Category: Environmental Issues

I. Introduction

Water plays a big role in all living things. In fact, everything cannot exist without water. The statistics estimate that there were about 1,500 liters of water for industry, 2,500 liters for agriculture, and 250 liters for daily activities (UK essays, 2018)…We know how essential water is; however when the living standard is improving, one of the most serious environmental problems faced in Vietnam is water pollution. “Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants”(Wikipedia, “Water pollution,” 2020). According to the media, water quality in this country has deteriorated and particulate matter (PM) is at high levels. This research paper is aimed at providing an overview of the causes, and negative effects of water pollution and suggesting some possible solutions to best limit water contamination in Vietnam.

II. Discussion of findings.

1. What are the causes of water contamination?

Human activities are the main cause of this problem. Many people throw rubbish indiscriminately into canals, lakes, and rivers without being aware of the seriousness of their actions. Also, humans bury the carcass without treatment which may lead to groundwater pollution as this chemical waste even may seep into the underground water or flow to nearby water bodies when it rains. The utilization of pesticides and herbicides in agriculture additionally causes water contamination particularly when the use of synthetic compounds is uncontrolled. Some pesticides and herbicides have high draining potential and they pollute the underground water. The leaching of these chemicals causes the accumulation of Selenium, a heavy metal in the soil that is toxic and unsafe when it reaches the water body (Chaudry and Malik, 2017).

Also, the lack of technology in rubbish treatment is one of the matters creating water pollution. It means that some types of waste will not be treated if there is no technical service and those waste may get into the water and cause serious effects to the water. Take the example of To Lich River in Hanoi, it could be the most polluted river and this can only be solved with technology interventions, specifically by Nano-Bioreactor technology. Furthermore, not all wastewater from a few manufacturing plants is treated before dumping to the water bodies and this contaminates the water.

Another element of this problem is the Government’s policies. As an illustration, factories are allowed to build massively without being strictly controlled on measures to treat waste as well as wastewater during production. Furthermore, the government sometimes cannot manage such many factories, so factories have been able to abuse that and start ignoring waste treatment before releasing it into the environment. For instance, Formosa company, during the commissioning of the factory complex, had violations and incidents, resulting in wastewater containing untreated phenol and cyanide toxins meeting environmental standards. (Xuan Long, “Formosa đứng đầu các vụ gây ô nhiễm năm 2016,” 2017). “Accordingly, the Natural Resources and Environment Ministry and other relevant units have checked and discovered violations regarding Formosa discharging toxic waste into the sea wastewater containing toxins exceeding the permitted level.” ( Wikipedia, “Vietnam marine life disaster,” 2016). And these have caused a serious impact on water resources.

2. The negative effects of water pollution.

Firstly, ecosystems could be severely changed or destroyed by water pollution. As expressed before notwithstanding being harmful to people water contamination additionally plays a major factor in the endurance of creatures, vegetation, and different environmental variables. The serious problem is the disappearance of fish. For instance, in 2008, the Environmental Protection Agency under the Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment discovered that a Flour and Seasoning Powder Factory in Vedan Vietnam discharged a large of wastewater that contained high substances of molasses and toxic chemicals into the Thi Vai River. Consequently, the river became dirtier and it never again had fish or oceanic life. Like animals, plants need water to live. Plants died when they were irrigated with water containing toxic chemicals or when their roots absorbed polluted underground water.

Besides, water pollution was a serious effect on human health in many ways. There were many serious infectious men to man due to water contamination such as respiratory disease, cancer, neurological,…(Mehtab Haseenna, 2017). Dirty or polluted water is the preferred breeding ground for mosquitoes and other pests. Mosquito bites adversely impact on human health and can cause diseases such as Malaria, Dengue, and Chikungunya. Water animals, plants, and animals that humans consume also be badly affected by water pollution. If we eat foods that have already been infected, we are bound to fall ill. Mehtab Haseene, Department of Zoology said, “Hepatitis is a viral disease caused by contaminated water and infects the liver”. When you drink polluted water, bacteria will break into your body and damage parts inside. Then you feel tired, lose appetite, and fatigued,… which are some symptoms of hepatitis. If not treated promptly, it can lead to cancer. According to the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Vietnam had bout 37 “cancer villages” with a total of 1,136 people dying from cancer in the past 20 years ( Nguyen Quang Thong, 2015). Especially, many families in Thach Son – Phu Tho province had 2 to 3 members die of cancer. It is worth mention is that 814 water samples collected which have been found in both ground and underground were contaminated. Therefore, if this issue goes on, the consequences could get worse.

Besides, livelihoods also are affected by contaminated water. In particular, the mass death of fish greatly affects the production and daily life of fishermen. A series of dead fish in Vietnam in 2016, also known as the Formosa Incident refers to the phenomenon of dead fish in the waters of Vung Ang (Ha Tinh) and then spread to the waters of Quang Binh, Quang Tri, Thua Thien-Hue (Wikipedia, “Vietnam marine life disaster,” 2016. ). According to a survey of the Ministry of Labor, Invalids and Social Affairs, 263,000 workers were affected, of which 100,000 were directly affected due to this issue. The unemployment rate increased greatly in four provinces, the largest one was Ha Tinh (15.7 times) and then Quang Binh (7.9 times), Quang Tri (2.8 times), and Thua Thien-Hue (1.6 times). The number of fishermen in Ha Tinh decreased by 74% while in Quang Binh 83.2% of people had reduced income compared to the time before the disaster( Wikipedia, “Mass deaths of fish in Vietnam,” 2016).

3. How can we tackle this issue?

To prevent this issue, the Government needs to take action. The Government should focus its attention on updating the laws to reflect current conditions to solve this problem. Besides, the litterers will be fined to prevent this from happening, and if the person littering continues throwing rubbish, not at the prescribed places need for more severe sanctions than the previous. Another way to overcome this concern is for the Government to invest more funds in finding out the method for the best reduction of water contamination. Furthermore, the Government can develop and apply preferential policies on finance, taxes, and exports to encourage environmentally-friendly businesses.

On the other hand, each citizen should raise their awareness in many ways such as propagandize about water pollution, educating when being young, and learning how to use water wisely. Moreover, when humans do agricultural activities, they should not waste chemical waste randomly to reduce runoff of the chemical into nearby water sources. One possible idea to lower chemical toxicity in the water environment is looking at options of composting and using organic manure instead. About domestic waste, throwing away garbage right place rule and avoid littering plastic, bags, persistent items….and so on into the rivers, canals, and beaches, …. By joining a water association, a small but positive influence, we can keep our waters protected and preserved.

