engaged in the selection of virgins for her son. There are other women from conquered countries who are selected in most cases as concubines and slaves who do household chores in the palace. However, his grandmother, Imam, is actively present mostly in political decisions. Baburnama mentions her in the records: “Few women were my maternal grandmother’s equal in judgment and counsel. She was very wise and farsighted, and most of my affairs were conducted with her advice” (Baburnama: Journal of Emperor Babur 19). His grandmother is very experienced in politics, international relations, and in matters within the family and country. In several parts, his grandmother advises him on very important decisions and raises questions of betrayal on the part of his supporters, but Babur does not listen to her opinion and fails, all that happened that prompts his grandmother. The grandmother warns that people who are self-interest should not be brought close to the throne, as they will betray Baburnama. Since the grandmother is a supporter of the absolute hierarchy, she advises Babur to put only family members and close relatives as chief ministers. She is presented as a visionary, experienced, and wise woman, but does not hold a position next to her grandson or is not the owner of the throne, even if she is wiser and more experienced than his young grandson, who did not listen to her advice. Obviously, it is inconceivable that a woman should be the head of state during his reign or take part in some influential position. In the division of the conquered lands, Baburnama does not even share lands with relatives-women: grandmothers, mothers, sisters, and legitimate wives, all to share for male relatives and male-faithful companions. The role of mothers in the first two texts is formed as mothers and the situation changes depending on the social status of their sons. Someone affects their personal life and someone involved as a counselor and assistant in politics in the third text Baburnama has the honor of having both a mother and grandmother who help him alone with numerous wives and concubines and the other in the political sphere.

Women are often introduced only as sexual partners who pleasure the bodily desires of men. There are two types of women in the texts, the first type is related to a man that is, mother, sister, etc. and the second type is all women, who have the ability to satisfy the sexual needs of men. Such women are presented as a temporary passion and as a source of all evil and at the same time all the good in their lives. In the epic of Gilgamesh, the only mortal woman who has a name and role is a harlot Shamhat. In the Sumerian civilization, harlots have a special status in society. Their way of life is shaped as participants of religion, as they are assistants of the goddess of Love and Fertility. Despite the stereotypical ideas about harlots in our time, in the time of Sumerian civilization, only the strongest and most beautiful women could become priests of love and assistants of the goddess Ishtar. Shamhat also carries out an important mission, which is to charm Enkidu and bring him to Gilgamesh. Women used to satisfy men and perceived them only as creatures who can do something only with the help of their sexual organs. Also being the ruler of the city of Uruk, Gilgamesh had the right to the first night with any girl who had just married. This tradition was practiced in many civilizations and is considered to be the accepted social norm and privilege for feudal lords, rulers, and other powerful people. Gilgamesh has such a right and can have sexual intercourse with the newlywed. The first marriage night with the ruler is considered an honor to spend the night with the ruler for the bride and is considered as an honor that the first man of his wife was the ruler. Women are not asked whether they want it or not. In case they do not want to do it women anyway do not have a choice or right to decide for themselves. Saint Augustine has a concubine but not a legitimate wife proving that he needs a woman only for sexual relations. Illegal marriages are a profitable way out of taking responsibility for a family. Saint Augustine says: In those days I had one woman. We weren’t married in the eyes of the law; my errant passion, bereft of serious thought, had sought Her out. But still, I had only her, and I was faithful to her. I discovered by my own experience how great a difference there is between the due Measure of lawful marriage, which is a covenant for the sake of procreation, and an agreement between lustful lovers who mean to avoid Having children – though once children are born, we can’t help loving them (Confession 44). Saint Augustine perceives a woman only as a sexual partner, which can be left at any time or given to another man. The role of a woman as a concubine determines her low position in society, as a role of a concubine implies that a woman is only in the role of a sexual partner and a householder with whom no one wants to have children (as in the case of Saint Augustine). The woman to whom Saint Augustine should marry is assessed not as a partner in life, but as a suitable ‘compliment’ for the status of Saint Augustine as an educated man. Despite the agreement to marry the future wife of Saint Augustine, the philosopher does not wait for her coming of age and has sexual relations with another woman. This is proved in Saint Augustine’s case that men are polygamous and cannot do without sex for a long time. During Baburnama’s reign, harems were actively practiced. Every ruler of the Muslim state had to have many concubines, slaves, and wives. The purpose of this practice was to continue the family, which could continue the father’s business and lead the state. Most of the concubines and slaves are women of the conquered states. The main factors are the presence of virginity and external beauty. Taking girls to their place as concubines had a nominal role of ‘protection’ of the female sex, but the real role is played by the deprivation of absolutely all rights and the choice of women and the forced submission to the conqueror. Most beautiful concubines are prepared for the night with the overlord and it is not important whether women want or not, they have to obey, or the punishment could be the return of a woman to brothels to satisfy men’s sexual needs or take their lives. Others had to do household chores in the palace: cleaning, laundry, cooking, babysitting, and gardening. Women’s important values as intelligence, wisdom, and feelings are not needed by men, women are not privileged to be described in men’s texts. The main thing that they mention is how a woman satisfies a man and what are the consequences of it.

