Category: Environmental Issues

Desalination refers to the process of removing waste, salts, minerals, and other contaminants in different types of water converting it into safe potable, and usable water for it to be safe for human consumption. Desalination involves either brackish or sea to treat with the objective to produce fresh water. It is also called “desalting” because the process of removing salt from seawater is a chemical process. This salt-removing process is categorized into thermal and membrane processes. In order to do it, it involves various technologies, from ore treatment to pumps and membranes. Inside Thermal processes of desalination, there is multi-effect distillation (MED), multi-stage flash distillation (MSF), and mechanical vapor compression (MVC), while electrodialysis, and reverse osmosis are inside the category of Membrane processes.

Firstly, the category of Thermal processes of desalination. To induce filtered water or waste heat from power production or chemical processes and produce potable water what Multi-effect Distillation is invented. It can contain several and multiple stages or “effects” as it is called. Plants may have vertical or horizontal tubes in which steam can be condensed on one side to transfer heat that occurs to the salt water on the other side. Pressure will be reduced in each effect while the temperature will decline and provide additional heat. Multi-stage Flash Distillation is carried out in a pressure vessel that is usually divided into sections with decreasing temperatures and pressure. In its process, it distills sea water by “flashing” a portion of water into multiple stages of steam where countercurrent heat exchanges. In fact, the boiling temperature of its water will be lowered together with the pressure dropping, this process is carried out in closed tanks for stages to set at lower pressures. Now to the third thermal process of desalination, Mechanical Vapour Compression or Mechanical Vapour Recompression (MVR). During this process, a compressor is typically used for the purpose of increasing the pressure of a specific vapor stream that carries waste heat along with it. While the process is happening, the heat exchanger will absorb the latent heat which means the only energy that needs to be used during this compression involves the energy that can be useful to compress the waste heat.

In the category of membrane processes in desalination, Electrodialysis is a technique during which ions are transported in the way of a semipermeable membrane, in the influence of an electric potential. For the separation of difficult mixtures, this technology is very versatile. It is a very helpful way for water treatment and can aid in the removal of mineral salts, sulfate, nitrate, and more from seawater and brackish water. Moreover, it is also useful for wastewater reduction and recovery. Onto the second, Reverse Osmosis. Reverse Osmosis is a technique used in removing a large majority of contaminants mixed in water such as unwanted molecules, ions, and larger particles by pushing water under pressure in a semipermeable membrane. It is said that these technologies produce healthy water with great taste.

Throughout history, people have already used different methods of distillation and filtration to supplement water supplies, not until the mid-20th century. Desalination became an effective way that provides accessible drinking water, it solves the worry of water shortage. People can’t drink saline water but luckily, saline water can be made into freshwater by the process of desalination. Desalination not only removes salt but also removes harmful substances such as harmful metals, chemicals, and bacteria. In fact, people with chronic, incurable diseases and genetic health problems rely upon desalination to avoid the incidence of infection in their family who get easily sick and vulnerable to germ exposures. This just means that desalination is not only a great way for developing portable water but also a way to ensure the health of those who consume it. In terms of habitat protection, desalination will be a good help too, desalinated water meets the water quality standards which means it helps reduce pressure on freshwater sources that may need to be protected by treating ocean water rather than removing it from sources that may also be habitats for the endangered species. Moreover, by minimizing the demand for freshwater sources like groundwater, rivers, and lakes, desalination is a big help in preserving habitats reliant on those same water sources. In addition to that, removing saltwater from the oceans can raise people’s awareness about protecting these bodies of water.

Drought is another significant problem that humans face every year, as the patterns of weather change around the world. More and more people especially in water-scarce countries rely on water desalinating for drinks, even in cooking and washing. Desalination can provide us with a tool that we were able to use to induce fresh and pure water for those who need it the most. Some may be aware that we can use the water movement from desalination to create more energy. It creates movements that can be useful for turbine rotation when desalination plants pump water into their facility to start the processing work. Setting functioning hydropower technologies could help us generate power while at the same time, gaining more freshwater to use and drink. The idea of additional water resources can reduce our global energy in other ways likewise.

Desalination is an important tool that can help us fight water scarcity in many regions and places. The need for freshwater resources and additional water supplies is already critical in many arid regions of the world and will be really important to us in the future. Many arid places simply do not have their own freshwater resources in the form of surface water like rivers and lakes. Some formerly flourishing landscapes almost turned into deserts because of global warming that increased drought in many places, and some long-held freshwater sources are simply unreliably available to many people around the world. We can’t deny that desalination has a lot of benefits for us humans and also for animals and plants. Desalination can provide us with clean and fresh water for us to drink compared to salty seawater which will just make us more dehydrated. Because of desalination, we have seawater as our ultimate source of water.

Back in the ancient days, desalination started with the Greeks centuries ago. Desalination was used to make drinkable water and it improved as time went by. They used this process in seawater. They eliminate the seawater by boiling it that separating the salt from the water. They also used clay filters to trap the salt and separate it from the water. These clay filters are effective when it comes to filtering water and can also be made locally. They are also cheap which makes them idealistic for ancient civilizations like the Greeks. Nowadays, desalination is used by countries that don’t have fresh water and are only dependent on desalination to produce drinkable water. One example of this is Saudi Arabia, which has an estimated 16,000 desalination plants and holds 22 percent of the desalination industry. There are many more countries that rely on desalinating water that they use in their everyday lives. The number of countries that use desalination grows because of the unpredictable weather that was caused by climate changes. Some countries experience lesser rainfalls that cause a shortage of water which leads to relying on desalination. These countries are Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Israel, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and etc.

Some extensive countries rely on desalination because of some reasons that cause their water shortage, however, other countries used desalination because of its main benefits and not as a last resort. Over 96 percent of the world’s water is salt water and the remaining 4 percent of fresh water is not enough for the whole world’s growing population. Desalination can also be used to help agricultural industries, especially the places that have no access to water. Areas around South Africa that have no direct or steady access to water use this for their farms and their domestic animals.