Last but not least, when being built, factories should make a sewage treatment system and use the wastewater treatment process in some steps such as mechanical, biological, and advanced wastewater treatment. This situation could be improved if factories and organizations near the water source have a strategic plan to periodically clean the water. Also, factories and industrial facilities should be built far away from ecologically and socially sensitive areas as well as developing technologies for waste treatment and industrial environmental pollution treatment. What is more, companies should enhance cooperation with international organizations, companies, and countries with advanced environmental industries to learn experiences and take advantage of financial and technological resources in pollution control and environmental protection.

III. Conclusion.

Every individual, and organization uses water, and water also has an impact on all aspects of life. When water quality decreases, everything will be adversely affected and vice versa. We can choose to live in a clean water environment or live in an environment where the water is polluted. Obviously, no one wants to live in such a polluted environment, so every action needs to be taken immediately to control water pollution. Facing pollution, the Government needs to set laws and conduct periodic inspections to avoid discharging untreated wastes into the environment as well as invest in building technological advances that will support wastewater treatment and so on. Also, individuals also need to raise their awareness of environmental protection responsibilities such as strictly complying with requirements and avoiding harming the environment.

Water intake is vital to our health

Drinking water routinely in everyday schedules is the most ideal way we can provide for our bodies. A few of us drink it when we are working out, or going out to eat, and a few of us drink it when we are completely hydrated. Interestingly, there are a few people who do not care about drinking water by any means. We need water to be healthy regardless of who we are. The significance of drinking water for our bodies is vital to our well-being, “since it makes up to 70 percent of our bodies’ weight” ( ). There are four advantages of drinking water for our bodies, for example, it can accelerate our digestion systems, make our skin appear more rejuvenated, lose weight, and boost our energy.

Drinking a healthy amount of water is vital to our health. We can become healthier just by expanding our water consumption, we increase medical advantages, and now we can even discard our headache prescription or agony executioner. Before we can value the advantages of water to our well-being, how about we audit the job of water in our bodies? We are continually being advised to drink more water however a great deal of our battles is to get past a set sum each day. Water conveys supplements to the entirety of our cells, flushes poisons from the kidneys, expels squander from the guts, and helps nurture the body.

Water is primarily lost from the human body as urine with dissipation from the lungs and skin being other significant sources. Sweltering climate conditions and physical movement bring about quicker loss of body water through expanded perspiring and quicker relaxing. Additionally, a chilly climate expands urine because of the better capacity to burn calories rate for keeping up the internal heat level. Consequently, it is important to recharge this water misfortune by guaranteeing normal hydration through intermittent water admission for the duration of the day. Grown-ups require around sixty-four ounces of water for every day to guarantee high vitality levels, support the insusceptible framework, improve skin composition, advance weight reduction, and counter drinks that get dry out the body. In the accompanying segments, the impact of water on every one of these angles is talked about further to feature the need of keeping up satisfactory hydration levels consistently.

The main advantage of drinking water is it can accelerate our digestion systems. Expanded hydration levels have an impact on expanding blood volume. The expansion of blood volume helps the vehicle of oxygen to our bodies cells. It additionally encourages the vehicle of waste out of the cells. In the event that our cells are hydrated appropriately, our digestion systems will be ideal. The more water we devour, the more proficiently our cells can work. The following advantage is that it can make our skin more advantageous. Drinking water can help our skin feel more revived and brilliant without a doubt. Our skin will look unfortunate when the poisons have stayed in our bodies. The job of water here is to flush the poisons out of our bodies. Our skin needs a great deal of water to remain hydrated and supple, so we need to ensure that we drink enough water every day. We have to drink water for around 8 – 10 glasses a day so as to keep our skin solid.

The third advantage is water can help us lose weight. At the point when we are on an eating regimen or workout schedule, there is a recommendation that we need to drink an enormous amount of water. Water can assist us with suppressing our hunger, so we do not eat as much. Drinking water, additionally, causes our bodies to consume the fat in our bodies, thus our weight can be decreased. A few people say that drinking 15 liters of water in a day can help in losing weight radically. By the loss of our fat in our bodies, we can be more advantageous in light of the fact that a few sicknesses brought about by the fat will be maintained at a strategic distance.

So water is expected to break up these supplements and be conveyed all through the body. As should be obvious, water assumes a significant job in numerous variables of your body. Water can even help produce benefits outside of your body as well. For instance, your wallet, when you go to a café and request a soda, is ordinarily in any event $2. You could rather pick water, which is free. On the off chance that you would likewise pick water when you go out to eat and spare the $2, you would spare a fair measure of cash in a year. Additionally, a twenty-four-pack of filtered water is a lot less expensive than even a twelve-pack of soda. In this way, purchasing a pack of filtered water would set aside cash too.

Another way that you could set aside cash is by putting resources into a channel or some likeness thereof, and drinking water from the feature. This would diminish your spending on refreshments during the year and spare you a great deal of cash. As should be obvious, there are numerous advantages to drinking water. I trust you now perceive how urgent water is to your body and why you ought to consume it all the time. You can just endure a few days without water, so ensure you drink up. Also, by drinking water to guarantee you remain living admirably, you will have some additional cash to spend on things throughout your life that you can appreciate.

At long last, water can make us remain alarmed and core interest. At the point when we are appropriately hydrated, the course in our body will be great. In the reality, our cerebrums are made up 85 percent of water, so we need to remain hydrated to support our minds. On the off chance that our minds are appropriately hydrated, it will keep the mindset crisp and dynamic. Individuals who drink less water frequently feel exhausted and less eager. In the interim, individuals who drink more water are extremely vigorous and loaded with energy. It likewise helps our bodies in easing their weakness of the body. It additionally clears and avoids our skin of skin break out. The mind is generally water, so ensuring you are getting enough keeps your cerebrum working so you feel sharp and cautious not foggy or exhausted. Water can help to boost our energy. Not drinking enough water makes our minds hinder, and it has a similar impact on our bodies. In the event that we are got dried out the body does not work, making us need vitality and feel drained.

Simply shutting our eyes for a couple of moments consistently and squinting as often as possible enables fluid from the tear organs to saturate and grease up the cornea. It Helps Maintain Fresh Breath: Dry mouths are reproducing justification for awful microbes that reason terrible breath, so drinking a glass of water can keep our mouth soggy and breath new. It can improve our safe framework.

Deficiency of drinking water is in this way an issue that must be researched in detail and arrangements created to control this issue. There are different reasons for the lack of drinking water and the greater part of these are owing to human exercises. These incorporate such exercises as deforestation and contamination which add to an unnatural weather change, abuse of the water asset, and groundwater sullying among others. It is critical to creating answers for this issue if future ages are to endure. There is an extremely high populace development rate in numerous nations all over the world.

The normal total populace development rate is over one percent and a few nations particularly in Africa and Asia have development paces of over two percent per annum. A huge development rate puts pressure on accessible assets and causes a deficiency. Individuals rely upon water to live and the huge populace development rate has put pressure on accessible water assets. Since the water framework and the asset have commonly stayed steady throughout the years, the populace development rate strains the water asset and makes a lack of drinking water for populaces from all over the world.