Women are to blame for all the bad things that happen in society, and if women do something good then it’s because they have to make their commitments. Lord Krishna blames women for spoiling a society that is created and improved by men: ‘In overwhelming chaos, Krishna, women of the family are corrupted; and when women are corrupted, Disorder is born in society’ (Bhagavad Gita 29). Krishna supported the caste division into four layers: priests, warriors, merchants, and servants. It is believed that the woman has a marital relationship while her husband is at war, and this is done for an extramarital child. Castes were mixed, and that’s what he called ‘disorder.’ Mixing the caste leads to a mixture of blood and the future child will not know his pedigree. Mixing castes is forbidden to all, but if in an illegal relationship only women have blamed again, not both women and men. Krishna’s thought carries sexist significance because he blames the disorder only on the woman, not both who participated in the creation of the disorder and it creates unequal judgment of the guilty. Any problem in the upbringing of children or in the problems of the current home is the fault of the woman because it is the duty of the woman to do everything perfectly and to be perfect too. On the responsibilities of women says another Virginia Woolf: “There is no mark on the to measure the exact height of women. There are no yard measures, neatly divided into the fractions of an inch, that one can lay against the qualities of a good mother or the devotion of a daughter, or the fidelity of a sister or the capacity of a sister a housekeeper” (A room of one’s own 92) women’s work is never evaluated, it is considered as something obliged for women like to brush their teeth and wash their hands and face in the morning. Since childhood, women have been taught to be ‘good housewives’ rather than personalities. Parents buy the toys of housewives and dolls, thereby they program their consciousness that the main idea of her life is to be a good housewife and have children. In Central Asian countries, the exploitation of women’s labor remains the norm. For example, in Central Asian countries, the word daughter-in-law automatically means free domestic work. The daughter-in-law should do all household chores in the house, keep up with work, meet numerous guests on holidays, and have time to give birth to children and take care of them. Women have such discriminating situations not only in Central Asia but all over the World every day.