For the past few years, the technology of desalination has been proven effective not just for countries with low water supply but also in first-world countries like the United States of America. Reverse Osmosis (RO) is where saltwater is pushed through a semipermeable membrane that only allows water molecules to pass and blocks salt or other minerals. It is the most common desalination method used for brackish water and seawater treatment plants on our planet. It can also be used for personal uses when utilities can’t be accessed as well as the municipal systems. A lot of industries benefit from the side-products of this technology, sodium products have been proven to be effective as de-icing agents while brine salt water can be used for keeping ice off the vehicles and can be useful for dust levels, hydraulic fracturing activities, and production of siltstone that is now used for construction.

As we continue to experience global warming, experiencing droughts cannot be avoided but with the help of desalination plants, we might be able to lessen the severe damage of it in our lives. Famine has been a problem in a lot of countries like Somalia. Drought doesn’t usually lead to famine but with poor management and lack of response to this natural phenomenon, it is most likely to happen. It leads to malnutrition, diseases, and a higher mortality rate that makes these countries in need of urgent help. Desalination may not solve all these problems at once, but having drinkable water available within their reach can give them another chance to survive.

Politics are affected as well when a state or a city loses its water supply. Because of the severe drought in the western part of the United States of America, water diversion was made to diversify the water from the Colorado River to other freshwaters until it reaches the Gulf of California. The reservoirs that receive water from the Colorado River continued to drop their water levels in the year 2000, which means they need more water from the river which may result in the river losing its supply too. It has been reported that officials believe that those reservoirs will never be full again due to the increasing temperatures and continuous climate change. Fortunately, a desalination plant that only became operational in April 2010 was built to satisfy the needs of people in California in terms of water supply.

In the meantime, Desalination is still a very helpful and proven tool that helps us get through the problem of water shortage. It has been mentioned in the early parts of this paper that 96 percent of the earth’s water is salt water and only 4 percent freshwater, which is not enough to sustain the world’s growing population with safe, clean, and healthy drinking water. This is why desalination can take advantage of saltwater since this process converts saltwater to freshwater so we can have enough safe drinking water. Especially now saline, which is water that contains a high concentration of salts and brackish water can be easily and conventionally made into fresh and drinkable water. In addition to that, this process of desalination not only involves removing salt but is also capable of removing harmful chemicals that can harm people’s health, which is why desalination is considered to be safe for human consumption and ensures the health of people who consume and drink it. Not only healthy but desalination can also produce desalinated water that meets the water quality standard and is combined with great tastes. This means that desalinated water not only is healthy but also gives satisfaction to the one who consumes it.

Abstract

Water Footprint has evolved as a new integrative field of research, which focuses on the examination of water use, scarcity, and pollution, in the context of production, consumption, and trade of water-intensive goods and services. It includes the examination of how different methods of conservation, proficiency and practices, policy schemes, and governance can contribute to increasing the overall sustainability, economy, and balance of water footprints, and the study of how different roles can contribute, from governments and companies to investors and the general public. The field thoroughly analyses water use in context to demand the products of our daily use and analyses how goals regarding methods of water conservation can be translated into ordered and systematic policies. The report includes the understanding of geographic and earthly variations, evaluating the uncertainties involved, and the feedback on water footprint-related problems and solutions.

Keywords- water footprint, water conservation, sustainability, analyses, Feedback

Aim and objective

The water footprint is a concept that was introduced by UNESCO back in 2002 to find out the amount of freshwater needed by various groups, individuals, and companies to produce the goods and services used by society. It was designed in such a way that we can assess the water usage in the production of single jeans as well as the total production of an organization and also the conservation of freshwater so that it could be used wisely and is sufficient in amount for future generations. The main objective of water footprint is to promote the modulation toward sustainable, fair, and systematic use of freshwater resources worldwide and to create a world in which we can divide fresh water equally and fairly amongst all people to sustain flourishing communities and nature’s diversity and for this, we are needed to adopt various methods of water conservation and management.

Introduction

Water Footprint- The water footprint quantifies the measure of water used or polluted to deliver each of the goods and services we use. It tends to be estimated for a single cycle, for example, developing cotton, for an item, for example, for the fuel that we put in our vehicle, some pants, or for a worldwide organization. The water footprint additionally can disclose to us the amount of water utilized by every region in a particular stream bowl. Like average per year water footprint consumed by a vegetarian lady in India is 521.2m3 as per the water footprint calculator and for a man is 574m3 whose per year income is 5lac.

The importance of water footprint is that it assists with demonstrating the connection that exists between our everyday utilization of products and the issues of water consumption and contamination that exist somewhere else, in the areas where our goods are produced.

There are three types of water footprint- Green water footprint, Blue water footprint, and grey water footprint. The blue water footprint is water that has been sourced from groundwater assets and is either dissipated, joined into an item or taken from one waterway and got back to another, or returned at an alternate time. Industry, irrigated agriculture, and homegrown water use can each have a blue water footprint. The Green water footprint speaks to the total amount of rainwater or any source that is anything but a surface body that is utilized to make a specific product. The grey water footprint speaks to the measure of new water abused to weaken and blend the poison enough to maintain the nature of the water.

The worldwide normal water footprint is 1240m3/cap/yr. In total terms, India has the biggest footprint in the entire world, with a total footprint of 987Gm3/yr.

Given the common water footprint of some of the items that an individual consumes in their daily life such as apples, milk, burger, etc. it might appear that they aren’t utilizing water while consuming these, yet they are unconsciously expanding the water footprint.

Direct and indirect footprint

Direct water footprint:- The direct water footprint refers to the water we use on our own legitimately and water we are in contact with and we can see easily. Example: Taking a bath, drinking, cooking, etc.