Taking everything into account, drinking water is a significant thing to our bodies’ well-being. Humans, yet in addition to the entirety of living beings need water to endure. The significance of drinking water for our bodies is foremost to our well-being since it makes up 70 percent of our bodies weight. There are four satisfying advantages of drinking water to our bodies, for example, it can accelerate our digestion systems, make our skin more beneficial, lose weight, and remain alert. Thus, we need to devour water as much as we can to keep our bodies in decent condition.

“It’s the Joshua tree’s struggle that gives it its beauty” (Walls 38)

Analysis

Said by Jeannette’s mother, when Jeannette mentioned that she wanted to protect a tree from the elements so it could grow up to be tall and straight. Although this quote is said by the mother specifically, it could be referred to as both of the parent’s strange views of beauty and the aspects they think are most important in life. The Joshua tree is very similar to the way the parents are raising their children. “From the time the Joshua tree was a tiny sapling, it had been so beaten down down by the whipping wind that, rather than trying to grow skyward, it had grown in the direction that the wind pushed it” (Wall 35). Rather than being allowed to grow slowly, their parents (like the wind) are shaping them the way they want to, even though it may not be the best thing for the tree/the kids. Most parents influence their children in this way. However, the Walls are doing it to such an extreme that they are causing the children to be “crippled” and permanently bent, just like the Joshua tree. Like the tree, once it is bent or crippled, or for the kids once they are traumatized, its permanent and there’s no going back. In the end, the Joshua tree stands alone and the Walls family left it behind as well because they left the city. The tree represents the Walls children, so this may be foreshadowing what is to come in their future.

‘Shortly after we moved into the depot, Mom decided that what we really needed was a piano’ (Walls 52)

Analysis

This is an interesting and revealing quote because it exposed multiple things about the Walls dark family. The parents have had several major fights throughout the story and get into arguments with one another very often, but there is no mention of the dad disagreeing with the mom about getting the piano. A This is even more surprising because the family did not have the money for furniture (including beds for the children) at the time of this incident. How odd that the mom had a sudden urge/desire for a piano when her very own kids don’t even have a bed to sleep in? That’s right, a mother values an instrument over a bed for her own children. The kids said that they preferred not having beds, but it is interesting that the parents actually listened to them since they very rarely do for anything else. It’s as though the parents only listen to them if they like what they’re saying, in this case the kids didn’t want beds, and as a result the parents could save money so they were more than happy to oblige. When it came to things like keeping their family pet, they rarely got to have a say. Instead, when there is something that does not affect the parents directly (like the kids not having beds) they are fine listening to them. This really exposes the parents greed. The story only mentioned that the children did not have beds, so the parents likely did. Disgusting. This makes the parents seems selfish, and more than that, they are unfit for parenthood and struggle to value what things in life should come first, especially when it comes to family. How could parents be so selfish and unthoughtful of their very children?

‘I wanted to hug him, but that would have been too weird’ (Walls 45)

Analysis

This is a small reminder that despite all the crazy things happening in life for our friends, the Walls children are still just kids. Just like most other kids their age, they are just normal siblings, just like any brothers and sisters would be. Even though the Walls are still just a family, their situation is more unique than most (evidently), and they seem to be surviving on their own and relying on themselves rather than one another despite living in the same home. They begin as totally independent people who are almost strangers to one another who share a house, as I wouldn’t even call their household a home. Almost as if going through this “trauma” their parents call their childhood, it’s almost as if it’s brought them closer together than ever before. The kids grew up making their own meals and being taught how to be independent, and over the story they begin to rely on one another more and more, like how siblings should be. Even their mother, who is supposed to be the one at home helping them out, is often lost in her own hobbies, disconnected from reality. This quote and overall scene is definitely a sign of progress from when the book first started and Brian cared more about eating ice than his sister (who had just been severely burned). Over the course of the book, we see love begin to develop between the siblings like it should be, and they begin to look out for one another although they may not make it obvious that they are, they all do it in their own ways.

Ours, a water planet. The ocean covers 71 percent of the surface of the globe, and it constitutes over 90 percent of all habitable space on Earth. Its total volume is around 300 million cubic miles and its weight is approximately 1.3 million million million tons. No wonder that Arthur C. Clarke, scientist and writer, once remarked that it was inappropriate to call this planet Earth, when clearly it is ocean. (Mulvaney 28). Ocean pollution is growing out of control, and the clean up of our worlds oceans is critical.

Ocean pollution is now a big problem facing us in everyday life. For years we have been trying to stop the dumping of trash, chemicals, and toxic waste into our oceans but the people who do it, still find ways to get around the rules and laws we have created (Mulvaney 28) Why should we have to live with an ocean so polluted where in time we will not even be able to fish or swim in it? The solutions to the problem of ocean pollution are endless and worthwhile. Since we caused ocean pollution, it is our job to clean it up. We* are the future, we* are the ones who should be working to find out ways to stop it. If we continue to abuse our ocean with pollution it will affect our world and lifestyle in many ways. For instance, living in an area so near the coast our town relies on the ocean as a main attraction, as well as a major source of food. Suppose both of these aspects were eliminated due to pollution. Do you think an ocean town such as this would still be booming during those summer months. It would not be such a problem if this was the only ocean town, but it isnt.

There are thousands of towns that rely on the ocean, not just in this country but all over the world. Ocean pollution is defined as the contamination of the ocean with man-made waste. The National Research Council has estimated that as many as 8.8 million tons of oil enters the oceans every year as a cause of human activity. It Is also said, that at any given time, the ocean contains over 280,000 tons of tar balls. All kinds of garbage, ranging from fishing nets to trash, from cargo ships to litter on the beaches, finds its way into coastal waters and the ocean.

Here, it traps, ensnares, and entangles marine wildlife such as many different species of marine mammals, sea turtles, and seabirds. Plastic pellets have been found on the surface of the Pacific at concentrations of 21,000 per square mile; a cleanup exercise on the coast of Texas yielded 15,600 six-pack rings along 1.8 miles of coastline; and a National Academy of Sciences review once estimated that over 14 billion pounds of garbage enters the ocean from sea-based sources alone. In the 1980s, it was reckoned that 30,000 northern fur seals died each year after becoming entangled in marine debris, principally lost or abandoned fishing gear.

Heavy metals–mercury and lead, for example–and organochlorine compounds such as PCBs and DDT, have been associated with a wide variety of impacts on marine wildlife(Mulvaney 29-30). A serious form of ocean pollution might be heading to the coast of New Jersey starting in October. The conflict is that the New York Port Authority wants to dredge New York Harbor, which is full of contaminates such as mercury and other toxic and harmful substances, off of Sandy Hook, New Jersey. New York is planning to dump 40 million tons of toxic mud six miles off shore. Just when you though it was safe to go back in the water, stated Degener, dumping off the NJs coastline starts up again.