The role of women in a patriarchal society is not as a wife, partners, or lovers, but more as a slave and an object for the birth of children. In a patriarchal society, as in the days of Confucius and Marcus Aurelius, the woman must be submissive, quiet, and executive. A woman should not be in front of the public and not express her opinion because the opinion of a woman is not taken into account and men are always right in everything. A woman in a patriarchal society is described as a person of low standing. In an absolutely patriarchal society, women have no right to anything, even their own bodies. Because before marriage women’s body belongs to their parents after marriage it is automatically owned by their husband. Women in the eyes of men are low-rank creature who comes to the house for the birth of offspring and household chores. Also, among the students of Confucius, there is not a single woman, which means that women not only cannot study but however, are not recognized by society as men. The philosopher says, ‘Women and servants are most difficult to nurture. If one is close to them, they lose their reserve, while if one is distant, they feel resentful’ (Analects 62), in the time of Confucius a woman is not as fully respected as a man. Men have such an opinion about women that she needs to be nurtured and changed their consciousness to adjust to the man. For example, in the time of Confucius, a special joy is the birth of a boy in the family, because first, he is a successor of the family and secondly the labor force for the family that would bring home income or work in their own business. The birth of a girl is not such happiness because it needs to be kept financially before her marriage (which happens very at an early age for a woman). Similarly, Eastern countries have the same patriarchal system, for Central Asian countries there is great joy to have a newborn baby exactly male. If for example the family does not have a boy and has girls they call their daughters by the names of Uulkelsin, Uulboldu, and Uuljan, (the word “Uul” is translated as “Son” from Kazakh, Kyrgyz, and Uzbek languages). There are also a few low-intellectual traditions for girls in a family that does not have a boy. A family forced their girls to dress like boys, shave their hair, and in every way mock the appearance of girls. Thus parents first of all oppress the future person, that being a woman is not profitable and undesirable in society. That a woman’s role is not as important as that of a man, which is followed by an uncertain and oppressed generation of personalities. The same situation with the birth of children is in Rome. Being a Roman is an honor for a man and a valued man to enjoy this honor. Marcus Aurelius writes Meditation only for himself as a personal diary, but being an exemplary leader and philosopher he does not mention women and uses personal pronouns such as “his”, “he” and the word “men”. In the fourth book, he writes, “A black character, an effeminate, unbending character, the character of a brute or dumb animal: infantile, stupid, fraudulent, coarse, mercenary, despotic” (Meditations 29). Marcus Aurelius’ thought is sexist because he lists all the bad character traits and adds an effeminate character thus claiming that a woman’s character is one of the worst that it can be compared to the character of a silly, oppressive, and self-interested person. Marcus Aurelius presents women as creatures from which bad things only happen making readers think that he is a misogynist. In a patriarchal society, women have a low social position and are completely dependent on the opposite sex, and men have absolute authority in the family, society, and politics.

Women in all texts are present as objective characters, and the subjects are men. Women do not have such important roles in the family, society, or politics, and if there are women, their work is not taken into account or evaluated. The main role of women is to be a mother and if not a mother then a sexual partner who satisfies men. Currently, by the word Marriage, the citizens of a democratic state understand the mutual union of two loving people, but in the time of absolute patriarchy, marriage is the exploitation of women’s labor and body because only a man benefits from marriage. Whichever woman is wise, beautiful, and the executive of her affairs is never mentioned properly as mentioned in the affairs of men because society does not want to accept women, and women themselves get used to such circumstances that do not even think about themselves and continue to serve men.

Work Cited

1. Saint Augustine. Confessions. Translated by Thomas Williams. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc, 2019.
2. Babur. The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince, and Emperor. Translated by W. M. Thackston. Washington, D.C: Freer Gallery of Art: Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, 1996.
3. Babur, Susannah et.al. Babur Nama journal of Emperor Babur. Gurgaon Penguin Random House India. 2017
4. De Bary, Wm Theodore, Irene Bloom, Wing-sit Chan, Joseph Adler, and Richard John Lufrano. ‘Confucius and the Analects’. In Sources of Chinese Tradition, 2nd ed., 1:41–63. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999.
5. George, A. R., trans. The Epic of Gilgamesh: The Babylonian Epic Poem and Other Texts in Akkadian and Sumerian. New York: Penguin Books, 2000.
6. Marcus Aurelius. Meditations. Translated by Martin Hammond. London: Penguin, 2006.
7. Miller, Barbara Stoler, trans. The Bhagavad-Gita: Krishna’s Counsel in Time of War. New York: Bantam Dell, 2004.
8. Woolf, Virginia. A Room of One’s Own. London: Triad Grafton, 1987.