Indirect Water footprint:-The indirect water footprint of a consumer and a producer alludes to the freshwater utilization and contamination ‘behind’ items being devoured or created. It is equivalent to the entire water footprint of all items consumed by the buyer or all inputs utilized by the consumer. And we cannot see water in indirect water footprint. For example, water is used for the creation of products like food and clothes.

Discussion

What is a water footprint network?

Water footprint network is a non-profit organization that was established in October 2008 by some major global leaders from business, civil society, multilateral organizations, and academics. This Organisation aims to establish and apply the water footprint to reinforce the transition of water use to sustainable and equitable use of water and its management all over the world. This organization is a platform for collusion between organizations, companies, and individuals to deal with the problem of water crises all over the world by propelling sincere, reasonable, and smart ways of water management. The organization is a dynamic and global network that is steered with the idea of innovation and motivates for the changes we all should have taken long ago to share fresh water equitably amongst everyone living on the Earth to sustain thriving communities and nature’s diversity.

Their vision is a world in which everyone can share neat and clean water fairly among all people and fulfillment of this vision is going to take much more than individual efforts. It will require a global community of dedicated individuals and organizations. Water footprint has something significant to bring everyone to work together to attain fair and smart water uses.

What is the purpose of WFN?

The organization is driven by the aim of coming to broadly shared global standards on water footprint accounting.

Their mission is to use the concept of water footprint to promote and encourage the transition towards sustainable, equitable, and efficient use of freshwater resources worldwide.

This non-profit, multi-stakeholder network targets to aid partners in initiating activities, sharing best practices, and developing tools and materials that help reach their shared mission which is ultimately everyone’s mission. Their main focus is mainly centered at overreaching five main activities: –

1. Network and exchange
2. Awareness raising
3. Capacity building
4. Knowledge and data dissemination
5. Influencing policy and practices

The unique set of global standards on the water footprint will make the efforts of businesses and communities that strive for a reduction of their water footprint more vivid.

Water Footprint of production of rice.

Introduction

Rice is one of the significant yields taking care of the total populace and is generally significant in South Asia and Africa. Enormous water system ventures are frequently built to satisfy the water need in rice creation. Thus, rice is one of the biggest water buyers on the planet. This report measures how much new water is being utilized to create rice worldwide, recognizing two distinct sources: water system water pulled back from ground-or-surface water (blue water) and water (green water). It likewise measures the volume of contaminated water identified with the utilization of nitrogen composts in rice creation (grey water).

Calculation of the water footprint related to rice consumption in a country

The water impression of public utilization can be grouped into an inside and an outer segment. The interior water impression of rice utilization alludes to the utilization and contamination of public water assets to locally create rice for own utilization. The outer water impression of rice utilization alludes to water utilized in the nations from where rice is imported for public utilization.

The water footprint of rice production

The determined normal water profundity utilized in rice creation in every one of the thirteen significant rice-delivering nations is introduced in Table 3. In the USA, the dissipation is moderately high, and simultaneously the powerful precipitation is a lot lower, making the water system volume one of the most noteworthy. Rice fields in both the USA and Pakistan are 100% inundated, making the blue water impression high in these nations.

Utilizing the worldwide normal water impression of paddy determined and the creation information for the remainder of the nations, the worldwide water impression of rice creation is assessed to be 784 billion m3/yr (48% green, 44% blue, and 8% dim) (Figure 6). The volume of water permeated in the rice fields in addition to any remaining soil dampness left in the field after rice collection is equivalent to 607 billion m3/yr, about a portion of which (52%) is supported by precipitation in the rice field. Counting permeation, the all-out blue water use in the rice field becomes 636 billion m3/yr, which is the number regularly cited in the writing while at the same time alluding to the complete water utilized in rice creation. On the off chance that we include the absolute water impression and the permeation water volume, it is equivalent to 1,391 billion m3/yr, which is almost equivalent to the worldwide water use in rice fields (1,359 billion m3/yr) as revealed in Chapagain and Hoekstra (2004). Water impressions of rice creation for all nations are introduced in Addendum B.

Discussion and conclusion

Rice is a staple nourishment for three billion individuals (Maclean et al., 2002), particularly in Southeast Asia, the Center East, Latin America, and the West Non-mainstream players. As far as human sustenance and caloric admission, it gives almost one-fifth of the immediate human calorie consumption around the world, making it the most significant food crop (Smith, 1998; Zeigler and Barclay, 2008). Rice utilization surpasses 100 kg per each capita every year in numerous Asian nations (in contrast for instance and the USA’s normal of 10 kg) and is the chief nourishment for a large portion of the world’s most unfortunate individuals, especially in Asia, which is home to 70% of the individuals who acquire under $1 per day (Zeigler and Barclay, 2008). Rice creation is profoundly established in the socio-political culture in Asia which almost delivers almost 90% of the worldwide rice.

Rice creation is a purported diffuse wellspring of contamination and henceforth hard to relieve. The choice to have ideal utilization of compost with the end goal that the application precisely coordinates the plant take-up, on account of dry harvests, isn’t reasonable in rice creation. There is unavoidably permeation filtering an aspect of the compost alongside it. The dim part of the water impression must be decreased with a decrease in the filtering of manures and pesticides from the field, for example by expanding water use proficiency, utilizing moderate delivery composts and nitrification inhibitors, puddling the rice fields, planting catch and spread harvests and utilizing crop buildups in situ (Choudhury and Kennedy, 2005). The loss of nitrogen may cause natural and medical issues. In spite of the fact that these issues can’t be mitigated totally, there are sufficient examination discoveries that show that these issues can be limited by various administration rehearses (Choudhury and Kennedy, 2005). The destiny of nitrogen in the soil is essentially administered by various cycles: plant takes up, smelling salts volatilization, de-nitrification, and misfortunes to surface (overflow) or groundwater bodies (draining). All these three cycles are interwoven and it is difficult to contemplate them in confinement. A deliberate investigation of the destiny of nitrogen ought to be completed at the field level to uncover particular effects on the framework.