The fate of the ocean is inextricably entwined with that of the coast*(Mulvaney 30). One of the major reasons for the increase in ocean pollution, is the increase in population on our coastlines. If more people inhabit our coastlines, more trash is brought into these areas, therefore causing an increase in ocean pollution, as well as an increase in other types of pollution. When we inhabit the coast, we destroy the natural coastal ecosystem and our garbage and pollution from our cars, boats, ecedra, go into the coastal land which is washed off into the ocean when it rains and storms.

Another cause of ocean pollution is the depletion of the ozone layer. The ozone layer is being depleted by CO(Carbon Monoxide) that we put into the air by way of our factories, cars, and power plants. Mulvaney states that according the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC), a grouping of 300 scientists from around the world, climate change has the potential to significantly affect biological diversity in ocean and coastal areas. It could cause changes in the population sizes and distribution of species, alter the species composition and geographical extent of the habitats and ecosystems, and increase the rate of species* extinctions*(31).

There have been many organizations formed who are trying to clean up ocean pollution. Such organizations include the WWF(World Wildlife Federation), Green Peace, EPA(Environmental Protection Agency), and NOAA(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). All of these organizations have encouraged the government to take action against ocean pollution. Treaties have been signed in the past to ban some kinds of ocean pollution, yet polluters have found numerous ways around them. When the Law of the Sea Treaty marked its 10th anniversary late last year, there was no cause for celebration. Sixty countries must ratify the accord before it an go into effect, and only 52 had. It remains a paper treaty.

There are numerous solutions for ocean pollution which are extremely worthwhile. Again, it is our job to clean up the mess in our the oceans because, as the human race, we are the ones that have created it. Given the size and extent of the ocean, along with the complexity and variety of the issues it faces, addressing threats to the marine environment generally requires a multifaceted approach. Because of the global nature of human activities that impact the ocean, many environmentalists concentrate their efforts on seeking to have those activities regulated. If necessary, they wish for it to be banned by international conventions.(Mulvaney 31-32)

What Mulvaney is trying to say is that in order to solve ocean pollution we have to solve other problems too, such as the over production of garbage, as well as the dumping of oil, gas, and unused minerals. In order to achieve the goal of solving the ocean pollution problem, we have to study the facts. We must think of the goals we want to achieve, and what we can do to stop it, or at the prevent the furthering of it. Although some of the countries with a coastline refuse sign a treaty, it does not mean we stop there. We have to push and push in order to get our point across.

A few studies that have recently been brought about have shown that ocean pollution is being overblown. NOAAs report measured levels of seven trace metals including cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, and zinc and four organic compounds including DDT, chlordane, and PCBs(Merline 1). Does this mean that ocean pollution is solved? No, it just means that since we have controlled pollution, the amounts of pollution have generally decreased. This means that we are doing a good job of getting the point across, and we must continue to push our efforts. If the amount of the pollution in our oceans continues to decrease, eventually our problem may be eliminated.

The clean-up of the oceans has already began. Many scientists have found more efficient ways to clean-up ocean pollution easier and faster. Many ordinary people are even helping with the clean-up. Such groups of people include students worldwide, tree-huggers, the elderly, and other ordinary people who care enough about our ocean to do something. Many people are unaware of the serious issue of our overly polluted ocean. It is certain that if we get the explanations about our problem out to more people, the solutions will eventually come.

We will help the ocean become clean faster and easier. To clean up the oceans, means we must create new ocean dumping laws that are logical and work. We need to have ocean and beach clean-ups, and must encourage scientists find organic ways to get the ocean. Overall, it is plain to see although you may not have previously that ocean pollution is a major problem facing us. We have read the facts, examined the problems and solutions. We have come up with ways to end it, but we just need to get to work on getting the word out. If we teach everyone this issue, more people will become aware of ocean pollution. Let us solve this issue because we deserve a clean ocean and a clean earth.

The nation has consistently been known for its tranquility, serenity, and close touch with nature. No big surprise it is the origin of probably the best music classes Ska and Reggae. It is here that unbelievable craftsman Weave Marley lived and made music. It is here that he made music that would proceed to surprise the entire world. What’s more, nobody can deny that it was this excellent nation that enlivened him to make such enchanted music. Also, what a lovely nation it is, for sure. Make Air Canada reservations, investigate the enormous magnificence, and taste the heavenly Jamaican Yank Chicken in Jamaica.

Being an island nation, Jamaica has no deficiency of sea shores and waterfronts. The sandy sea shores are excellent and are known for their energetic nightlife. The nation is secured with an honorable measure of vegetation. Thick wildernesses summon in you a feeling of profound amicability with nature. The mountain tops perplex you with their relentless size and quiet excellence. To give you a superior thought of Jamaica’s appeal, we have concocted a rundown of the best activities in Jamaica. Reserve the Bahamasair spot and travel to Jamaica effortlessly.

Martha Brae Waterway Boating

One of the most renowned and astonishing activities in Jamaica is going boating on the Martha Brae Waterway. The waterway runs on the banks of the pony shoe formed Martha Brae Island. Guests board long pontoons made of bamboo and are joined by a guide who likewise controls the pontoon along the waterway. The experience is tranquil and wonderful. The guide educates the pontoon’s travelers regarding Martha Brae’s legend. During the ride, guests are permitted to bounce into the stream and swim also. In the wake of landing, guests can shop or treat themselves to a chilled brew. Book tickets on Air Canada flights and experience the best and most picturesque pontoon ride of your life.

Jump into the indented privateer city of Port Illustrious

Truly, a genuinely chronicled privateer city! Indeed, indented! Mind-blowing, we know, however, it’s 100% valid. Port Regal was an extremely popular city during the 1600s. Controlled at one purpose of time by the Spanish, it was later vanquished by the English under the standard of Cromwell. In any case, the city consistently stayed a city of privateers. Tormented by intemperance and general demonstrations of brutality, the city created a ton of infamous notoriety. In the year 1692, a significant tremor hit the city. The ground split open and the majority of the city went submerged alongside its inhabitants. Today, the city ruins lie up to 40 feet submerged and can be investigated by scuba plunging. This is one of the most legitimate wreck-jumping encounters on the planet. Jumpers get the opportunity to see landmarks, pontoons, and a few other submerged structures from the hour of the seismic tremor. Get astounding Bahamasair flight arrangements and witness firsthand a genuine submerged privateer city.