To start off, I am going to tell you what a volcano is, what they do, what’s their purpose, how they have formed what types of volcanoes they are, and their anatomy along with the material within and intrusive bodies so that way you know the ins-and-outs of volcanoes and what their purpose serves on planet Earth.

First off, a volcano is a mountain that contains a very hot material called magma that is held inside of a chamber which later on in time erupts due to explosive gases expelling pyroclastic material such as magma, hotAsh, rocks, and other gases and this process is due to tectonic plates spreading apart do two subducting plates melting into the mantle and lava filling the space which causes the start of a volcano which them erupts after a point in time. This material is now called lava due to the cooling and solidifying of said material on land. Eruptions can vary in size and or type of flow due to multiple variables during the process of the eruption. The reason behind the volcano erupting it’s just a natural way of cooling off and getting rid of internal heat and pressure. On top of cooling off the Earth’s internal temperature it helps build up the atmosphere and on top of that volcanic ash acts as a very nutrient material for soil which helps plants grow much more than normal soil so in essence, volcanoes play multiple roles in Earth which help it further life and create new layers of rock also creating islands and creating most of Earth’s water that we have now.

Now, we’ll tell you how volcanoes form. From within the Earth magma works its way to the surface and forms lava mounds along with ash deposits, over time these get bigger and bigger eventually forming larger mountains that build up into volcanoes. Once a volcano is formed it has three different stages which are active dormant and extinct. Active, is exactly what it sounds like, volcanoes that have active movement and show signs of possible eruption which are tracked through systems. The next stage is a dormant volcano which is an active volcano that is supposed to erupt but hasn’t done so yet. Lastly, we have extinct volcanoes which have little to no silica content and have had no eruptions for the past ten thousand years among that it is no longer a geological hotspot which is a sign that they will not erupt ever again.

There are three main types of volcanoes that exist in human nature of those three are composite or stratovolcanoes, shield, and dome volcanoes. Composite or stratovolcanoes is a tall cone-shaped volcano list of viscosity that’s usually very high which results in its lava cooling and hardening before it spreads very far. These volcanoes are common inside the subduction zone forming along the boundaries where the oceanic crust is drawn under another plate within the ocean. After this, water traps in both minerals and basalt rock and begins the process of dewatering where the water begins to be released which allows temperatures to go above the melting point where the magma then rises and begins to settle in pools at the base of the lithosphere which then eventually rises through the crust finalizing the composition of the volcano.

Next, we have shield volcanoes, these volcanoes are unique in shape and viscosity which is relatively low and primarily basaltic this causes the volcano eruption to flow out and reach areas that other volcanoes can’t due to its low viscosity when it spreads out far and fast before hardening causing it to cover a very large area of ground compared to other volcanoes can. This volcano is formed due to multiple layers of lava flowing slowly over the land and last seen large amounts of time causing multiple layers to be formed on top of each other resulting in the form of a shield this is why they are not big in size but rather large in width and coverage. As lava flows away from the eruption it creates things called lava tubes which is where the love that’s flowing away from the eruption cools faster than the lava underneath it causing it to harden and insulating the lava underneath allowing it to stay fluid allowing it to travel further than other types of lava. Although the lava has a low viscosity it has a high basaltic content which allows it to be more fluid but hardens at a higher rate causing them to be so flat in the first place because they are not high means of explosion intensity unless water somehow gets into the vents of the volcano causing a bad reaction due to its high supply of magma rather than pyroclastic material.

Next, we have dome volcanoes which makeup 6% of other options on Earth and can contain either basaltic or rhyolitic content. This volcano has a high viscosity like stratovolcanoes which doesn’t allow the flow to go very far before it hardens which gives it a characteristic dome look. The reason for the high viscosity and this magma is its silica content or the removal of gases from its liquid. This volcano also goes through a constant process of growth, solidification, collapse, and erosion due to the lava building up and piling up and around the vent not having enough pressure to explode violently the lava piles up around the vent causing it to stably build until it can build up enough for an eruption.

Next, we have the anatomy of a volcano. destroyed off we talked about the properties of the magma and the different compositions that it has. Firstly, we have a basaltic composition which has the least silica content out of all of them along with the least gas content, viscosity, and tendency to form pyroclastics but has the highest eruptive temperature of the three and the volcano that carries this composition is mainly the shield volcanoes.

Next, this composition is sandwiched between basaltic and rhyolitic/kinetic with the middle values of all properties between silica content, gas content, eruptive temperature, viscosity, and tendency to form pyroclastic. Volcanoes that carry the andesitic composition or composite cones.

lastly, we have the rhyolitic/granitic composition. This composition has the most silica content, gas content, viscosity, and tendency to form pyroclastics but the lowest irruptive temperature out of the three. The volcano that takes this composition is the pyroclastic volcanoes and lava domes.

Now, we will talk about why some volcanic eruptions are explosive and some are quiescent. To begin, it depends on the source material for the eruption so that means the composition of the magma has to be a certain way in order for it to erupt a certain way. The two primary factors for this are viscosity and gas content and these depend on its temperature and silica content, therefore, meaning the more silica there is the more sticky the magma is and the less silica there is the less sticky and more fluid it is and as for the temperature, the hotter the magma is the more fluid the magma will be andaz the lava cools down its flow decrease is causing it to slow down in Harden. another factor in what causes the eruptions is the gas content gases are a big part of what causes the eruption and how everything mixes together with the main primary gases in the volcanoes Chambers being water vapor and carbon dioxide and this works hand-in-hand with how viscous said magma will be. the more basaltic magma is the lesser the gas content that has and the higher the rhyolitic content there is the higher the gas content is. the gas itself causes a chamber to pressurize and depending on how it mixes with the substance can depend on how the eruption will be either effusively or explosively and how the explosion will be triggered. depending on what type of volcano is will depend on how much Rock and or other materials are built on top of the magma chamber determining how much pressure from the gas is needed for the rock to fracture and for the said volcano to erupt. Now if there is a low gaseous content and a high viscosity then it will if you effusively pour out of the volcano and travel a ways away as compared to a giant explosion shooting out of the top of the volcano and landing a short distance away and hardening in a short amount of time. another factor of eruption is that there are two different types of lava flows that can affect how the lava moves about and those two are Aa and pahoehoe.