Swim or Kayak in the brilliant tidal pond of Falmouth

On the off chance that you have viewed the film Symbol, at that point you have more likely than not seen sparkling waters that light up when even somewhat upset. In Jamaica, seeing something to that effect is altogether conceivable. The Martha Brae Stream channels into the sea and makes this supernatural marvel. As you swim, the microorganisms in the water light up making a neon blue light in the water. To be completely forthright, this is the most magical swimming experience you will have at any point go over. Visit Jamaica with modest flight offers and see the enchantment nature can make.

Jamaica anticipates your appearance in the entirety of its wonder. Book an Air Canada flight or Bahamasair flight and make your everlasting recollections in Jamaica.

What influences an individual’s perspective or approach to social issues in a global context? Considering this, in the assigned reading, “The Forest, Trees, and The One Thing” by Johnson, he states that “we are succumbed by this idea that everything starts and ends with individuals. With this thought, it’s likely that one would view social issues in a global context as simply a result of individual flaws. Is it this tunnel vision that leads to poverty? Environmental racism is discrimination not merely from race, but also from the environment the community is in. The helplessness of those outside of the majority or white is being taken advantage of. Minority residents tend to live in more polluted areas with less access to political and legal means at their feet. The potentially environmentally hazardous sites are often seen in disadvantaged communities, simply because it’s the path of least resistance. So again, why does environmental racism exist? The short answer is resources. These dangerous sites are closer to the minority communities who are unable to stand against them as a mere result of little to no resources. Racism isn’t just about words, it’s in the air and water. Therefore, making environmental racism an unjust global event faced by minority communities.

When one thinks of “poverty”, eight times out of ten, a minority community comes to mind. In the reading, The Sociological Imagination, Wright Mills mentions stepping back and seeing the big picture from a historical standpoint. We have a tendency to view problems that occur as a result of one’s character and nature. The historical shifts of suburbanization present white privilege, which contributes to environmental racism in a form. Privileged individuals of the majority are more inclined to believe that minorities could easily “get a job” and help themselves. However, as aforementioned, the lack of resources to aid these individuals ceases that option. Additionally, in a more broader context, these individuals in minority groups result in higher percentages of health problems as an immediate effect of exposure to waste. Instead of thinking about the social issue of environmental racism in terms of a mere individual flaw, and instead in the global scheme of things one is able to fully understand this issue is incapable of a personal solution. To fully answer what influences one’s approach to social issues, one’s social standing has the biggest influence. So would developing a deeper understanding of cultural variation help the majority of individuals intervene more effectively with diverse communities, or would an individual’s natural stereotypes have power over that?

Water is the most essential element on the earth. All life needs water. As plants also need water to sustain life. Not only does the biological role water plays, but it is also trapping heat on earth, transports materials, and modulates the earth’s temperature. Water plays a vital role in life without any doubt. But there is a lack of necessary water resources to meet current needs. The issue of freshwater shortage has revolved around humans for many years. Water pollution and shortages are also called water stress, water scarcity, and water crisis. Research solutions around the world to solve these problems. According to WWF (World Wildlife Fund), research about 1.1 billion people worldwide lack access to water, and a total of 2.7 billion find water scarce for at least one month of the year (World Wildlife Fund, 2021). Also, the resources of freshwater for stuff humans drink, bathe in, and irrigate our farm fields with, are fewer and fewer.

Only a few of the world’s water is freshwater, and two-thirds of that is buried in frozen glaciers, and unavailable for our use. Clean drinking water is impossible for around two million people, most of them children, who die each year from diarrheal diseases alone. Freshwater shortages have become a fundamental problem in recent years. According to the current consumption rate, this rate will only obtain worse. Many people do not have access to water resources by 2025. Also, ecosystems around the world will extensively damage. In this essay, the causes and consequences of the water crisis would be discussed to discover the relevant solutions. Water shortage is a plain concept to many and a stark reality for humans. It is the influence of uncountable environmental, economic, political, and social forces. This essay aims important to discover the cure to the problem, it can prevent it too late to fix the problem.

Introduction

Among the different definitions of ecosystem services that emerged, the most widely used version is that of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA). It defined the term as “the benefits people obtain from ecosystems” (MEA, 2003a, p.53). This definition recognized the interdependence of humans and other species with nature (Costanza et al., 2017). It also identified four types of ecosystem services based on functionality: provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services (MEA, 2003a).

Supporting services are defined as “services necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services.” (MEA, 2003a, p.57). Unlike the other three ecosystem services, humans indirectly use and indirectly feel the impact of supporting services (MEA, 2003a; Costanza et al., 2017). Moreover, supporting services have been considered intermediate services. It has been argued that only final services should be included in environmental valuations to avoid double counting (Martin-Ortega et al., 2015). It can be inferred that these may be some of the reasons why supporting services are one of the lesser-studied ecosystem services as reported in Adhikari and Hartemink’s (2016) paper. One example of a supporting service is water cycling.

Water is vital for the survival of life on Earth (Aznar-Sánchez et al., 2019). However, humans have disrupted the natural flow of the water cycle in direct and indirect ways (Bridgewater, Guarino, and Thompson, 2018). Disruption is due to population growth and economic growth which increased demand and consumption of water (De Graaf et al., 2014; Davis et al., 2015). These drivers also led to climate change and land use change which further accelerated water cycling (Davis et al., 2015). The study conducted by Aznar-Sánchez et al. (2019) showed that research on water ecosystem services has grown exponentially from 1998 to 2017 since Costanza et al. (1997) published their work which estimated that the minimum average value of the ecosystem services was US$33 trillion per year. Aznar-Sánchez et al. (2019) also revealed in their study that water research was often associated with agricultural and forestry systems which implies the relevance of water in food production and the provision of other goods and services. Therefore, water cycling, as a supporting ecosystem service, is integral to the functioning of other ecosystem services and entails actions that will maintain the integrity of this service and prevent the further degradation of the environment.

The paper will be discussed as follows: Section II will briefly provide an overview of the water cycle and its importance. This will be followed by Section III which tackles the threats to the water cycle and its implications. Section IV will focus on the actions that can be done to maintain and enhance water cycling.

Background on the water cycle

The water cycle, the movement of water on Earth, has the following major stages: evapotranspiration, sublimation, condensation, precipitation, snowmelt, runoff, streamflow, infiltration, and storage. This process is driven by solar energy. On a global scale, it is a closed system that indicates constant total volume on the planet (Kundzewicz, 2008; USGS, 2016). The residence time of water in shallow and more accessible areas such as soil, wetlands, and lakes is low when compared to ice sheets and glaciers and in larger and deeper water bodies such as groundwater and lakes (Kundzewicz, 2008). The water cycle is responsible for water resource formation, including the creation of water ecosystems (Zhang et al., 2017) that provide other ecosystem services such as habitat and water supply. While around 70% of water is used for agriculture and the rest is divided for industrial, domestic, and municipal use, to name a few, the growth rate for consumption for agricultural purposes is lower than the others (Chen et al., 2016).