Pahoehoe is a smooth braided looking type of magma that often develops into tunnels which are also named lava tubes these are tunnels for carrying lava to the vents where it seeps out because pahoehoe creates insulated tunnels for the lava it allows the lava to flow great distances from where it flowed from its magma chamber.

As for the anatomy, you will start to notice that a volcano is beginning to Rupp 20 motifs fishers which are cracks in the Earth’s crust in which magma moves through being fed through a conduit that takes it all the way up to a vent. what the eruption of the volcanoes in some cases cones are created due to the pyroclastic material which is what is Left behind after an eruption and what the magma is made of prior to the hardening.

Furthermore, one must know about the hazards that accompany the eruption of a volcano and the primary factor that is the most deadly is a pyroclastic flow referred to as the force of nature. This hot mixture is mixed up of hot gases Ash and larger lava fragments that are all banded together and shot out of the volcano during an eruption if it explodes explosively and did not effusively.in many cases the pyroclastic flow is carried away by the wind and the heat is causing the debris to fall miles away from its eruption point. Sometimes, the pyroclastic flow doesn’t have to come from an eruption or rather the collapse of a column during an explosive event in which gravity carries it upwards and outwards and then allows the pumice, volcanic bombs, and blocks to fall down after being carried by gravity a ways away. As if the debris isn’t bad enough, the temperature itself can kill and be just as deadly as debris falling from the sky.

Next, we have intrusive an intrusive body of which there are a few. To start, we have dikes and sills. Dikes, our bodies that come together when magma is forced into fractures and sliced across bedding surfaces and other places in the primary Rock, and then comparison there are sills which are horizontal bodies that come together when magma finds a weakness in the sedimentary beds or other Rocky places. In some cases, these two things can show columnar jointing which is when The Rock cools down and create shrinking fractures that start to make things that are shaped like a row and mostly always resembles a hexagon.

Another intrusive body is called a batholith which appears as large long rocks that are very huge in size and go very deep down. Lastly, we have a laccolith, which intrudes itself in between sedimentary strata leaving the area below relatively flat.

Finally, we are going to discuss how plate tectonics is related to volcanoes. First off, volcanoes appear at both convergent and divergent plate boundaries as well as in between. when the plates come together they involve the subduction of the crust in the ocean and this is the most common for explosive volcanoes. Mostly seen in a ring of volcanoes in the Pacific known as the Ring of fire. When the plates come together the lithosphere starts to be torn apart and decompression starts to begin whereas the melting of the plates in the subducting of the crust begins to happen which can also happen without the addition of heat coming from the lower layers

When we think about the essentials of life, water is one of the first things that comes to our minds. When we find water and wherever we see water flowing we are sure to find life and so the question that has come up many times over the years in regard to the essentials for life is: Why is water essential to life? Most scientists agree that water is a building block and foundation of life [3]. We’ll be exploring the reasons why we ‘follow the water’ in the quest to look for extra-terrestrial life on other planets particularly Mars but to do this, we must learn why astrobiologists think that water is the most important requirement for life.

Water is a polar molecule consisting of 2 hydrogens and 1 oxygen atom. Due to this, it is considered the “universal solvent”, that is everything dissolves in water to some degree, thus allowing nutrients to be integrated into the water with relative ease. The composition and structure of the water molecule allow it to be easily attracted to other molecules. The attraction between water and a substance’s molecule is strong enough that it can potentially break the bond between the substance and its molecule resulting in it being dissolved. [5]. The dissolving property of water is significant as it can dissolve the necessary chemicals for life and also transport the chemicals to an organism [4]. The latter point is very important, as water allows ions and molecules to move into cell membranes, which are layers forming the “shell” of a cell, through the process of osmosis, which is crucial in biological systems[7].

One unique thing about water is that all 3 states it (liquid, solid, and gas) exist naturally in nature. This allows the water cycle to occur in nature which replenishes water around the world. The thermal properties of water are very important as it is essential for life to survive. The specific heat of water, which is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of water by one degree Celsius, is significantly higher than other substances. As a result, the amount of heat required to reach boiling point is very high and allows water to survive the intense heat variation that Earth has without evaporating at once. This makes water a relatively stable environment for many ecosystems, as water is resistant to changes in temperature, and also changes in state.

Another important property of water that shows that it is a prerequisite for life is that it is denser than ice. As liquid water is denser than its solid form, ice floats on top of liquid water. This prevents it from displacing water and causing ocean levels to rise and thus allows Arctic and Antarctic life to thrive. A positive consequence of this property is that when ice begins to melt, the water near the surface becomes denser, and then causes a vertical drift in the water. This causes the water at the bottom, which is rich in nutrients to move to the top, providing resources for other lifeforms [6].

With these properties of water, we can see that, compared to other substances and liquids, why water is the most important requirement for life. It has properties that at the right conditions, could foster and spread lifeforms around this planet.

Have you ever thought about what life would be like without trees? Try and imagine this desolate world. There would be no more paper, and yucky air, and everyone would have to resort to technological use. That is if humans are still here. I’m here to talk to you about deforestation in Australia and its cause and impact. Forests and trees help in many ways such as providing a habitat for many different species of animals, reducing greenhouse emissions, and keeping soil and water healthy for us. To some, it may not be such a major issue, but before you know it, its effects will be knocking on our doorsteps.

First and foremost, what is deforestation? Deforestation is the removal of trees or forests which are then transformed into non-forest use. Causes include fire or clear-cutting to make way for agricultural use, roads, infrastructure, paper, and mining. A more natural cause in Australia is bushfires.