The MEA framework depicts that changes in ecosystem services affect human well-being and poverty reduction across time and scale (MEA, 2003b). The following section will focus on the drivers that change the water cycle and its consequences.

Threats to the water cycle and implications

One of the observable changes in the Anthropocene is the disruption in the water cycle (Bridgewater, Guarino, and Thompson, 2018). Several studies have been published providing evidence for the intensification of the water cycle. This includes increased precipitation records in the forest such as the Amazon and northern Pakistan and increased salinity levels such as in the western Atlantic. Climate change, land cover change (Davis et al., 2015), and dam developments (Bosmans et al., 2017) are major causes of the intensification of the water cycle. These factors will most likely change the following fluxes:

a. Climate Change

Climate and water are interlinked. Changes in climatic conditions change the rate of the water cycle. Hence, increased temperature will result in an intensification of the water cycle (Kundzewicz, 2008). Climate change, therefore, is a major threat to this supporting service. The effects of climate change vary depending on the location/area. Wet areas are getting wetter while dry areas are getting drier. Aside from modifications in the frequency and timing of precipitation, more intense rainfall is observed (Capon and Bunn, 2015; Bridgewater, Guarino, and Thompson, 2018). Drought and flooding lead to the destruction of properties, loss of livelihood, and health diseases thereby affecting human well-being.

With higher levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to increased consumption of fossil fuel, photosynthesis can accelerate which can result in higher water efficiency in plants. However, extreme cases can lead to irreversible damage, especially if such levels are beyond the physiological limits of plants (Antonarakis, 2018). Climate change is also causing sea level rise from the melting of glaciers, ice caps, and ice sheets which results in saltwater intrusion thereby reducing freshwater availability in groundwater reservoirs (Kundzewicz, 2008).

Freshwater ecosystems also have high exposure levels to the effects of climate change due to warming, carbon dioxide enrichment, precipitation, and runoff. Its provisioning services such as food and other raw materials may decrease (Capon and Bunn, 2015). Capon and Bunn attempted to illustrate the effects of climate change on freshwater ecosystems: Fish supply is expected to change in terms of abundance and distribution, while demand may increase if food production from lands becomes difficult due to drier conditions. In terms of freshwater ecosystems’ role in climate regulation as a sink for greenhouse gases, climate change may turn these ecosystems into sources of emissions instead. Nutrient cycling may also be affected if the storage capacity of aquatic and riparian soils is altered. Lastly, in terms of cultural services, while some recreational sites may be negatively affected by climate change, there could be a higher demand for other areas less affected (Capon and Bunn, 2015).

b. Land cover change

[bookmark: OLE_LINK1][bookmark: OLE_LINK2]Historical data revealed that natural vegetation has been converted to croplands, grazing land, and developed areas which again alters the water cycle (Sterling, Ducharne, and Polcher, 2013). According to the study conducted by Sterling, Ducharne, and Polcher (2013), the approximated annual terrestrial evapotranspiration has reduced by 3,500 km3 y-1 (5%) due to land cover change, alongside with 7.6% increase in runoff. However, the authors added that this is counteracted by an increase in evapotranspiration from reservoir creation and irrigation (see Figure 1):

These findings by Sterling, Ducharne, and Polcher (2013) were somehow consistent with the study of Bosmans et al. (2017). Bosmans et al. (2017) argued in their research that land cover change and human water users have the same significant effect in altering the water cycle. Approximately 888 km3 yr-1 or 1.5% of the total evapotranspiration has reduced and increased discharge by 901 km3 yr-1. On the other hand, discharge from human water use was estimated to be 1185 km3 yr-1” (Bosmans et al., 2017).

Around 60-80% of evapotranspiration from land comes from plant transpiration (Schlesinger and Jasechko, 2014). This strengthens the claim that deforestation has significant negative implications for the water cycle. Deforestation loosens the soil which then enhances erosion, surface runoff, flooding, and soil fertility loss (Daily et al., 1997; Schlesinger and Jasechko, 2014). Erosion and runoff lessen the ability of the land to infiltrate water (Daily et al., 1997). Caja et al. (2018) studied the effect of land use change in Angat-Ipo Watershed, the Philippines supplying water to Metro Manila. Land cover change (see Figure 2) was caused by deforestation which resulted in a lower infiltration rate and increased water discharge. Without disregarding changes in precipitation, there was a peak flow change from 391.1 m3 in 2003 to 779.5 m3 in 2010 (Caja et al., 2018).

c. Creation of dams

Increasing water demand has led to water stress and water scarcity to supply water mostly for irrigation, industry, and household use (De Graaf et al., 2014; Sabater et al., 2018). Chen et al. (2016) argued that population has a positive relationship with food consumption and the number of dams constructed. Moreover, data showed a correlation between dam development and economic expansion (Chen et al., 2016). Although dams and reservoirs control the flow of water to prevent floods, generate power, and regulate water supply, one of their major downsides is the alterations in the normal flow which affect habitats, especially the species thriving and dependent on the water bodies. These scenarios have negative effects on biodiversity from which humans benefit. Life cycles are negatively influenced as these species are adapted to the natural changing flows and use them to signal various activities such as feeding and migrating (Lehner et al., 2011). Furthermore, in Sabater et al. (2018) meta-analysis research, there was a benthic algal biomass accumulation increase due to the low water flow. Dams also lead to changes in groundwater recharge and microclimates (Bridgewater, Guarino, and Thompson, 2018). Moreover, there have been recorded incidences of more flooding downstream (Antonarakis, 2018).

As an illustration, the study of Gain and Giupponi (2014) revealed that after the construction of the Farakka Dam, both the minimum and maximum flow in Bangladesh were generally outside the threshold limit which could explain the frequent floods and droughts in the area. There was also an increased salinity level in the river downstream which resulted in fish reduction and mangrove growth constraints. This negatively affected the communities dependent on the ecosystem for their livelihood (Gain and Giupponi, 2014).

Knowing the importance of the water cycle as a supporting service, these drivers of change should be addressed to prevent further negative consequences to the environment and to human well-being.

Actions to maintain/enhance the water cycle

Ecological restoration is a major intervention that can be done to slow down the intensification of the water cycle, and also serve as a mitigation and adaptation measure for climate change. This includes reforestation, watershed management, and wetland conservation and restoration. Reforestation could have different results in different forest ecosystems. It can increase regional temperatures in boreal forests while there can be a temperature decrease in tropical areas (Locatelli et al., 2015). Effects will also vary based on the species planted, especially for high water-use species. This, therefore, calls for careful planning (Locatelli et al., 2015). Restoration is vital, especially in extreme weather events where it can protect communities from run-off and flooding (Locatelli et al., 2015). Soil filtration and groundwater recharge are improved due to reforestation. Moreover, wetland conservation and restoration are essential in flood control, especially vegetated wetlands. Saturated soil increases the chance of runoff. Wetlands are also important ecosystems for groundwater recharge (Maltby and Acreman, 2011). Maltby and Acreman (2011) and Locatelli et al. (2015) argued that the management of these ecosystems depends on a case-to-case basis and no one-fit solution can be replicated in all ecosystems. Through these interventions, not only will it improve the water cycle but it will also deliver other ecosystem services.