The worldwide fund or more commonly known as WFF suggests that Eastern Australia alongside the notorious Amazon rainforest deforestations are major fronts where deforestation occurs. They also suggest that of the 1250 plants and 390 terrestrial animal species listed as threatened, 964 plants and 286 animals have deforestation as the cause of their threat. When forests are cut down the animals’ habitats are destroyed with some animals in the process. Affected animals include Koalas and wallabies. Forests play a major role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and repressing climate change by storing carbon dioxide. When burnt down, carbon dioxide is released into the air causing global warming. Trees and forests actually impact the health of soil and water. Without tree roots to anchor fertile soil, erosion can sweep soils into rivers, choking and polluting our waterways. Estimates show that one-third of the world’s land suitable for growing crops has been lost to soil erosion.

We interviewed a koala who lost his home to deforestation and his mental and physical state is living proof of what deforestation can cause. He said, “I was sleeping as I do when I heard the roaring noise of machines. At first, I ignored it but then it started to cut down the trees surrounding me. Me and my family I’s tree was forcefully chopped, and we fell to the ground. I was the only one to escape.” This koala was covered with bruises and cuts at the time of the interview.

Why should we care at all? How does it impact us? The main problem for us is the air we breathe in. If little trees existed, we would not be able to breathe due to the unsuitable air. We would have to wear gas masks or special equipment to filter what oxygen is left in the air. Trees have a crucial role in the carbon cycle. This is where carbon dioxide is cycled through the atmosphere, into organisms, and back out to the trees which store it to release oxygen for us to breathe. Fresh water will also become scarce and as I said before, soil erosion can pollute our water sources. Our soil will also be unsuitable for growing crops leading to famines or low fresh food sources.

I chose this topic because it is a very real problem that we all face today. I believe it is extremely important for our trees to continue thriving because not only does it look beautiful, it helps keep us alive by maintaining clean air, soil, and water, preventing global warming, and providing shelter and food to people around the world.

Water is an inorganic compound from two hydrogens and one oxygen atom, From the properties of the water it is colorless, odorless, and tasteless.

It is also named the “universal solvent” because it can easily dissolve many substances.

Water is also the most essential liquid in our lives and in all other creatures as plants and animals, water also is the most known substance to exist in three forms (solid, liquid, gas) depending on the surrounding temperature (1).in this situation it is called phase change, a phase change occurs in water at certain temperature applying the change of water from liquid to solid O C or to gas at 100 C0and vice versa but the boiling or melting point does not depend only on the temperature it depends on the pressure too.

This relation can be expressed through Clausius–Clapeyron relation: .(2)and this diagram can show us specifically how temperature and pressure can affect the water:

As the various uses of water and the important rule in life. it covers a lot of space on earth as the water volume on earth is 1.386 × 109 cubic kilometers(3).

The most important uses of water are biological use as water is essentially important for plants to grow using the photosynthesis process and for drinking also the human body consists of 78% of water.

Water also has the means of life in it.in water lives all the sea, and ocean creatures and there are also some specific plants that are formed in water as algae .water is also used in agriculture which produces a lot of vegetables for animals and animals like cows, for example, make milk and cheese and a lot of raw materials which is eaten by humans so water also helps to maintain the “food chain”. Also in agriculture, we can make pieces of cotton which is used to make clothes that we wear . as for 1 kg of cotton to be made it needs 10.9 cubic meters of water. (5)nowadays, transportation and shipping worldwide are done by water so water now is considered a source of transportation. As all these uses and more of course from the modern problems is there is no sufficient water to cover all the human uses and as the popularity increases (8 billion human beings) it is difficult to supply all these people with pure water as for Egypt. It made a diagram expecting that there will be a shortage of water by 2025 :

We waste a lot of water in many useless processes such as car wash. washing clothes by wasting a lot of water, dishwashing, and bathing can be reduced to save water and control it.

There are many ways to avoid this shortage in Egypt or in any other country recycling rainwater, using underground water, recycling wastewater, and also seawater desalination. And by adding some water control concepts

When I was brainstorming gardening ideas with a client, I realized how most people don’t know much about Okame cherry trees. Most people only know them as an awesome plant that grows into a beautiful pink and white blossomed tree. I managed to carry out some online research and compile more facts you should know about these ornamental cherries. Here are some of its interesting facts:

It is Japan’s national flower

In 1912, the United States received 3000 cherry trees from Yukio Ozaki, the mayor of Tokyo at that time. The trees were for planting in the Tidal Basin in Washington, DC. As a token of appreciation, the United States gave Japan some flowering dogwoods in 1915.

The blossoms change colors

If you have seen them up close, you may have noticed that most of them are dark pink when in the bud. But then turn into a lighter pink when they first blossom. Then you would see finally see them turn pale pink or white. However, there are variations, for example, the Ukon’s blossoms turn from a greenish yellow to white and then finally pink.

More petals than others

These Okami flowering trees naturally have five petals. Like the Yoshino, which is the most popular for its exquisitely fine and pleasing simple form. Then most cultivars are bred for many fuller blossoms. Like the pink double blossoms of ‘Kanzan’, they can have as many as 28 petals each.

It’s man-developed

The Okame cherry tree was originally bred in England. In the early 20th century, a noted cherry tree enthusiast by the name of Captain Collingwood Ingram experimented with this plant. He wanted to create a hybrid cherry tree plant that could tolerate winter cold. The result was fantastic, lovely but smaller than most types of cherry trees. He achieved this after fertilization of the female flower of a Fuji cherry with the pollen from a Taiwan cherry. The Fuji cherry is the P. Incisa and the Taiwan cherry is also known as the Prunus campanula. It inherited its cold hardiness from the former. And its deep-pink flower color, heat tolerance, ability to bloom under low-chill conditions, and flower early, from the latter.