Alternation in the natural flow regime due to dams and over-abstraction can be addressed by understanding and controlling environmental flows (e-flows) (Davis et al., 2015) which is described as “the quantity, timing, and quality of freshwater flows and levels necessary to sustain aquatic ecosystems which, in turn, support human cultures, economies, sustainable livelihoods, and well-being” (Arthington et al., 2018, p.4). It will involve a multi-stakeholder approach where users, policymakers, and scientists, among others in the decision-making process (Pahl-Wostl et al., 2013). E-flows could be done by setting limits on river water extraction and use and listing important water bodies such as wetlands (Davis et al., 2015). Several studies have cited the positive environmental, social, and economic impacts of regulating e-flows such as increasing the minimum flow downstream leading to the growth of tree species, increasing water for irrigation, and increasing energy generated for the hydroelectric plant (Foster, Mahoney, and Rood, 2018). With the forecasted increase in dam construction in the future, challenges in implementing e-flows such as resource constraints, lack of information, lack of political will, and support from the public must be addressed to prevent further degradation of aquatic ecosystems (Chen et al., 2016; Arthington et al., 2018).

Improved governance in water ecosystem services across scales (i.e. local, national, regional, global) is imperative. As the water cycle is not constricted in one locality and extends across countries and continents, this only stresses that transboundary cooperation is crucial (Vörösmarty, Hoekstra, and Bunn, 2015). Furthermore, as effective stakeholder engagement is crucial in implementing the e-flows approach, governance will play a critical role in involving people in data collection and monitoring implementation in order to make informed decisions as seen in the case presented by Watts et al. (2018). Climate change calls for adaptive management to ensure strategies are appropriate and still effective (Watts et al., 2018).

Conclusion

Drought, flooding, changes in water quality, water, and food scarcity, and biodiversity loss were among the highlighted consequences of disrupting the water cycle elaborated on in this paper. The major causes identified were climate change, land use change, and the creation of dams. Solutions however are not simply reversing these causes. Ecological restoration tries not only to “decelerate” the water cycle but is also one of the solutions to climate change. Furthermore, although regulating environmental flows could be challenging, especially for developing countries as this will entail data gathering and technical expertise, the benefits will outweigh the costs. Nonetheless, these proposed solutions have demonstrated that enhancing the water cycle as a supporting service improves other ecosystem services. This, therefore, emphasizes the need for collaboration that seeks to maximize the benefits humans derive from the environment.

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What did the Indus Civilization, the ancient Egyptian civilization, and the ancient Mesopotamian civilization have in common? They were all built near or around a continuous source of water. If one were to look back in the annals of history, we would see that throughout the progression of human society, water was always close by and plentiful.

In our modern, industrial society, the importance of water has only increased. Apart from fulfilling its role as a life-giving substance that supports all the flora and fauna in the biomes on the planet, water also acts as a major component of the socio-economic landscape of all the countries on Earth. It affects the economy of a country both directly and indirectly. Below, I will be discussing the significance of water for some of the more important industries of Pakistan, and in later parts of the essay, I will be discussing possible solutions to this crisis.

One major industry that is directly and profoundly linked to the availability and sustainability of water resources is the agricultural industry, it is not rocket science to realize how important water is for the sustainable development of this industry. At the heart of agriculture is the proper growth and development of various species of crops, without water, this growth will be forever stunted and the development of the industry will come to a halt. For Pakistan, which is mainly an agriculture-based economy (agriculture accounts for 28% of Pakistan’s GDP growth (bookhut.net, 2014)) the significance of water in this industry should not be undermined.

Apart from agriculture, water also plays an important role in other sectors of the economy. The industrial sector is the second largest contributor to Pakistan’s GDP (24%). (Industry of Pakistan, n.d.), of which the cotton and apparel industry is the largest, accounting for about 65% of the merchandise exports and almost 40% of the employed labor force, (World Bank, 2006) is also a water-dependent sector. For the textile, industry water is used in dyes, special chemicals, and in finishing chemicals to treat the product. Due to the unique ability of water to dissolve most substances, it also works as a very effective cleaning agent, which is also a very important role it plays in the textile industry.

From the above two examples, it is clear that more than half of Pakistan’s GDP growth is directly linked to the proper management of water resources. But these only show the direct relation of water to the economy there are numerous other sectors that are indirectly affected by water.

After realizing the importance of water, it is time to approach the central part of the water issue, proper water resource management. The first part of approaching this issue is grasping the fact that we are a water-deficient nation.

From the following analyses by various institutions, it is not that difficult to acknowledge the reality of the above statement.

• According to a recent report by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), Pakistan ranks third in the world among countries facing acute water shortages. (Baloch, 2018)
• According to a report by the World Resources Institute, Pakistan is on track to become the most water-stressed country in the region, and 23rd in the world, by the year 2040. (Buhne, 2017)
• According to the Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources, Pakistan may run dry by 2025 if the present conditions continue. They claim that the country touched the ‘water stress line’ in 1990, and crossed the ‘water scarcity line’ in 2005 (Buhne, 2017)
• An important statistic that the UN Food and Agricultural organization uses to measure the load on national water resources is the percentage of the Total renewable water resources (TRWR) value, any value above 25% is considered high-stress, for Pakistan this percentage is a mega 74%, as compared to the values of its neighbors, with Iran at 67%, India at 40%, Afghanistan at 31%, and China at 19.5%. (Buhne, 2017)

Now, we come to the important and difficult part of the problem, how to solve the issue of depleting water resources? The short answer is that we cannot, we simply cannot recycle all of the water that we are using. Yes, at a personal level, we could recycle most of the water we are using, but at the macro level we would still be wasting more than we were recycling and despite our best efforts the net effect on the resource would still be negative. The only thing that we can do is to prolong our resources as much as we can through proper resource management techniques and hope that in time we can come up with a permanent solution to this issue.

The first and arguably most important part of proper water management starts at the individual level. We should try to adopt ways of using water with minimal wastage.

Starting with, statistically speaking, where the most water is wasted in a common household, the washroom. When we are brushing our teeth, we should try to turn off the tap when brushing our teeth. We should try to store the shower water as we are waiting for it to heat and use it later on, for example, to water the plants or for cleaning. We should also try cutting our showering times by a few minutes. In short, for any activity involving water, from cleaning hands to cleaning porches we should try to minimize the use of water.