Changes its form and height

When Okame cherry is young, you will notice an upright and vase-like shape when growing. When mature, it loses that shape and develops a tidy, oval, or more rounded one. Then it grows to a height of 20 to 30 feet when fully mature. With its canopy spreading across an area of 12 to 20 feet maximum. It is a great size for a small yard. Just make sure to prune soon after its flowers fade.

Short flowering season

The Okame cherry flowering season is often regarded as the first among cherry trees. It is known to begin blooming while the others are still in their dominant stages. The flowering often starts during the subfreezing late winter temperatures. It’s just too bad that the blossoms only last for two to three weeks. Their lovely pink color is one of the main reasons why it’s so popular.

Deep green foliage extends into autumn

Deep green foliage appears after its flowering and quickly fills out the tree. The foliage stretches into the autumn season (late August). In the case of hot and dry summers, you will notice that its foliage becomes bronzed, especially under dry conditions. Fall brings an extra bonus in the form of beauty. The foliage turns from an attractive bronze-orange to orange-red as the autumn weather brings sunshine and cool night temperatures.

The Okame Produce Fruit

Not all of them though, but it’s a few that do not make fruits. They are certainly bred for flowers but during summer, some of them actually produce small cherries. The cherries are too sour and you probably wouldn’t enjoy them but birds can’t have enough of them.

Its bark reflects light during winter.

During the winter season, the smooth bark of the Okami cherry tree, with the foliage gone, is often pale rust-tan or gray. It has small spot holes on it, and the satiny sheen of this bark reflects light. It’s suitable under both cold and hot climate conditions Do not worry if you live in an area with colder weather conditions. It can perfectly do well in such climates. Fairly cold winters are necessary for the cherry to bring flower buds into being in the springtime. If you live in an area with hotter weather conditions you shouldn’t worry either.

The hybrid is best planted in full sun but with partial shade during the day’s hottest hours. Make sure it gets at least 4 to 6 hours of direct sunshine each day. The more sun you provide, the better for the Okami flowering cherry and its uniform shape. It just needs fairly moist, fertile, and well-draining soil. It tolerates sandy, loam, and heavy clay soils. However, if the soil is too dry, the foil dries and drops prematurely.

Placing a broad swath of organic mulch under it retains soil moisture and keeps its temperatures moderated throughout the seasons. Make sure the layer is 2 – 3 inches thick. This keeps weeds down and prevents the foliage from drying up too early in case of drought or hot conditions.

They can easily make beautiful scenery

If you strategically place dark-colored structures behind it, the pink flowering makes a beautiful view. They also bring out a great, colorful look with evergreens behind them. It’s an early spring bloomer that tops its group in terms of beauty. The glorious single deep pink flowers with red calyces and stems. The eye-catching color contrast. Makes it easy for it to be the most beautiful plant in February.

Plant it anytime during its growing season and give it some extra care after. It is tolerant to heat and cold climates. An adequate water supply will aid the recovery of its roots and sends out new sprouts.

Yep, the next world war will be over water. It’s already being labeled as ‘blue gold,’ just like oil was labeled ‘black gold,’ and that’s no coincidence. Little do most people realize that ALL wars are over the control of the world’s resources, and have nothing to do with terrorism or religious fanaticism. The Great War was a war over oil and had little or nothing to do with the terrorist attack that ended the life of Franz Ferdinand. In the 100 years since all wars that followed were similarly motivated. Afghanistan is needed for gas- and oil pipelines and control over heroin production. Irak has oil, and its leader wanted to trade that oil in euros instead of Dollars, threatening its position as world currency. If you didn’t know already: the U.S. FED is able to print more currency than any other central bank because of this fact. If any country wants to buy oil, it has to buy dollars first.

Dollars were backed by gold, since Bretton-Woods by oil and other natural resources, but mainly oil, hence ‘black gold.’I hope you can see why it worries me that water is now called ‘blue gold.’ It’s one of capitalism’s ‘greatest’ feats that it has managed to turn the world’s most abundant liquid, water, into a scarce product. If you’ve never heard of it, look up some information on the Cochabamba Water War; after the Bolivian government was forced to privatize its water, we had the first small water war. ‘Privatization’ is one of capitalism’s many buzzwords, presented as an essential part of the ever-holy ‘free market,’ that we as western societies have wholly bought into. So much so, that we even manage to privatize the source of all life on the planet, and thereby make it scarce. Here’s Wikipedia’s article on the upcoming water conflicts.

Maybe you’ll think me mad, or a crazy communist, but I want you to think about this: water pollution is great news for a bottled water business. Before the pollution, this business wasn’t even needed at all. But it’s good for any growth-based economic model that new industries arise. It’s bad for such an economy to go for the sensible solution, which is to stop the pollution and to cooperate in establishing a better and wider water pipeline network, which eliminates the ever-reoccurring transport costs (and subsequent further pollution of the environment), and ensures fresh drinking water for every household. In the world. But all those transport jobs and businesses would perish, further shrinking the economy, which is the opposite of growth, and we can’t have that, now can we? All those polluting plastic bottles represent jobs too, you know..? Oil isn’t important in the long run; oil is just energy, and there are alternatives for that.

These alternatives will become available only if and when we leave behind us the ridiculous notion of economic growth; perpetual growth is antithetical to the finite planet we live on, a simple truth that’s dismissed by this economy. If you want to know the real reason why the financial services industries have grown so much, why trading stocks account for a disproportionately high percentage of all growth as well as all money in circulation, you need to look no further than capitalism’s NEED for growth. Trading stocks or currencies doesn’t add any real-world value. It’s not producing anything but fake growth, money making more money if we look at the big picture. Apple’s stock price is in no way a reflection of what the company really produces. For further exploration, here’s the full documentary Blue Gold – World Water Wars, dealing with the corporate theft of the world’s drinking water: Water is important though; there are NO alternatives to water. I’ve written about this many times in the past, but we need to all know how miraculous, unique, and irreplaceable water really is. Water, my friends, has memory.

This stuff remembers all the other stuff it comes into contact with. Water is believed to be the place, the environment where life started, and I strongly hold on to the possibility that if we learn how to read water’s memory, we might be able to read the story of the genesis and evolution of all life on Earth. Sounds crazy, no? Let me try to convince you.’ Memory is the best description we’ve managed to come up with for one of water’s many miraculous behaviors. We all know about homeopathic medicines, where they dilute some substance in water so much, that almost nothing of the substance remains; you’re basically just drinking water. This is widely ridiculed or has been for decades, by traditional science. But in 1979 Jacques Benveniste published a paper in his studies on immunology, allergy, and inflammation, that should have changed this view forever. He diluted the substance so much, that there could be statistically speaking no molecules left of the substance. Yet, every sample taken from the highly diluted substance had the effect of just adding the highly concentrated version of it. Somehow the substance was ‘remembered’ or ‘stored’ in the structure of the H2O molecules.

If you want to know what we’ve managed to uncover about this mysterious property of water, watch the 50-minute documentary below, or search for some of the works of Masaru Emoto; you’ll be amazed. Water is life. It’s crazy that we now have to contemplate the question of who owns our water. Water is life, so who owns Life? Is life to be a bottled, traded for-profit product? When do we privatize air? If you’ve been paying attention, you’d know we already did. Unpolluted air, that is; with the emission trading system, we’ve put a price on polluting air, which is the same as putting a price on clean air. But we won’t go to war over the air. Not yet. Blue gold is the next station. We live on the Blue Planet, not the Gold Ball in space…

The water cycle is also known as the Hydrologic cycle or Hydrological cycle. The water cycle can be described as the process where water is heated from the earth’s surface and rises into the atmosphere where it cools and condenses to form either rain or snow in the clouds which fall back down onto the earth as precipitation. This precipitation is usually collected in the lakes and rivers which then flows back into the ocean where evaporation can occur again. The water cycle is made up of 4 simple main stages but can be split into 7 stages which include Evaporation, Condensation, Sublimation, Precipitation, Transpiration, Runoff, and Infiltration.

• Evaporation is where surface water turns into water vapor by absorbing heat and energy from the sun. This process occurs in rivers, oceans, lakes, and any runoff surface water that is collected. Through this process the water that was evaporated moves from the hydrosphere to an atmosphere where it forms clouds.
• Condensation is the process where the vaporized water rises into the atmosphere at high altitudes and converts into very tiny particles of ice or water droplets. These particles then come close together and form clouds and fog in the sky.
• Sublimation is where ice is directly converted into water vapor without converting it to liquid. This process also contributes to water vapor in the atmosphere. This mainly occurs in the North and South pole where the ice sheets and ice caps on the mountains melt. Sublimation is slower than evaporation.
• Precipitation is where the condensed water vapor (clouds), after reaching its maximum holding capacity then pours down as precipitation. This can be influenced by wind or temperature changes. Precipitation occurs due to water droplets combining to form larger droplets and when the air is unable to hold more water. At higher altitudes with low temperatures the droplets lose their energy and heat and call fall as rain and with very low temperatures droplets can fall as snow.
• Transpiration is a process like evaporation but is performed by plants. During precipitation, the plant absorbs water through its roots and pushes it toward the leaves where it is used during photosynthesis. Extra water in the plant is moved out via the stomata in the leaves as water vapor.
• Run Off is where water runs off the earth’s surface and into lakes, seas, and oceans where it enters the hydrosphere.
• Infiltration is where water that doesn’t run off the earth’s surface is absorbed deep into the soil. This water seeps into the ground and increases the level of the groundwater table. Groundwater is also called pure water and is drinkable.

Agricultural processes observed in ECIAF can impact the water cycle mostly on the negative side. The negative impact on the water cycle by the processes observed would be the improper management of wastewater that comes from the various units on the farm. Wastewater is left to run down into the drains which may contain feces, drugs, fertilizers, poisons, and many other chemicals. These chemicals are left to run down into the drain and pollute various water sources.

How would you feel if you had water? Today I will be talking about water and how useful it is in our life. The three arguments that I will be talking about are the hazards of wasting water and saving money on water bills and how important water is with food. Our population is growing every day so we should be wanting to save water so we have enough for everybody.

The hazards of wasting water could lead to many things such as droughts because of fires. Every living thing needs water so we should be way more careful with how much we use because if we have no water because we wasted it then our place would burn down because there is not enough water. In this picture, you are able to see that Australia has had so many droughts. We should never waste our water because dangerous things could happen.

Wouldn’t you just want to save some money on some of your bills? If so then you should start to find some ways how to save water such as showers people have showers for 30 mins. This is what can make your bill go up even higher. There are a lot of ideas on how to save water and your water bill. Here are some tips try not to leave your tap on when brushing or shaving and do big loads of washing. Every family wants that amazing trip and everyone can do their part if they just save some water.

Food and water are essential for living and most of our food needs to grow and for it to grow it needs water. People don’t understand how hard the farmers have to work to keep themselves and their animals and crops all fresh and strong. We only Have three percent of the water that is fresh on this earth. So the people that don’t own farms should learn how to save water so that it makes the farmers’ job easy so they can get access and then you will be able to get food because of the farmers growing food. Farmers are really relying on us so we don’t waste water. Imagine not having a lot of vegetables or meat just because the animals aren’t strong and very thirsty they just die just because they won’t have enough water.

People need to wake up fast if they wanna stay alive and be healthy and fit. Saving water will make a huge difference in life for every person. If you save water you will be getting a lower water bill and be helping the farmers and the firefighters as they can use that water to get rid of fires just to keep you safe. Water is heavily relied on but people don’t see it like that they think they can just use as much water as they want but it will slowly come back to them and will have a big water bill and maybe their house might burn down.