Of course, these small acts do not account for a lot when looking at the big picture, but as someone said “save your pennies and the pounds will take care of themselves”, in this case, we are the pennies and the national economies and even perhaps the Earth, itself, are the pounds.

And this brings me to perhaps the most important part of the individual solution, awareness, if just a small portion of the population in the whole country was to follow the above advice then it is obvious that not much would be done towards achieving the goal, but if, say, half of the population of the nation would change their lifestyles and start saving several gallons of water a day by following the advice, we would be seeing savings in the millions of gallons per day. So, as much as we should try shaving those few gallons in our daily routines, it is equally important to spread awareness to our fellow citizens about the importance of saving water, be it through social media, conversations, or newspaper articles.

Water covers more than seventy (70) percent of the earth’s surface. Water is in the oceans, rivers, lakes, ground, and even in the air we breathe. Humans can live without food for up to two months but can only live for a week without water. Our body is seventy (70) percent water, and as such water is involved in all our bodily processes: digestion, circulation, excretion, and homeostasis. Our survival is reliant on fresh clean water, but our freshwater sources are fast becoming exhausted and polluted, so how do we keep our water sources sustainable and clean? By adopting the Hawaiian proverb ‘Rain follows the forest’, this proverb underscores the importance of forests in mitigating water scarcity. Forests ensure sustainable water production, conservation, and quality.

When Christopher Columbus docked in 1494, the island was densely populated with forest, as such the word Jamaica was derived from the original Taino word Xaymaca, meaning “land of wood and water”. Land of wood and water…. how the mighty have fallen. According to the World Resource Institute Jamaica is considered a water-stress country. With a baseline water stress score of 5.0. This score indicates that more than 80 percent of the water available is withdrawn annually for domestic and industrial use. This translates to companies, farms, and residents highly dependent on a limited amount of water and vulnerable to even the slightest changes in the water supply; so how did the land of wood and water get bunched in with countries that have catastrophic water scarcity such as Yemen and Jordon?

Well according to O.B. Evelyn and R. Camirand, research printed in the Forestry Department, Trees for Tomorrow Project, our tropical forests started depleting over a period of 300 years, from 1491 to 1791 at a rate of approximately 748 ha or 0.17% per annum to make way for sugar cane plantations. We are long past the sugar cane plantations, yet our vision for modernization has perpetuated an imbalanced ecosystem where housing schemes have replaced the cane fields. Jamaica’s 2030 vision for the environment speaks of a healthy and beautiful natural environment with clean air, an adequate supply of clean water, rich forests, hillsides, and an abundance of plants and animals. However, if the depletion of Jamaica’s forests is not stopped, this environmental vision is just a pipe dream. It is a no-brainer, countries with forests have more water than countries without forests.

Forests are synonymous with sustainable water production as trees use their massive network of roots to pull water from the water table deep within the earth and bring it to the surface through the process of transpiration. Transpiration is the process by which moisture is carried through plants from roots to stomata on the underside of leaves, where it changes to vapor and is released into the atmosphere. This moisture contributes to the formation of rain clouds that regulates rainfall in the neighboring areas. Plants are responsible for 10 % of the water vapor present in the atmosphere. An average oak tree transpires approximately 40,000 gallons of water in a year supplying water to the water cycle.

Scientific evidence highlights that forest has an enormous capacity to capture and store rainwater, therefore substantially less surface runoff occurs on forested land. Forested soil can store and infiltrate 15 times more water than pasture soil and 40 times more water than a cultivated field. When rain falls, the forest canopy intercepts the rainwater giving it time to infiltrate into the macro-pores and root channels of the forest floor. This rainwater eventually seeps down into the water table replenishing large underground reservoirs of groundwater. Groundwater is the source of our surface springs, stream, and the water we use when we drill wells. Hundreds of wells are drilled in limestone and alluvial aquifers throughout Jamaica, yielding 125 to 315 liters per second. Groundwater constitutes 84 percent of our total available water resources.

Forest removal, either partial or total results in increased surface runoff which result in increased streamflow. However, water produced from deforested lands is of poorer quality, due to the increased nutrients and sediment load. Forests are watersheds that produce better quality runoff, due to the presence of riparian forest buffers that help filter nutrients, sediments, and other pollutants from runoff and remove nutrients from groundwater. Forest buffers also help control flooding and erosion by stabilizing the stream and river embankment. Mature forest buffers can remove up to 90 percent of the nutrients running off the land.

Sedimentation is a serious problem in Jamaica, due to aggressive deforestation and soil erosion due to unsuitable farming practices. According to the Water Resources Assessment of Jamaica since 1998 the capacity of the Mona reservoir has been reduced by 33 percent due to sedimentation. While since 1957 Hermitage reservoir capacity has been reduced by 21 percent. The deposits in the reservoirs included large boulders, silt, and organic matter which all negatively affect water quality.

First-world countries such as Japan recognised the value of forests in producing higher-quality water, hence the Metropolitan Government Bureau of Waterworks in Tokyo manages the forest in the upper reaches of the Tama River to increase its capacity to recharge water resources and prevent reservoir sedimentation.

In 1995 World Bank vice president Ismail Serageldin made a prediction for the new millennium: ‘If the wars of this century were fought over oil, the wars of the next century will be fought over water.’ Serageldin has been proven correct much faster than he or anyone else thought, as two years into the 21st century, the global water war was upon us. In Nelspruit, residents are forced to buy drinking water from the Biwater Corporation, as the taps have run dry. The privatization of water means poor residents cannot afford to pay privatized rates. It is a scenario that is playing out all over South Africa, as these private companies completely reject the idea that water is a common property belonging to all living creatures. Their only goal is to commodify the earth’s most precious resource.

The Land of wood and water may not be handing over the state-run National Water Commission to a private company, but our water security is in shambles. According to the Water resource of Jamaica, Jamaicans pay significantly less for water when compared with the rest of the world, so privatization of our water supply is a frightening prospect.

Jamaica needs to take a page from Brazil’s book, as in 1966, over 700,000 square kilometers of the Amazon rainforest was plundered to make way for sugar and coffee plantations. The results were catastrophic as the soil eroded, and worst of all Rio de Janeiro ran out of drinking water. Recognizing their folly, Major Manuel Gomes Archer in an effort to protect Rio’s water ordered the replanting of all the trees. To date as far as the eyes can see, grows a dense jungle the Tijuca forest. Brazil now has the largest urban forest in the world, and the country’s water problem has long dried up.

Getting to zero deforestation is a mammoth task, but it starts with replanting and protecting our forests. This goal should be every Jamaican nationalistic goal, as scientific evidence does show that forests ensure sustainable water production, conservation, and quality.